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'Yan asalin Australiya

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'Yan asalin Australiya

Jimlar yawan jama'a
984,000
Yankuna masu yawan jama'a
Asturaliya
Kabilu masu alaƙa
indigenous Australians (en) Fassara
Wani mutum na Arrernte na Gabas na Gundumar Arltunga, Yankin Arewa, a cikin 1923. Gidansa an rufe shi da ciyawa.
Gidajen da ke karɓar iyalai na Aboriginal a Ofishin Jakadancin Hermannsburg, Yankin Arewa, a shekarar 1923

Aboriginal Australians su ne 'Yan asalin ƙasar Australiya da yawancin tsibirai, ban da mutanen da suka bambanta da kabilanci na Torres Strait Islands.

Mutane sun fara ƙaura zuwa Ostiraliya shekaru 50,000 zuwa 65,000 da suka gabata, kuma a tsawon lokaci sun kafa ƙungiyoyin harshe 500. A baya, mutanen Aboriginal sun zauna a kan manyan sassan nahiyar. An ware su a yawancin ƙananan tsibirai da Tasmania lokacin da aka mamaye ƙasar a farkon lokacin Holocene inter-glacial, kimanin shekaru 11,700 da suka gabata. Duk da kuma wannan, mutanen Aboriginal sun ci gaba da cibiyoyin sadarwa masu yawa a cikin nahiyar kuma wasu kungiyoyi sun ci gaba leeral da dangantaka da Torres Strait Islanders da mutanen Makassar na zamani na ƙasar Indonesia.

A cikin dubban shekaru, mutanen Aboriginal sun haɓaka hanyoyin cinikayya masu rikitarwa, alaƙar al'adu, doka da addinai, waɗanda suka zama wasu daga cikin tsofaffi, kuma mai yiwuwa mafi tsufa, al'adun ci gaba a duniya. A lokacin mulkin mallaka na Turai na Ostiraliya, mutanen Aboriginal sun kunshi al'ummomin al'adu masu rikitarwa tare da Harsuna sama da 250 da kuma digiri daban-daban na fasaha da ƙauyuka.[1] Harsuna (ko yaruka) da ƙungiyoyin mutane masu alaƙa da harshe suna da alaƙa da yankunan da aka sani da "Ƙasar", wanda suke da alaƙa mai zurfi ta ruhaniya.

Bangaskiyar Aboriginal ta zamani cakuda ce mai rikitarwa, ta bambanta da yanki da mutum a fadin nahiyar. An kuma tsara su ne ta hanyar imani na gargajiya, rushewar mulkin mallaka, addinai da Turawa suka kawo nahiyar, da kuma batutuwan zamani.[2][3][4] Ana ba da imani na al'adu na gargajiya kuma ana raba su ta hanyar rawa, labarun, waƙoƙi, da fasaha waɗanda gaba ɗaya ke haɗa ilimin rayuwar yau da kullun da kuma tsohuwar halitta da aka sani da Mafarki.

Nazarin kwayoyin halitta na ƙungiyoyin Aboriginal suna ci gaba, amma shaidar ta nuna cewa suna da gado na kwayoyin halitta daga tsohuwar Asiya amma ba mutane na zamani ba. Suna da wasu kamanceceniya da Papuans, amma an ware su daga Kudu maso gabashin Asiya na dogon lokaci. Suna da tarihin kwayoyin halitta mai rikitarwa, amma a cikin shekaru 200 da suka gabata ne wasu suka bayyana su a matsayin, kuma suka fara nuna kansu a matsayin, rukuni ɗaya. Halin asalin asalin ya canza a tsawon lokaci da wuri, tare da zuriyar iyali, ganewar kai, da karɓar al'umma duk na muhimmancin daban-daban.

A cikin ƙidayar jama'a ta shekarar 2021, mutanen Aboriginal da Torres Strait Islander sun ƙunshi kashi 3.8% na yawan mutanen Ostiraliya. Yawancin mutanen Aboriginal a yau suna magana da Turanci kuma suna zaune a birane. Wasu na iya amfani da kalmomi da kalmomi na Aboriginal a cikin Turanci na Aboriginal na Australiya (wanda kuma yana da tasiri na Harsunan Aboriginal cikin ilimin sauti da tsarin nahawu). Mutane da yawa amma ba duka ba suna magana da Harsunan gargajiya daban-daban na danginsu da mutanensu. Mutanen Aboriginal, tare da mutanen Torres Strait Islander, suna da mummunar kiwon lafiya da rashi na tattalin arziƙi idan aka kwatanta da al'ummar ƙasar Australiya.

Asalin

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Masu rawa na Aboriginal na Arnhem Land a cikin 1981
Arnhem Land mai zane Glen Namundja a Injalak ArtsAyyukan Injalak
Dan wasan Didgeridoo Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr yana aiki tare da East Journey [5]

Shaidar archaeological ta nuna cewa kakannin Aboriginal Australians na yau sun fara ƙaura zuwa nahiyar shekaru 50,000 zuwa 65,000 da suka gabata.[6][7] Nazarin genomic ya nuna cewa yawan mutanen Ostiraliya ya faru ne tsakanin shekaru 43,000 zuwa 60,000 da suka gabata.[8][9][10][11]

Suna iya samun ɗayan tsofaffin al'adun ci gaba a duniya.[12] A cikin Arnhem Land a Yankin Arewa, tarihin baki wanda ya ƙunshi labaran da suka haɗa da labaran da aka haɗa da Mutanen Yolngu ta hanyar daruruwan tsararraki. Fasahar dutse ta Aboriginal, wanda aka tsara ta hanyar fasahar zamani, ya nuna cewa al'adunsu sun ci gaba tun daga zamanin d ̄ a.[13]

Masana tarihin d ̄ a sun yi imanin cewa zai kasance da wahala ga mutanen Aboriginal su samo asali ne kawai daga yankin Asiya, saboda ba su da isasshen mutane da za su yi ƙaura zuwa Ostiraliya da tsibirai da ke kewaye da su don cika farkon girman yawan mutanen da aka gani a ƙarni na 19. Kakannin mutanen Aboriginal na Australiya na yanzu sun yi ƙaura daga kudu maso gabashin Asiya ta teku a lokacin zamanin Pleistocene, suna mai da su cikin na farko a duniya da suka kammala tafiye-tafiye na teku.[14]

Sun zauna a kan manyan sassan nahiyar Australiya lokacin da matakan teku suka ragu. A wannan lokacin, Australia, Tasmania da New Guinea sun kasance wani ɓangare na wannan ƙasar, wanda aka sani da Sahul . Yayin da matakan teku suka tashi, mutanen da ke kan Ƙasar Australiya da tsibirai da ke kusa da su sun ƙara warewa, wasu a Tasmania da wasu daga cikin ƙananan tsibirai na bakin teku lokacin da ƙasar ta cika da ruwa a farkon Holocene, Lokacin inter-glacial wanda ya fara kimanin shekaru 11,700 da suka gabata.[15]

Wani binciken da masu bincike suka yi a shekarar 2021 a Cibiyar Nazarin Kwarewar Kwarewar Australiya don Biodiversity da Heritage sun tsara hanyoyin ƙaura na mutane yayin da suka ƙaura a fadin Nahiyar Australiya zuwa kudancinsa da abin da ke yanzu Tasmania, sannan wani ɓangare na ƙasar. Tsarin ya dogara ne akan bayanai daga masu binciken tarihi, masu ilimin ɗan adam, masu ilimin muhalli, masu ilimin kwayoyin halitta, masu ilimin yanayi, masu ilimin ƙasa, da masu ilimin ruwa.

An yi niyyar kwatanta wannan bayanan tare da Tarihin baki na mutanen Aboriginal, gami da labarun Mafarki, fasahar dutse ta Australiya, da siffofin harshe na harsuna da yawa na Aboriginal waɗanda ke nuna yadda mutanen suka bunkasa daban. Hanyoyin, waɗanda marubuta suka kira "superhighways", suna kama da manyan hanyoyi na yanzu da hanyoyin stock a Ostiraliya.

Halitta

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Matsayi na asali na asalin Australiya tsakanin sauran Mutanen Gabashin Eurasia

Nazarin kwayoyin halitta ya nuna cewa yawan jama'a da ke fitowa daga Filin Farisa a lokacin farkon lokacin Upper Paleolithic ya mamaye yankin Asiya-Pacific ta hanyar warwatsewar hanyar kudu. An ba da shawarar cewa wannan guguwar ta fadada zuwa yankin Kudancin da Kudu maso gabashin Asiya kuma daga baya ta rabu da sauri zuwa cikin kakannin Tsohon Kudancin Indiya (AASI), Andamanese, Gabashin Asiya, da Australasians, gami da Aboriginal Australians da Papuans. [16] [17] [18][19] Wadannan al'ummomin an san su da Gabashin Eurasia. Aboriginal Australians suna da alaƙa da sauran Oceanians, kamar su Papuans da Melanesians, waɗanda ake kira "Australasians" kuma wanda za'a iya bayyana su a matsayin "dangi mai zurfi na Gabashin Asiya". [16] [17] [18][19][20]

Duk da yake an sanya ranar da aka yarda da ita don bambancin mutane na zamani bayan ƙaura daga Afirka a shekaru 60-50,000 da suka gabata, akwai, duk da haka, shaidar cewa 'yan asalin ƙasar Australiya na iya ɗaukar kakanninmu daga asalin ɗan adam na baya (xOoA) wanda ya samo asali 75,000 zuwa 62,000 da suka gabata. Wannan rukuni na baya an kiyasta cewa mai yiwuwa ya ba da gudummawa kusan kashi 2% ga 'yan asalin Australiya na zamani.[21][22]

Mallick et al. 2016 da Mark Lipson et al. 2017 sun sami rarrabuwa na gabashin Eurasians da Yammacin Eurasians sun kasance aƙalla shekaru 45,000 da suka gabata, tare da 'yan asalin Australiya da ke cikin gabashin Eurasian. [23][19] Aboriginal Australians, tare da Papuans, na iya zama 'yar'uwa ce ga wata ƙungiya ta Asiya guda ɗaya da ta ƙunshi AASI, Andamanese da Gabashin Asiya, da kuma cirewa daga Yammacin Eurasia, ko kuma a madadin haka suna cikin ƙungiyar Gabashin Eurasia ba tare da tsarin cladal mai ƙarfi na ciki game da asalin Asiya ba. [19][24]

PCA na Orang Asli (Semang) da Andamanese, tare da yawan jama'a a duniya a cikin HGDP [25]
Masu rawa na gargajiya na Noongar a Perth

Bayanan kwayar halitta game da 'yan asalin Borneo da Malaysia sun nuna cewa suna da alaƙa da sauran kungiyoyin Asiya, fiye da idan aka kwatanta da kungiyoyin daga Papua New Guinea da Australia. Wannan yana nuna cewa yawan jama'a a Ostiraliya sun ware na dogon lokaci daga sauran kudu maso gabashin Asiya. Sun kasance ba su taɓa shi ba ta hanyar ƙaura da faɗaɗa yawan jama'a a cikin wannan yanki, wanda za'a iya bayyana shi ta hanyar Layin Wallace.[26]

Iyaye guda ɗaya

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M" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Haplogroup S-B254">S="cx-link" data-linkid="268" href="./Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup" id="mwAT4" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">Y-chromosome haplogroup na yau da kullun tsakanin Aboriginal Australians shine C1b2, sannan haplogrops S da M suka biyo baya; waɗannan haplogramps na ƙarshe ma suna da yawa a tsakanin Papuans.[27]

Sauran karatu

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A cikin binciken shekarar 2001, an tattara samfurori na jini daga wasu Mutanen Warlpiri a Yankin Arewa don nazarin tsarin kwayar halitta (wanda ba wakilin dukkan mutanen Aboriginal a Ostiraliya ba). Binciken ya kammala cewa Warlpiri sun fito ne daga tsoffin Asiya waɗanda DNA ɗin su har yanzu yana cikin ƙungiyoyin kudu maso gabashin Asiya, kodayake sun ragu sosai. DNA na Warlpiri ba shi da wasu bayanai da aka samu a cikin kwayoyin halitta na Asiya na zamani, kuma yana ɗauke da bayanan da ba a samu a wasu kwayoyin halitta ba. Wannan yana ƙarfafa ra'ayin keɓewar Aboriginal na dā.[26]

Bayanan kwayoyin halitta da aka fitar a cikin shekarar 2011 ta Morten Rasmussen et al., Wanda ya ɗauki samfurin DNA daga farkon ƙarni na 20 na kulle gashin ɗan Aboriginal, ya gano cewa kakannin Aboriginal tabbas sun yi hijira ta Kudancin Asiya da Maritime kudu maso gabashin Asiya, zuwa Australia, inda suka zauna. Sakamakon haka, a wajen Afirka, al'ummomin Aboriginal sun mamaye yanki ɗaya ci gaba fiye da sauran al'ummomin ɗan adam. Waɗannan binciken sun nuna cewa 'yan asalin Australiya na zamani sune zuriyar kai tsaye daga igiyar gabas, wa₦an₦a suka bar Afirka har zuwa shekaru 75,000 da suka wuce. [28] [29] Wannan binciken ya yi daidai da binciken binciken kayan tarihi na baya-bayan nan da aka gano a kusa da tafkin Mungo wanda ya kai kimanin shekaru 40,000 da suka gabata.[ana buƙatar hujja]Tunanin "tsofaffin al'adun ci gaba" ya dogara ne akan keɓantawar al'ummomin Aboriginal, <span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">ba</span> [ ] ɗan ƙaramin hulɗa da al'adun waje ba kafin tuntuɓar masunta Makassan da masu binciken Dutch har zuwa shekaru 500 da suka wuce.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Binciken Rasmussen ya kuma sami shaidar cewa mutanen Aboriginal suna ɗauke da wasu kwayoyin halitta da ke da alaƙa da Denisovans (nau'in ɗan adam da ke da alaƙa amma ya bambanta da Neanderthals) na Asiya; binciken ya nuna cewa akwai karuwa a cikin raba allle tsakanin Denisovan da Aboriginal Australian genomes, idan aka kwatanta da sauran Eurasians ko 'yan Afirka. Binciken DNA daga ƙashin yatsa da aka tono a Siberia, masu bincike sun kammala cewa Denisovans sun yi ƙaura daga Siberia zuwa sassan wurare masu zafi na Asiya kuma sun haɗu da mutane na zamani a kudu maso gabashin Asiya shekaru 44,000 BP, kafin Ostiraliya ta rabu da New Guinea kimanin shekaru 11,700 BP. Sun ba da gudummawar DNA ga 'yan asalin Australiya da kuma New Guineans na yanzu da kuma wata kabila ta asali a Philippines da aka sani da Mamanwa . Wannan binciken ya tabbatar da 'yan asalin Australiya a matsayin daya daga cikin tsofaffin mutanen da ke rayuwa a duniya. Wataƙila su ne tsofaffi a waje da Afirka, kuma suna iya samun al'adun da suka fi tsufa a duniya.[30]

Wani binciken da aka yi a shekarar 2016 a Jami'ar Cambridge ya nuna cewa kimanin shekaru 50,000 da suka gabata ne wadannan mutane suka isa Sahul (Babban nahiyar da ta kunshi Australia ta yanzu da tsibirai da New Guinea). Matsayin teku ya tashi kuma ya ware Australia kimanin shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata, amma Aboriginal Australians da Papuans sun rabu da juna ta hanyar kwayar halitta a baya, kimanin shekaru 37,000 BP, watakila saboda ragowar gadar ƙasa ba za a iya wucewa ba. Wannan keɓewa ya sa mutanen Aboriginal su zama al'adun da suka fi tsufa a duniya. Binciken ya kuma sami shaidar wani rukuni na hominin da ba a sani ba, wanda ke da alaƙa da Denisovans, wanda kakannin Aboriginal da Papuan dole ne su haɗu da su, suna barin alamar kusan 4% a cikin yawancin Aboriginal Australians. Akwai, duk da haka, ƙaruwar bambancin kwayoyin halitta tsakanin 'yan asalin Australiya bisa ga rarraba ƙasa.[31][32]

An kiyasta mazaunin ɗan adam na farko na Oceania tsakanin shekaru 60,000 da 40,000 da suka gabata. Sakamakon archaeogenetic ya nuna mulkin mallaka na kudancin Sahul (Australia) kafin shekaru 37,000 da suka gabata da kuma lokacin shayarwa a arewacin Sahul, sannan ya biyo bayan fadada yamma a cikin Australia bayan kimanin shekaru 28,000 da suka gabata.[33]

Carlhoff et al. 2021 sun bincika samfurin mai farauta da tarawa na Holocene ("Leang Panninge") daga Kudancin Sulawesi, wanda ke da alaƙa da adadi mai yawa na kwayar halitta tare da Aboriginal Australians da Papuans. Wannan yana nuna cewa yawan jama'a sun rabu da kakannin Aboriginal Australians da Papuans. Hakanan samfurin ya nuna alaƙar kwayar halitta tare da mutanen Gabashin Asiya da mutanen Andaman na Kudancin Asiya. Marubutan sun lura cewa ana iya tsara wannan samfurin mai farauta-mai tarawa tare da ~50% na kakannin Australiya / Papua kuma ko dai tare da ~ 50% na Gabashin Asiya ko Andamanese Onge, yana nuna zurfin rabuwa tsakanin Leang Panninge da Aboriginal / Papuan. [34] [Littafi na 1]

Nazarin kwayoyin halitta guda biyu da Larena et al. A shekarata 2021 suka yi sun gano cewa mutanen Negrito na Philippines sun rabu da kakanninmu na Aboriginal Australians da Papuans kafin biyun suka rabu da juna, amma bayan kakanninsu na yau da kullun ya rabu da kakanninsu da Mutanen Gabashin Asiya [35] .[36][37]

Canje-canje game da shekaru 4,000 da suka gabata

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dingo ya isa Ostiraliya kimanin shekaru 4,000 da suka gabata. Kusan wannan lokacin, akwai canje-canje a cikin harshe (tare da dangin harshen Pama-Nyungan da ke yadawa a mafi yawan ƙasar), da kuma fasahar kayan aikin dutse. An yi amfani da ƙananan kayan aiki. Ta haka ne aka ƙaddara hulɗar ɗan adam, kuma an ba da shawarar bayanan kwayar halitta na nau'o'i biyu don tallafawa kwararar kwayar halitta daga Indiya zuwa Ostiraliya: na farko, alamun abubuwan da ke cikin Kudancin Asiya a cikin ƙwayoyin halittar Aboriginal Australia, waɗanda aka ruwaito bisa ga bayanan SNP na ƙwayoyin halitta; kuma na biyu, kasancewar zuriyar Y chromosome (maza), wanda aka tsara haplogroup C, tare da kakanninmu na baya-bayan nan kusan shekaru 5,000 da suka gabata.[38]

Nau'in shaidar farko ya fito ne daga binciken shekarar 2013 da Cibiyar Max Planck ta Cibiyar Nazarin Juyin Halitta ta yi amfani da manyan bayanai na genotyping daga tafkin Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, tsibirin Southeast Asians, da Indians. Ya gano cewa kungiyoyin New Guinea da Mamanwa (yankin Philippines) sun rabu da Aboriginal kimanin shekaru 36,000 da suka gabata (akwai shaidar da ke tallafawa cewa waɗannan al'ummomin sun fito ne daga baƙi da suka fara "hanyar kudu" daga Afirka, kafin wasu ƙungiyoyi a yankin).  [ana buƙatar hujja]Har ila yau, yawan Indiya da Australiya sun haɗu tun kafin hulɗar Turai, tare da wannan kwayar halitta da ke faruwa a lokacin Holocene (c. shekaru 4,200 da suka gabata). [39] Masu binciken suna da ra'ayoyi guda biyu game da wannan: ko dai wasu Indiyawa suna da hulɗa da mutane a Indonesia waɗanda daga ƙarshe suka canja waɗannan kwayoyin Indiya zuwa 'yan asalin Australiya, ko kuma ƙungiyar Indiyawa da suka yi ƙaura daga Indiya zuwa Ostiraliya kuma suka haɗu da mazauna yankin kai tsaye.

Marubutan binciken na shekarar 2016 sun kammala cewa, kodayake wannan ba ya ƙaryata kasancewar kowane yaduwar kwayar halitta ta Holocene ko tasirin da ba na kwayar halitta ba daga Kudancin Asiya a wannan lokacin, kuma bayyanar dingo tana ba da hujja mai ƙarfi ga lambobin sadarwa na waje, shaidar gabaɗaya ta dace da cikakkiyar rashin yaduwar kwayoyin halitta, kuma tana nuna asalin asali don canje-canje na fasaha da harshe. Sun danganta bambancin tsakanin sakamakon su da binciken da suka gabata ga ci gaba a fasaha; babu wani daga cikin sauran binciken da ya yi amfani da cikakken Y chromosome sequencing, wanda ke da mafi girman daidaito. Misali, an nuna amfani da hanyar Y STRs goma don rage yawan lokutan bambance-bambance. Gudun kwayoyin halitta a fadin tsibirin da ke da faɗin kilomita 150 (93 Torres Strait, yana da inganci kuma an nuna shi ta hanyar bayanai, kodayake a wannan lokacin ba za a iya tantance shi daga wannan binciken ba lokacin da a cikin shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata ya iya faruwa - sabbin dabarun nazari suna da damar magance irin waɗannan tambayoyin.[38]

Rubutun digirin digirinsa na Bergstrom na shekara ta 2018 yana kallon yawan mutanen Sahul ya nuna cewa ban da cakuda kwanan nan, yawan mutanen yankin sun kasance masu zaman kansu daga sauran duniya tun lokacin da suka rabu kimanin shekaru 50,000 da suka gabata. Ya rubuta "Babu wata shaida game da kwararar kwayar halitta ta Kudancin Asiya zuwa Ostiraliya .... Duk da cewa Sahul ya kasance ƙasa ɗaya da aka haɗa har zuwa [shekaru 8,000 da suka gabata], ƙungiyoyi daban-daban a duk faɗin Ostiraliya kusan suna da alaƙa da Papuans, kuma akasin haka, kuma biyun sun bayyana sun rabu ta hanyar kwayar halitta tun [kimanin shekaru 30,000 da suka gabata]. 

Daidaitawar muhalli

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Wani sansanin Aboriginal kusa da tuddai na Adelaide a cikin zanen 1854 na Alexander Schramm

Aboriginal Australians suna da ƙwarewar da aka gada don daidaitawa da yanayin zafi na muhalli a hanyoyi daban-daban. Wani binciken da aka yi a shekara ta 1958 wanda ya kwatanta yanayin sanyi a cikin Mutanen Pitjantjatjara da ke zaune a hamada idan aka kwatanta da ƙungiyar mutanen Turai ya nuna cewa yanayin sanyaya na ƙungiyar Aboriginal ya bambanta da na fararen mutane, kuma sun sami damar yin barci sosai ta hanyar dare mai sanyi na hamada.[40] Wani binciken Jami'ar Cambridge na 2014 ya gano cewa maye gurbi mai amfani a cikin kwayoyin halitta guda biyu waɗanda ke sarrafa thyroxine, hormone da ke da hannu wajen daidaita metabolism na jiki, yana taimakawa wajen dai-daita zafin jiki don amsawa ga zazzabi. Sakamakon wannan shi ne cewa mutanen hamada suna iya samun zafin jiki mafi girma ba tare da hanzarta aikin dukan jiki ba, wanda zai iya zama mai cutarwa musamman a cututtukan yara. Wannan yana taimakawa kare mutane don tsira daga tasirin kamuwa da cuta.[41][42]

Yanayi da yawan jama'a

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Mutanen Aboriginal sun rayu dubban shekaru a nahiyar Ostiraliya, ta hanyar sauye-sauye daban-daban a cikin ƙasa. Yankin da ke cikin iyakokin Ostiraliya a yau ya haɗa da tsibirin Tasmania, K'gari (a baya Fraser Island) , Hinchinbrook Island, [43] Tsibirin Tiwi, Tsibirin Kangaroo da Groote Eylandt . 'Yan asalin tsibirin Torres Strait, duk da haka, ba Aboriginal ba ne.[44][45][46]

Ƙididdigar ƙididdiga da canjin ƙididdiga Aboriginal da Torres Strait Islander mutane, 2006-2021 [47]
Ƙididdigar jama'a Yawan mutane Canjin tsakanin jama'a (lambar) Canjin tsakanin jama'a (kashi)
2006 455,028 45,025 11.0
2011 548,368 93,340 20.5
2016 649,171 100,803 18.4
2021 812,728 163,557 25.2

A cikin ƙidayar jama'a ta 2021, mutanen da suka bayyana kansu a kan ƙididdigar ƙididdigal a matsayin asalin Aboriginal da / ko Torres Strait Islander sun kai 812,728 daga cikin jimlar 25,422,788 'yan Australia, daidai da kashi 3.2% na yawan mutanen Australia [48] da kuma karuwar mutane 163,557, ko 25.2%, tun ƙididdigun da suka gabata a cikin 2016. [47]

Abubuwan alƙaluma - haihuwa, mutuwa da ƙaura [49] - sun kai 43.5% na karuwa (mutane 71,086). [ <span title="This information is too vague. (January 2025)">da</span> ], 76.2% na wannan karuwar an danganta shi ga mutanen da ke da shekaru 0-19 a cikin 2021, sun lalace a matsayin 52.5% na masu shekaru 0-4 (haihuwa tun daga 2016) da 23.7% na masu shekaru 5-19.  

Harsuna

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Yawancin mutanen Aboriginal suna magana da Turanci, [50] tare da kalmomin Aboriginal da aka kara don ƙirƙirar Turanci na Aboriginal na Australiya (wanda kuma yana da tasirin tasirin Harsunan Aboriginal a cikin ilimin sauti da tsarin nahawu). [51] Wasu 'yan asalin ƙasar, musamman waɗanda ke zaune a yankuna masu nisa, suna da harsuna da yawa.[50] Yawancin asalin harsunan Aboriginal 250-400 (fiye da harsuna 250 da kimanin nau'ikan yare 800 a nahiyar) suna cikin haɗari ko sun ƙare, [52] kodayake ana yin wasu ƙoƙari a farfaɗo da harshe ga wasu. Ya zuwa shekara ta 2016, har yanzu yara ne ke samun harsuna 13 na gargajiya, kuma kimanin wasu 100 da tsofaffi ke magana kawai.[53][52]

Ƙungiyoyi da ƙananan ƙungiyoyi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Da yake warwatse a fadin nahiyar Australiya a tsawon lokaci, mutanen zamanin d ̄ a sun fadada kuma sun bambanta zuwa kungiyoyi daban-daban, kowannensu yana da nasa yare da al'adu. Fiye da mutane 400 na asalin Australiya an gano su, an rarrabe su da sunayen da ke nuna yarensu na kakanninmu, yaruka, ko tsarin magana na musamman. A cewar sanannen masanin ilimin ɗan adam, masanin ilimin kimiyyar tarihi da masanin zamantakewa Harry Lourandos, a tarihi, waɗannan kungiyoyin sun zauna a cikin manyan yankuna uku na al'adu, yankunan Arewa, Kudancin da Tsakiya. Yankunan Arewa da Kudancin, suna da wadataccen albarkatun ruwa da na gandun daji, sun fi yawan jama'a fiye da yankin Tsakiya.[54]

Maza daga Tsibirin Bathurst, 1939

Sunayen da suka danganci ƙasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai wasu sunaye daban-daban daga Harsunan Aboriginal na Australiya waɗanda aka saba amfani da su don gano kungiyoyi bisa ga Yanayin ƙasa, waɗanda aka sani da aljanu, gami da:

  • Anangu a arewacin Kudancin Australia, da yankunan da ke kusa da Yammacin Australia da Yankin Arewa
  • Goorie (nau'in furcin da rubutun Koori) a Kudu maso Gabashin Queensland da wasu sassan arewacin New South Wales
  • Koori (ko Koorie) a New South Wales da Victoria (Aboriginal Victorians)
  • Murri a Tsakiya da Arewacin Queensland, wani lokacin yana nufin duk Aboriginal Queenslanders
  • Nunga a kudancin Kudancin Australia
  • Noongar a kudancin Yammacin Australia
  • Palawah (ko Pallawah) a Tasmania
  • Tiwi a Tsibirin Tiwi daga Arnhem Land (NT)

Wasu misalai na ƙananan rukuni

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sauran sunayen rukuni sun dogara ne akan ƙungiyar harshe ko takamaiman yaren da ake magana. Wadannan kuma sun dace da yankuna masu girma daban-daban. Wasu misalai sune:

  • Anindilyakwa a kan Groote Eylandt (a kan Arnhem Land), NT
  • Arrernte a tsakiyar Ostiraliya [14]
  • Bininj a Yammacin Arnhem Land (NT) [55]
  • Gunggari a kudu maso yammacin Queensland [56]
  • Muruwari a New South Wales
  • Luritja (Kukatja), wani rukuni na Anangu wanda ya dogara da harshe
  • Ngunnawal a cikin Babban Birnin Australiya da yankunan da ke kewaye da New South Wales
  • Pitjantjatjara, wani rukuni na Anangu wanda ya dogara da harshe
  • Wangai a cikin Yammacin Australiya Goldfields
  • Warlpiri (Yapa) a yammacin tsakiyar yankin Arewa
  • Yamatji a tsakiyar Yammacin Australia
  • Yolngu a gabashin Arnhem Land (NT)

Matsalolin da ke bayyana kungiyoyi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  . Koyaya, waɗannan jerin ba cikakke ba ne ko kuma cikakke, kuma akwai haɗuwa. Masana da ba 'yan asalin ƙasar ba sun ɗauki hanyoyi daban-daban wajen ƙoƙarin fahimtar da bayyana al'adun Aboriginal da al'ummomi, wasu suna mai da hankali kan ƙananan matakan (ƙabilar, dangi, da dai sauransu), wasu kuma akan harsuna da al'adun al'adu da suka bazu a manyan yankuna da abubuwan da suka shafi muhalli. Masana ilimin ɗan adam sun gamu da matsaloli da yawa wajen ƙoƙarin bayyana abin da ke ƙunshe da mutanen Aboriginal / al'umma / rukuni / ƙabilar, ba tare da sunayensu ba. Ilimi game da al'adun Aboriginal na mulkin mallaka da ƙungiyoyin al'umma har yanzu sun dogara da fassarorin masu kallo, waɗanda aka tace ta hanyar hanyoyin mulkin mallaka na kallon al'ummomin[57]

Wasu 'yan asalin ƙasar sun bayyana kansu a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin ruwan gishiri, ruwa mai laushi, gandun daji ko mutanen hamada.

Bayyanawa na asali

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Kalmomin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kalmar Aboriginal Australians ta haɗa da mutane da yawa daban-daban waɗanda suka ci gaba a duk faɗin Ostiraliya sama da shekaru 50,000.[58] Wadannan mutane suna da tarihin kwayoyin halitta, ko da yake yana da rikitarwa, amma a cikin shekaru ɗari biyu da suka gabata ne kawai aka bayyana su kuma suka fara nuna kansu a matsayin rukuni ɗaya, a cikin zamantakewa da siyasa. [59] Duk da yake wasu sun fi son kalmar Aboriginal zuwa Aboriginal a baya, kamar yadda aka ga ƙarshen yana da asalin nuna bambanci kai tsaye, amfani da kalmar 'Aborigine' ya ragu a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, kamar yadda mutane da yawa ke la'akari da kalmar a matsayin mummunan ra'ayi da wariyar launin fata daga zamanin mulkin mallaka na Australia. [59][60][61]

Ma'anar kalmar Aboriginal ta canza a tsawon lokaci da wuri, tare da muhimmancin zuriyar iyali, ganewar kai da karɓar al'umma duk suna da muhimmancin daban-daban.[62][63][64]

Kalmar 'Yan asalin Australiya tana nufin' yan asalin ƙasar Australiya da mutanen tsibirin Torres Strait, kuma ana amfani da kalmar ne kawai lokacin da aka haɗa kungiyoyi biyu a cikin batun da ake magana, ko kuma ta hanyar nuna kansa ta mutum a matsayin' yan asalin. (Mutanen tsibirin Torres Strait sun bambanta da ƙabilanci da al'adu, [65] duk da musayar al'adu mai yawa tare da wasu ƙungiyoyin Aboriginal, [66] kuma tsibirin Torres na Strait galibi suna cikin Queensland amma suna da matsayi na gwamnati daban. ) Wasu 'Yan asalin ƙasar sun ki amincewa da lakafta su 'yan asalin, a matsayin kalmar wucin gadi da ƙin yarda, saboda wasu mutanen da ba 'yan asalin ba sun kira kansu' yan asalin ƙasar saboda an haife su a Ostiraliya.

Al'adu da imani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  'Yan asalin Australiya suna da imani na musamman ga kowane taron jama'a (kabilar) kuma suna da kyakkyawar alaƙa da ƙasar.[67] Bangaskiyar 'yan asalin Australiya ta zamani cakuda ce mai rikitarwa, ta bambanta da yanki da mutum a fadin nahiyar. An tsara su ne ta hanyar imani na gargajiya, rushewar mulkin mallaka, addinai da Turawa suka kawo nahiyar, da kuma batutuwan zamani.[2][3][4] Ana ba da imani na al'adu na gargajiya kuma ana raba su ta hanyar rawa, labarun, waƙoƙi da fasaha - musamman Papunya Tula (zane-zane) - gaba ɗaya suna ba da labarin halitta da aka sani da The Dreamtime . [67][68] Bugu da ƙari, masu warkarwa na gargajiya sun kasance masu kula da muhimman labarun mafarki da kuma matsayinsu na likita (alal misali Ngangkari a cikin hamada ta Yamma). Wasu mahimman tsari da jigogi ana raba su a duk faɗin nahiyar tare da cikakkun bayanai da ƙarin abubuwa daban-daban tsakanin harshe da ƙungiyoyin al'adu.[2] Misali, a cikin The Dreamtime na yawancin yankuna, ruhu ya halicci duniya sannan ya gaya wa mutane su bi da dabbobi da ƙasa ta hanyar da ta girmama ƙasa. A Yankin Arewa ana yawan cewa wannan babban maciji ne ko maciji wanda ke tafiya a cikin ƙasa da sama yana yin duwatsu da teku. Amma a wasu wurare ruhohin da suka halicci duniya an san su da ruwan sama da ruhohin ruwa. Manyan ruhohin kakanninmu sun hada da Macijin Rainbow, Baiame, Dirawong da Bunjil. Hakazalika, mutanen Arrernte na tsakiyar Ostiraliya sun yi imanin cewa bil'adama sun samo asali ne daga manyan kakannin da suka kawo rana, iska da ruwan sama sakamakon fashewa a saman Duniya lokacin da suka farka daga barcin su.[14]

Rashin lafiya da tattalin arziki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman} Saboda rashin amfani da aka ambata a sama, al'ummomin Aboriginal na Australiya suna fuskantar yawan kashe kansa, idan aka kwatanta da al'ummomi marasa asali. Wadannan batutuwan sun samo asali ne daga dalilai daban-daban na musamman ga al'ummomin asali, kamar raunin tarihi, [69] rashin fa'ida na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, da raguwar samun ilimi da kiwon lafiya. [70] Har ila yau, wannan matsala ta fi shafar matasa 'yan asalin ƙasar, kamar yadda matasa da yawa na 'yan asalin ƙasa na iya jin ba su da alaƙa da al'adunsu.[71]

Don yaki da karuwar kashe-kashen kai, masu bincike da yawa sun ba da shawarar cewa hada wasu al'adu a cikin shirye-shiryen rigakafin kashe-kashin kai zai taimaka wajen yaki da matsalolin lafiyar kwakwalwa a cikin al'umma. Bincike da ya gabata ya gano cewa shugabannin 'yan asalin ƙasar da membobin al'umma da yawa, a zahiri, suna son shirye-shiryen kiwon lafiya da suka fi sani da al'adu.[72] Hakazalika, shirye-shiryen da suka shafi al'adu da suka shafi matasa 'yan asalin sun kalubalanci ra'ayin kashe kansa tsakanin matasa' yan asalin ƙasar, tare da shirye-shirye da yawa na zamantakewa da motsin rai ta amfani da bayanan al'adu don samar da hanyoyin magance da inganta lafiyar hankali.[73][74]

Samun al'ummomin da ke nesa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hoton tarihi na mata da yara na Aboriginal Australia, Maloga, New South Wales a kusa da 1900 (a cikin tufafin Turai)

Motsi na tashar na shekarun 1970 da 1980, lokacin da mutanen Aboriginal suka koma kananan ƙauyuka masu nisa a ƙasar gargajiya, sun kawo fa'idodin kiwon lafiya, [75] amma ba a ba da horo da damar yin aiki a lokuta da yawa ba, kuma tallafi daga gwamnatoci ya ragu a cikin 2000s, musamman a zamanin Gwamnatin Howard.[76][77]

Al'ummomin 'yan asalin ƙasar da ke Ostiraliya mai nisa galibi ƙananan ne, garuruwa masu zaman kansu tare da kayan aiki na asali, a kan ƙasar mallakar gargajiya. Wadannan al'ummomin suna da mazauna tsakanin 20 zuwa 300 kuma galibi ana rufe su ga baƙi saboda dalilai na al'adu. Masana da masu tsara manufofi sun tattauna game da yiwuwar al'ummomin Aboriginal a yankunan hamada. Wani rahoto na 2007 da CSIRO ta jaddada muhimmancin ɗaukar tsarin buƙata don ayyuka a cikin ƙauyukan hamada, kuma ta kammala cewa "idan ana ci gaba da sanya mafita daga sama zuwa ƙasa ba tare da godiya ga mahimman direbobi na ƙauyuka a yankunan hamada ba, to waɗancan mafita za su ci gaba da kasancewa masu son kai, kuma ba su da tasiri a cikin dogon lokaci"

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under the CC BY 4.0 license.

  • "Start exploring Australian Aboriginal culture". Creative Spirits. 24 December 2018.
  • "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.
  • "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.
  • "Aboriginal Art of Australia: Understanding its History". ARTARK. Retrieved 28 August 2023.

Haɗin waje

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "Community, identity, wellbeing: The report of the Second National Indigenous Languages Survey". AIATSIS. 2014. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cox-2016
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Harvey, Arlene; Russell-Mundine, Gabrielle (18 August 2019). "Decolonising the curriculum: using graduate qualities to embed Indigenous knowledges at the academic cultural interface". Teaching in Higher Education. 24 (6): 789–808. doi:10.1080/13562517.2018.1508131. ISSN 1356-2517. S2CID 149824646.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Fraser, Jenny (25 January 2012). "The digital dreamtime: A shining light in the culture war". Te Kaharoa (in Turanci). 5 (1). doi:10.24135/tekaharoa.v5i1.77. ISSN 1178-6035.
  5. ↑ Graves, Randin (2 June 2017).
  6. ↑ Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021). "Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date". Geoarchaeology (in Turanci). 36 (1): 92–108. Bibcode:2021Gearc..36...92W. doi:10.1002/gea.21822. ISSN 0883-6353. S2CID 225321249. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  7. ↑ Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; Marwick, Ben; Fullagar, Richard; Wallis, Lynley; Smith, Mike; Roberts, Richard G.; Hayes, Elspeth; Lowe, Kelsey; Carah, Xavier; Florin, S. Anna; McNeil, Jessica; Cox, Delyth; Arnold, Lee J.; Hua, Quan (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28726833. S2CID 205257212. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  8. ↑ Allen, Jim; O'connell, James F. (2020). "A different paradigm for the initial colonisation of Sahul". Archaeology in Oceania (in Turanci). 55 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1002/arco.5207. ISSN 1834-4453. Y-chromosome data show parallel patterns, with deeply rooted Sahul-specific haplogroups C and K diverging from the most closely related non-Sahul lineages c.54 ka and dividing into Australia- and New Guinea-specific lineages c.48–53 ka (Bergstrom et al. 2016).” p5 ... While the chronology of Sahul colonisation remains important, we see no arguable cause-and-effect nexus between when Sahul colonisation first occurred and AMH ability to achieve it (cf. Davidson & Noble 1992). If we exclude the extreme age claimed for Madjedbebe (Clarkson et al. 2017) the increasing consensus of available evidence currently puts this event in the range 47–51 ka.
  9. ↑ Tobler, Ray; Rohrlach, Adam; Soubrier, Julien; Bover, Pere; Llamas, Bastien; Tuke, Jonathan; Bean, Nigel; Abdullah-Highfold, Ali; Agius, Shane; O’Donoghue, Amy; O’Loughlin, Isabel; Sutton, Peter; Zilio, Fran; Walshe, Keryn; Williams, Alan N. (8 April 2017). "Aboriginal mitogenomes reveal 50,000 years of regionalism in Australia". Nature (in Turanci). 544 (7649): 180–184. Bibcode:2017Natur.544..180T. doi:10.1038/nature21416. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 28273067. The timing of human arrival in Australia was estimated using the age of the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for the different Australian-only haplogroups, calculated using a molecular clock with substitution rates calibrated with ancient European and Asian mitogenomes18. Although these TMRCA values are likely to be minimal estimates given the limited sampling, they group in a narrow window of time from approximately 43–47 ka (Fig. 1 and Extended Data Figs 2, 3), consistent with previous studies (Supplementary Information). ... The resulting independent estimate for initial colonization of Sahul, 48.8 ± 1.3 ka, is a close match to the genetic age estimates (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 4).
  10. ↑ Taufik, Leonard; Teixeira, João C.; Llamas, Bastien; Sudoyo, Herawati; Tobler, Raymond; Purnomo, Gludhug A. (16 December 2022). "Human Genetic Research in Wallacea and Sahul: Recent Findings and Future Prospects". Genes (in Turanci). 13 (12): 2373. doi:10.3390/genes13122373. ISSN 2073-4425. PMC 9778601 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36553640 Check |pmid= value (help). Genetic inferences suggest that the initial peopling of the region occurred around 50–60 kya, with the separation of Aboriginal Australian and New Guinea populations occurring around the same time [p 6].
  11. ↑ Hublin, Jean-Jacques (9 March 2021). "How old are the oldest Homo sapiens in Far East Asia?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (10): e2101173118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11801173H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2101173118. PMC 7958237. PMID 33602727 Check |pmid= value (help). Dating the diversification of present-day lineages of mitochondrial DNA—a part of our genome maternally transmitted—supports a single and rapid dispersal of all ancestral non-African populations less than 55,000 y ago (9).
  12. ↑ "DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest". Australian Geographic. 23 September 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
  13. ↑ "Discover the oldest continuous living culture on Earth". The Telegraph. 22 December 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Read, Peter; Broome, Richard (1982). "Aboriginal Australians". Labour History (43): 125–126. doi:10.2307/27508560. ISSN 0023-6942. JSTOR 27508560.
  15. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Bennett, E. Andrew; Liu, Yichen; Fu, Qiaomei (3 December 2024). "Reconstructing the Human Population History of East Asia through Ancient Genomics". Elements in Ancient East Asia (in Turanci). doi:10.1017/9781009246675. ISBN 978-1-009-24667-5. Australasian, one of three deeply branching East Asian lineages (with AASI and ESEA). AA includes modern-day Papuans and Aboriginal Australians.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Aoki, Kenichi; Takahata, Naoyuki; Oota, Hiroki; Wakano, Joe Yuichiro; Feldman, Marcus W. (30 August 2023). "Infectious diseases may have arrested the southward advance of microblades in Upper Palaeolithic East Asia". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 290 (2005): 20231262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.1262. PMC 10465978 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 37644833 Check |pmid= value (help). A single major migration of modern humans into the continents of Asia and Sahul was strongly supported by earlier studies using mitochondrial DNA, the non-recombining portion of Y chromosomes, and autosomal SNP data [42–45]. Ancestral Ancient South Indians with no West Eurasian relatedness, East Asians, Onge (Andamanese hunter–gatherers) and Papuans all derive in a short evolutionary time from the eastward dispersal of an out-of-Africa population [46,47]
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). "A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia". Human Population Genetics and Genomics (in Turanci). 2 (1): 1–32. doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001. ISSN 2770-5005. Mallick et al. found that a well-fitting admixture graph (qpGraph, Box 1) grouped Papuans, Australians, and the Andamanese Onge with East Asians, with additional Denisovan admixture into Papuans and Australians [15]. ... Though present-day Asians and Australasians are more closely related to each other than to present-day Europeans, genetic comparisons highlight deep separations between mainland East and Southeast Asians, island Southeast Asians, and Australasians.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Lipson, Mark; Reich, David (1 April 2017). "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (4): 889–902. doi:10.1093/molbev/msw293. ISSN 0737-4038. PMC 5400393. PMID 28074030.
  20. ↑ Vallini, Leonardo; Zampieri, Carlo; Shoaee, Mohamed Javad; Bortolini, Eugenio; Marciani, Giulia; Aneli, Serena; Pievani, Telmo; Benazzi, Stefano; Barausse, Alberto; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Petraglia, Michael D.; Pagani, Luca (25 March 2024). "The Persian plateau served as hub for Homo sapiens after the main out of Africa dispersal". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 15 (1): 1882. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.1882V. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46161-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 10963722 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38528002 Check |pmid= value (help).
  21. ↑ Taufik, Leonard; Teixeira, João C.; Llamas, Bastien; Sudoyo, Herawati; Tobler, Raymond; Purnomo, Gludhug A. (16 December 2022). "Human Genetic Research in Wallacea and Sahul: Recent Findings and Future Prospects". Genes (in Turanci). 13 (12): 2373. doi:10.3390/genes13122373. ISSN 2073-4425. PMC 9778601 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36553640 Check |pmid= value (help). Genomic data have repeatedly demonstrated that all contemporary non-African AMH populations have diversified from an ancestral AMH group that left Africa between 60–50 kya [28]; however, the initial results from a single deeply sequenced Aboriginal Australian genome derived from a ~100-year-old hair sample proposed that Indigenous Australians also carry substantial AMH ancestry from an earlier African diaspora that originated 75–62 kya [29]. ... though notably a small contribution (~2%) from a deeper AMH source cannot be entirely ruled out [30].
  22. ↑ Hublin, Jean-Jacques (9 March 2021). "How old are the oldest Homo sapiens in Far East Asia?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (10): e2101173118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11801173H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2101173118. PMC 7958237. PMID 33602727 Check |pmid= value (help). However, it has often been argued that pioneer groups could have been totally replaced by later demographically dominant waves and thereby, left no genetic trace in extant populations. ... and unless it documents a failed early colonization of Australia, its age is difficult to reconcile with the genetic evidence (9, 12).
  23. ↑ Mallick, Swapan; Li, Heng; Lipson, Mark; Mathieson, Iain; Patterson, Nick; Reich, David (13 October 2016). "The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations". Nature. 538 (7624): 201–206. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..201M. doi:10.1038/nature18964. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 5161557. PMID 27654912.
  24. ↑ Mondal, Mayukh; Bertranpetit, Jaume; Lao, Oscar (16 January 2019). "Approximate Bayesian computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 10 (1): 246. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10..246M. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-08089-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6335398. PMID 30651539. OOA origin of modern humans, with a Eurasian split between Europeans and the group comprising two subgroups, East Asians, Indian and Andamanese on one hand, and Papuans and Australians on the other.
  25. ↑ Aghakhanian, Farhang (14 April 2015). "Unravelling the Genetic History of Negritos and Indigenous Populations of Southeast Asia". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (5): 1206–1215. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv065. PMC 4453060. PMID 25877615. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Huoponen, Kirsi; Schurr, Theodore G.; et al. (1 September 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA variation in an Aboriginal Australian population: evidence for genetic isolation and regional differentiation". Human Immunology. 62 (9): 954–969. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00294-4. PMID 11543898.
  27. ↑ Nagle, Nano; Ballantyne, Kaye N.; van Oven, Mannis; Tyler-Smith, Chris; Xue, Yali; Taylor, Duncan; Wilcox, Stephen; Wilcox, Leah; Turkalov, Rust; van Oorschot, Roland A. H.; McAllister, Peter; Williams, Lesley; Kayser, Manfred; Mitchell, Robert J.; Genographic Consortium (30 March 2016). "Antiquity and diversity of aboriginal Australian Y-chromosomes". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 159 (3): 367–381. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22886. ISSN 1096-8644. PMID 26515539.
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  35. ↑ Larena, M (March 2021). "Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (13): e2026132118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. PMC 8020671 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33753512 Check |pmid= value (help).
  36. ↑ Larena M, McKenna J, Sanchez-Quinto F, Bernhardsson C, Ebeo C, Reyes R, et al. (October 2021). "Philippine Ayta possess the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world". Current Biology. 31 (19): 4219–4230.e10. Bibcode:2021CBio...31E4219L. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.022. PMC 8596304 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34388371 Check |pmid= value (help).
  37. ↑ Lipson, Mark; Reich, David (April 2017). "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution (in Turanci). 34 (4): 889–902. doi:10.1093/molbev/msw293. PMC 5400393. PMID 28074030.
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  41. ↑ Caitlyn Gribbin (29 January 2014). "Genetic mutation helps Aboriginal people survive tough climate, research finds" (text and audio). ABC News.
  42. ↑ Qi, Xiaoqiang; Chan, Wee Lee; Read, Randy J.; Zhou, Aiwu; Carrell, Robin W. (22 March 2014). "Temperature-responsive release of thyroxine and its environmental adaptation in Australians". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 281 (1779): 20132747. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2747. PMC 3924073. PMID 24478298.
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  46. ↑ Rademaker, Laura (7 February 2018). "Tiwi Christianity: Aboriginal histories, Catholic mission and a surprising conversion". ABC Religion and Ethics. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
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  48. ↑ "Australia: 2021 census all persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
  49. ↑ Population change due to overseas migration continued to account for less than 2 per cent of the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander population.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "2076.0: Characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2016: Main language spoken at home and English proficiency". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 14 March 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  51. ↑ "What is Aboriginal English like, and how would you recognise it?". ABED. 12 March 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Indigenous Australian Languages". Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  53. ↑ Simpson, Jane (20 January 2019). "The state of Australia's Indigenous languages – and how we can help people speak them more often". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  54. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Lourandos
  55. ↑ Garde, Murray. "bininj". Bininj Kunwok Dictionary. Bininj Kunwok Regional Language Centre. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  56. ↑ "General Reference". Life and Times of the Gunggari People, QLD (Pathfinder). Retrieved 29 November 2016.
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  58. ↑ Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; et al. (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28726833. S2CID 205257212. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Fesl, Eve D. (1986). "'Aborigine' and 'Aboriginal'". Aboriginal Law Bulletin.
  60. ↑ Solonec, Tammy (9 August 2015). "Why saying 'Aborigine' isn't OK: 8 facts about Indigenous people in Australia". Amnesty.org. Amnesty International. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
  61. ↑ "Why do media organisations like News Corp, Reuters and The New York Times still use words like 'Aborigines'?". NITV (in Turanci). 5 March 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  62. ↑ "Aboriginality and Identity: Perspectives, Practices and Policies" (PDF). New South Wales AECG Inc. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  63. ↑ Blandy, Sarah; Sibley, David (2010). "Law, boundaries and the production of space". Social & Legal Studies. 19 (3): 275–284. doi:10.1177/0964663910372178. S2CID 145479418.
  64. ↑ Malbon, Justin (2003). "The Extinguishment of Native TitleSamfuri:MdashThe Australian Aborigines as Slaves and Citizens". Griffith Law Review. 12 (2): 310–335. doi:10.1080/10383441.2003.10854523. S2CID 147150152.
  65. ↑ "About the Torres Strait". Torres Strait Shire Council. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  66. ↑ "Australia Now – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples". 8 October 2006. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 8 February 2019.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 "Behind the dots of Aboriginal Art" (in Turanci). Retrieved 25 November 2021.
  68. ↑ Green, Jennifer (2012). "The Altyerre Story-'Suffering Badly by Translation': The Altyerre Story". The Australian Journal of Anthropology (in Turanci). 23 (2): 158–178. doi:10.1111/j.1757-6547.2012.00179.x.
  69. ↑ Elliott-Farrelly, Terri (January 2004). "Australian Aboriginal suicide: The need for an Aboriginal suicidology?". Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health. 3 (3): 138–145. doi:10.5172/jamh.3.3.138. ISSN 1446-7984. S2CID 71578621.
  70. ↑ Marrone, Sonia (July 2007). "Understanding barriers to health care: a review of disparities in health care services among indigenous populations". International Journal of Circumpolar Health. 66 (3): 188–198. doi:10.3402/ijch.v66i3.18254. ISSN 2242-3982. PMID 17655060. S2CID 1720215.
  71. ↑ Isaacs, Anton; Sutton, Keith (16 June 2016). "An Aboriginal youth suicide prevention project in rural Victoria". Advances in Mental Health. 14 (2): 118–125. doi:10.1080/18387357.2016.1198232. ISSN 1838-7357. S2CID 77905930.
  72. ↑ Ridani, Rebecca; Shand, Fiona L.; Christensen, Helen; McKay, Kathryn; Tighe, Joe; Burns, Jane; Hunter, Ernest (16 September 2014). "Suicide Prevention in Australian Aboriginal Communities: A Review of Past and Present Programs". Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 45 (1): 111–140. doi:10.1111/sltb.12121. ISSN 0363-0234. PMID 25227155.
  73. ↑ Skerrett, Delaney Michael; Gibson, Mandy; Darwin, Leilani; Lewis, Suzie; Rallah, Rahm; De Leo, Diego (30 March 2017). "Closing the Gap in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Suicide: A Social-Emotional Wellbeing Service Innovation Project". Australian Psychologist. 53 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1111/ap.12277. ISSN 0005-0067. S2CID 151609217.
  74. ↑ Murrup-Stewart, Cammi; Searle, Amy K.; Jobson, Laura; Adams, Karen (16 November 2018). "Aboriginal perceptions of social and emotional wellbeing programs: A systematic review of literature assessing social and emotional wellbeing programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians perspectives". Australian Psychologist. 54 (3): 171–186. doi:10.1111/ap.12367. ISSN 0005-0067. S2CID 150362243.
  75. ↑ Morice, Rodney D. (1976). "Woman Dancing Dreaming: Psychosocial Benefits of the Aboriginal Outstation Movement". Medical Journal of Australia. AMPCo. 2 (25–26): 939–942. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb115531.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 1035404. S2CID 28327004.
  76. ↑ (Fred ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  77. ↑ (Fred ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
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