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Ƙaddamar da muhalli

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Ƙaddamar da muhalli
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Ƙaramin ɓangare na determinism (en) Fassara
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Taswirar taswirar Turai

Ƙididdigar muhalli (wanda kuma aka sani da ƙayyadaddun yanayi ko ƙayyadaddun yanayin ƙasa) shine nazarin yadda yanayin jiki ke ƙaddamar da al'ummomi da jihohi zuwa takamaiman ci gaban tattalin arziki ko zamantakewa (ko ma fiye da haka, al'adu).  Jared Diamond, Jeffrey Herbst, Ian Morris, da sauran masana kimiyyar zamantakewa sun haifar da farfaɗo da ka'idar a ƙarshen karni na ashirin da farkon ƙarni na ashirin da ɗaya.  Wannan makarantar tunani ta "neo-environmental determinism" tana nazarin yadda rundunonin yanki da muhalli ke tasiri ga gina ƙasa, ci gaban tattalin arziki, da cibiyoyi.  Yayin da aka yi amfani da juzu'i na fassarar yanayin ƙasa don ƙarfafa mulkin mallaka da kuma tsarin kuɗin Euro, alkalumman zamani kamar Diamond suna amfani da wannan hanyar don ƙin wariyar launin fata a cikin waɗannan bayanan.  Diamond ya yi nuni da cewa, kasashen turai sun sami damar yin mulkin mallaka, saboda fa'ida ta musamman da muhallinsu ya ba su, sabanin kowane irin fifiko na asali..[1][2]

Tarihin tunani

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Lokaci na gargajiya da na zamani

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Ka'idojin farko na ƙaddamar da muhalli a Tsohon China, Tsohon Girka, da Tsohon Roma sun ba da shawarar cewa siffofin muhalli gaba ɗaya sun ƙayyade halayen jiki da na ilimi na dukan al'ummomi. Guan Zhong (720-645 BC), wani shugaban majalisa na farko a kasar Sin, ya yi imanin cewa halaye na manyan koguna sun tsara halin mutanen da ke kewaye da su. Koguna masu saurin gudu da karkatarwa sun sa mutane "masu haɗama, marasa hankali, da kuma yaƙi". Masanin falsafar Girka ta dā Hippocrates ya rubuta irin wannan labarin a cikin littafinsa "Airs, Waters, Places".

A cikin wannan rubutun, Hippocrates ya bayyana yadda kabilun mutane ke da alaƙa da mahallinsu. Ya yi jayayya cewa akwai alaƙa tsakanin yanayin da ke kewaye da mutanen da kabilansu. Hippocrates ya bayyana tasirin yanayi daban-daban, al'adu, da abinci a kan mutane da kuma yadda wannan ya shafi halayensu, halayensu، da kuma saukin kamuwa da cututtuka da cututtaka.

Misali, ya bayyana cewa tseren Asiya ba su da son yaƙi idan aka kwatanta da sauran wayewa saboda yanayin su. Ya danganta wannan ga gaskiyar cewa "babu babban canji a cikin yanayi, wanda ba mai zafi ba ne ko sanyi amma mai matsakaici" da kuma yadda yanayin yanayi ya ba da damar Asiya su rayu ba tare da firgici ko damuwa ba. A cewar Hippocrates, damuwa da girgizar kasa suna inganta sha'awa da rashin kulawa a cikin mutane, amma tunda mutanen Asiya ba su da wannan, sun kasance marasa ƙarfi. Wannan ya danganta da yadda ake mulkin Asiya, yana mai cewa ba su "mulkin kansu ba kuma ba su da ikon cin gashin kansu amma masu mulkin kama karya, babu son kai wajen bayyana kamar yaƙi. " [3] A cikin surori na baya na aikinsa, ya bambanta wannan halin da na Turawa. Ya yi iƙirarin cewa za'a iya danganta ƙyuya a matsayin tasirin yanayi na daidaituwa kuma cewa "Ƙarfin jiki da rai ya fito ne daga canji. Hakanan tsoro yana ƙara taushi da ƙyuya, yayin da ƙarfin zuciya ke haifar da jimiri da ɗabi'ar aiki. " Tun da Turawa ke fuskantar ƙarin canji a cikin yanayin su, ba su saba da yanayin su ba kuma an tilasta su jimre da canji na yau da kullun.[4] Hippocrates ya yi iƙirarin cewa wannan yana nunawa a cikin halin mutum da alaƙa da halin Turawa, yana bayanin cewa "Saboda wannan dalili, waɗanda ke zaune a Turai sun fi tasiri a cikin mayaƙa".[4]

A cewar Hippocrates, akwai kuma bayyanar jiki na ƙaddamar da muhalli a cikin mutane. Ya gabatar da alaƙar da ke tsakanin yanayin ƙasar da mutanenta, yana jayayya cewa jiki da yanayin mutum sun samo asali ne kuma yana rinjayar shi. Ya bayyana daya daga cikin hanyoyin da aka nuna wannan haɗin ta hanyar cewa, "Inda ƙasar tana da wadata, mai laushi, kuma tana da ruwa sosai, kuma ruwan yana kusa da farfajiya don su zama masu zafi a lokacin rani da sanyi a cikin hunturu, kuma inda yanayin yake da kyau, maza suna da rauni kuma ba su da haɗin kai, suna kumbura da ƙyuciya kuma galibi masu tsoro". Ya lura da makiyaya Scythians a matsayin misalai na wayewa da ke da ke da waɗannan halaye.[4] A Ya lura da Scythians makiyaya a matsayin misalan wayewar da ke da waɗannan halaye.  A wani sashe na rubutunsa da ya gabata, ya lura da yadda Scythiyawa suke da kumbura da kumbura kuma sun mallaki mafi kumbura cikin dukan mutane.  Ya kuma yi tsokaci cewa dukkan maza iri daya ne kuma dukkan mace iri daya ce a bayyanar, namiji da namiji da mace.  Ya danganta hakan da yanayin yanayin da suke rayuwa a ciki da kuma yadda suke fuskantar lokutan rani da damina iri daya.  Rashin canji ya sa su sanya tufafi iri ɗaya, cin abinci iri ɗaya, shaka iri ɗaya, da dena naƙuda.  Wannan ci gaba da rashin ƙarfi mai ƙarfi a cikin yanayi shine abin da Hippocrates ya gano a matsayin dalilin bayyanar su.  Tun da Scythians ba su saba da fuskantar canje-canje kwatsam ba, ba za su iya haɓaka jiki ko rai don jimre aikin jiki ba.   Idan aka kwatanta, wurare "inda ƙasar bakarara ce, bushewa, mai tsanani, da hadari da hadari a cikin hunturu ko kuma rana ta ƙone a lokacin rani, akwai wanda zai sami karfi, ƙwanƙwasa, ma'anarsa. tsoka, masu gashi.".[4]

Hippocrates kuma yana ba da hujjar cewa bayyanar jiki da yanayin mutane ke haifar da shi yana shafar haifuwa da haɓakar wayewa, wanda ke shafar al'ummomi masu zuwa.  Ya gabatar da kamanni da jikin Scythians kamar yadda suke da mummunan tasiri akan haifuwar wayewarsu.  Hippocrates ya yi jayayya cewa saboda kumburin ciki da kuma "ƙasassun ciki masu laushi da sanyi sosai" Mazajen Scythian ba su da sha'awar saduwa kuma saboda wannan yanayin, "da wuya su iya gamsar da sha'awarsa."  rashin dacewa da jima'i" kuma ya sanya su rashin haihuwa.  Mata, a cewar Hippocrates suma ba su da haihuwa saboda yanayin jikinsu da kuma saboda suna da kiba da kumburin ciki.  Hippocrates ya yi iƙirarin cewa saboda yanayin jikinsu, mata suna da mahaifar da ke da ruwa sosai kuma “ba za su iya tsotse zuriyar namiji ba.” Wannan ya bayyana, yana shafar haifuwarsu da haifuwarsu da kuma haifar da wasu matsaloli a cikin aikin tsarin haihuwa, misali “Tsarin da suke yi a kowane wata ba kamar yadda ya kamata ba ne, amma ba ya da yawa kamar yadda ya kamata.[4] Duk waɗannan yanayi da halaye shaida ce da ke goyan bayan da'awarsa cewa tseren Scythian ba shi da haihuwa kuma yana aiki a matsayin misali na yadda manufar ƙaddamar da muhalli ke bayyana.

Marubutan a Gabas ta Tsakiya na zamani sun samar da ka'idojin ƙaddamar da muhalli. Marubucin Afro-Arab al-Jahiz ya yi jayayya cewa launin fata na mutane da dabbobi an ƙayyade su ne ta hanyar ruwa, ƙasa, da zafi na mahallinsu. Ya kwatanta launi na baƙar fata a arewacin Najd da launin fata na mutanen da ke zaune a can don tallafawa ka'idarsa.[5]

Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Khaldun, masanin ilimin zamantakewar al'umma da ilimin lissafi, haka ma ya danganta launin fata da abubuwan muhalli.  A cikin Muqaddimah (1377), ya rubuta cewa baƙar fata tana faruwa ne saboda yanayin zafi na Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara ba saboda zuriyar Afirka ba.  Ta haka ne ya kalubalanci tunanin Hamitic na kabilanci da suka ce an la’ane ‘ya’yan Ham (dan Nuhu) da bakar fata[1].  Yawancin rubuce-rubucen Ibn Khaldun an fassara su a lokacin mulkin mallaka don ciyar da injin farfagandar mulkin mallaka[6]

Ibn Khaldun ya yi imanin cewa yanayin jiki ya rinjayi abubuwan da ba na jiki ba ban da launi na fata. Ya yi jayayya cewa ƙasa, yanayi, da abinci sun ƙayyade ko mutane suna nomadic ko masu zaman kansu, da kuma waɗanne al'adu da bukukuwan da suka yi. Rubuce-rubucensa na iya rinjayar rubuce-rubi na baya na Montesquieu a cikin karni na 18 ta hanyar matafiyi Jean Chardin, wanda ya yi tafiya zuwa Farisa kuma ya bayyana ra'ayoyin da suka yi kama da na Ibn Khaldun.[7]

Lokacin mulkin mallaka na Yamma

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An soki ƙaddamar da muhalli a matsayin kayan aiki don halatta mulkin mallaka, wariyar launin fata, da mulkin mallaka a Afirka, Amurka, da Asiya.[1] Tsarin muhalli ya ba masu ilimin ƙasa damar tabbatar da mafi girman fararen Turai da kuma yanayin mulkin mallaka. Binciken ya karfafa hujjojin addini kuma a wasu lokuta ya maye gurbin su a ƙarshen karni na 19.[8]

Marubuta da yawa, ciki har da Thomas Jefferson, sun goyi bayan mulkin mallaka na Afirka ta hanyar ba da hujjar cewa yanayin zafi ya sa mutane sun zama marasa wayewa.  Jefferson ya bayar da hujjar cewa yanayin yanayi na wurare masu zafi yana ƙarfafa kasala, halayen annashuwa, lalata da kuma al'ummomin da suka lalace gabaɗaya, yayin da yawan sauye-sauyen yanayi na tsaka-tsaki da arewacin latitudes ya haifar da ɗabi'a mai ƙarfi na aiki da al'ummomin wayewa..[9] Adolf Hitler ya kuma yi amfani da wannan ka'idar don yabon mafi girman tseren Nordic.

Rashin halayyar da ake zaton yanayin zafi ne ya haifar da ita an yi imanin cewa ana iya gado ne a ƙarƙashin ka'idar Lamarckian na gado na halaye da aka samu, wanda ba a yarda da shi ba ga ka'idar Darwinian na Zaɓin halitta.[8] Ka'idar ta fara ne da lura cewa kwayar halitta da ke fuskantar matsin muhalli na iya fuskantar canje-canje na jiki a lokacin rayuwarta ta hanyar tsarin daidaitawa. Lamarckianism ya ba da shawarar cewa waɗannan canje-canjen ilimin lissafi za a iya ba da su kai tsaye ga 'ya'ya, ba tare da buƙatar zuriya don haɓaka halin a cikin wannan hanya ba.

Al'ummomin ƙasa kamar Royal Geographical Society da Société de géographie sun goyi bayan mulkin mallaka ta hanyar tallafawa masu binciken da sauran masu goyon bayan mulkin mallaki.[10] Kungiyoyin kimiyya sun yi irin wannan. Al'ummomin daidaitawa kai tsaye suna tallafawa kamfanonin mulkin mallaka kuma suna jin daɗin fa'idodi. Rubuce-rubucen Lamarck sun ba da goyon baya ga ka'idojin daidaitawa. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire - ɗan Étienne Geoffroy Saint'Hilaire, abokin aiki na kusa kuma mai goyon bayan Lamarck ne ya kafa Société Zoologique d'Acclimatation.[11]

Ellen Churchill Semple, wata fitacciyar masanin ilimin muhalli, ta yi amfani da ra'ayinta a cikin binciken da ya mayar da hankali kan Philippines, inda ta tsara taswirar wayewa da daji a kan yanayin tsibirin. Sauran malamai sun yi jayayya cewa yanayi da Yanayin ƙasa sun haifar da takamaiman halaye don bayyana a cikin al'ummomin da aka ba su. Masana ta haka ne suka sanya ra'ayoyin launin fata a kan dukkan al'ummomi.[12] Ikon mulkin mallaka sun daidaita cin zarafin ma'aikata ta hanyar da'awar cewa mutanen da ke cikin wurare masu zafi ba su da ɗabi'a.[13]

Matsayin ƙaddamar da muhalli a cikin daidaitawa da halatta wariyar launin fata, kabilanci da Rashin daidaito na tattalin arziki ya jawo zargi mai karfi.[14]

David Landes ya kuma yi Allah wadai da abin da ya kira yanayin halin kirki na Ellsworth Huntington. Ya yi jayayya cewa Huntington ya lalata yanayin ƙasa a matsayin kimiyya ta hanyar danganta duk ayyukan ɗan adam ga tasirin jiki don ya iya rarraba wayewa a matsayin matsayi - yana son waɗancan wayewar da ya ɗauka mafi kyau.

Ci gaban ƙarshen ƙarni na 20 na ƙaddamar da muhalli

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An farfado da ƙaddamar da muhalli a ƙarshen ƙarni na ashirin a matsayin ƙaddamar da mahalli, sabon kalma da masanin kimiyyar zamantakewa kuma mai sukar Andrew Sluyter ya kirkira.[2] Sluyter ya yi jayayya cewa ƙaddamar da muhalli na neo bai isa ya karya tare da abubuwan da suka gabata na gargajiya da na mulkin mallaka ba.[2] Wasu sun yi jayayya cewa a wani ma'ana tsarin Darwinian ga ƙaddara yana da amfani wajen haskaka yanayin ɗan adam.[15]

Ƙididdigar ƙayyadaddun yanayin muhalli yana nazarin yadda yanayi na zahiri ke ƙalubalantar al'ummomi da jahohi zuwa wasu wurare na ci gaban tattalin arziki da siyasa.  Ya yi nazarin yadda rundunonin yanki da muhalli ke tasiri wajen gina jihohi, ci gaban tattalin arziki, da cibiyoyi.  Hakanan yana magance fargabar da ke tattare da tasirin sauyin yanayi na zamani[1].  Jared Diamond ya kasance mai tasiri a cikin farfaɗowar ƙayyadaddun muhalli saboda shaharar littafinsa Guns, Germs, and Steel, wanda ya yi magana game da asalin ƙasar da aka samu kafin 1500 A.D..

Masana ilimin muhalli kayyade muhalli sun yi muhawara kan yadda yanayin yanayi ke tsara cibiyoyin tattalin arziki da siyasa.  Masana tarihi na tattalin arziki Stanley Engerman da Kenneth Sokoloff sun yi iƙirarin cewa abubuwan ba da kyauta sun shafi ci gaban "cibiyoyi" a cikin Amurka, wanda ta haka ne suke nufi da halin samun 'yanci (dimokiradiyya, kasuwa mai 'yanci) ko rashin 'yanci (na mulkin kama karya, takurawa tattalin arziki).

Sabanin haka, Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, da James A. Robinson sun jaddada cewa abubuwan da suka shafi yanayin ƙasa sun fi tasiri ga ci gaban ma'aikata a lokacin farkon kafa jihar da mulkin mallaka. Suna jayayya cewa bambance-bambance na ƙasa ba za su iya bayyana bambancin ci gaban tattalin arziki ba bayan 1500 AD kai tsaye, sai dai ta hanyar tasirin su akan cibiyoyin tattalin arziki da siyasa.

Masana tattalin arziki Jeffrey Sachs da John Luke Gallup sun bincika tasirin kai tsaye na abubuwan ƙasa da yanayi akan ci gaban tattalin arziki, musamman rawar da yanayin ƙasa ke takawa akan farashin kasuwanci da samun dama ga kasuwanni, yanayin cututtuka, da yawan aikin gona.[16]

Rikicin dumamar yanayi na duniya na zamani ya kuma shafi ilimin muhalli. Jared Diamond ya zana kamanceceniya tsakanin sauye-sauyen yanayin yanayi wanda ya kawo wayewar Tsibirin Easter da dumamar duniya ta zamani a cikin littafinsa Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed . Alan Kolata, Charles Ortloff, da Gerald Huag sun bayyana Daular Tiwanaku da kuma rushewar wayewar Maya kamar yadda abubuwan da suka faru na yanayi kamar fari suka haifar.[17][18] Peter deMenocal, Kamar yadda ayyukan ƙasa a cikin hamada na yamma suka girma daga ra'ayoyin zane-zane, ci gaban fasahar jama'a ya motsa masu zane-zane su shiga cikin yanayin birni a matsayin wani yanayi kuma a matsayin dandamali don shiga ra'ayoyi da ra'ayoayi game da muhalli ga masu sauraro mafi girma. Wani masanin kimiyya a Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory a Jami'ar Columbia, ya rubuta cewa rushewar al'umma saboda canjin yanayi yana yiwuwa a yau.[19]

Tasirin muhalli da na ƙasa a kan farkon kafa jihar

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Tasirin nau'ikan jinsuna, yanayi, da kuma nahiyar kafin 1500

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A cikin Pulitzer Prize lashe Guns, Germs, and Steel (1999), marubuci Jared Diamond ya nuna labarin kasa a matsayin amsar dalilin da yasa wasu jihohi suka sami damar girma da haɓaka da sauri da ƙarfi fiye da sauran.  Ka'idarsa ta ba da misali da yanayin yanayi da albarkatun kasa da wayewa ke da shi a matsayin abubuwan da ke haifar da nasara, maimakon sanannun da'awar fifikon launin fata da al'adu na ƙarni.  Diamond ya ce waɗannan abubuwan ba da kyauta sun fara ne tun farkon alfijir na mutum, kuma sun fi son wayewar Eurasian saboda wurin da suke tare da latitudes iri ɗaya, yanayin noma da ya dace, da kuma farawar dabbobi.

Diamond yayi jayayya cewa jahohin farko da ke kan layin latitude iri ɗaya sun dace sosai don cin gajiyar yanayi iri ɗaya, wanda ya sauƙaƙa wa amfanin gona, dabbobi, da dabarun noma.  Abubuwan amfanin gona irin su alkama da sha'ir suna da sauƙin girma da sauƙin girbi, kuma yankunan da suka dace da noman su sun ga yawan jama'a da haɓakar biranen farko.  Ƙwarewar kiwon dabbobin garken dabbobi, waɗanda ba su da tsoron ɗan adam, yawan haihuwa, da tsarin da ya dace, ya ba wa wasu wayewa fa'idar aiki kyauta, taki, da dabbobin yaƙi.  Gabas-yamma na Eurasia ya ba da izinin babban ilimin ya yadu cikin sauri, kuma tsarin rubutu don ci gaba da bin diddigin dabarun noma ya ba mutane ikon adanawa da ginawa bisa tushen ilimi a cikin tsararraki.  Sana'a ta bunƙasa a matsayin rarar abinci daga noma ya ba wa wasu ƙungiyoyi 'yancin yin bincike da ƙirƙira, wanda ya haifar da haɓaka ƙarfe da ci gaban fasaha.  Yayin da fa'idar yanayin ƙasa ta taimaka wajen haɓaka al'ummomin farko, kusancin da mutane da dabbobinsu ke rayuwa ya haifar da yaduwar cututtuka a cikin Eurasia.  A cikin ƙarnuka da yawa, cututtukan da suka yaɗu sun lalata yawan jama'a, amma a ƙarshe sun haifar da al'ummomin da ke fama da cututtuka.  Lu'u-lu'u ya nuna cewa waɗannan sarƙoƙi na haddasawa sun haifar da wayewar Turai da Asiya da ke da matsayi mafi girma a duniya a yau.

Diamond yana amfani da cin nasara da Mutanen Espanya suka yi wa Amurkawa a matsayin nazarin ka'idarsa.  Ya yi nuni da cewa, Turawa sun yi amfani da yanayinsu wajen gina manya da sarkakkun jihohi cike da fasahar zamani da makamai.  Incans da sauran ƙungiyoyin 'yan asalin ba su kasance masu sa'a ba, suna fama da yanayin arewa-kudu wanda ya hana kwararar kayayyaki da ilimi a fadin nahiyar.  Har ila yau, Amurka ba ta da dabbobi, karafa, da kuma tsarin rubutu na Eurasia wanda ya hana su samun nasarar soja ko kariyar halittu da ake bukata don yakar barazanar Turai..

Ka'idar Diamond ba ta tafi ba tare da zargi ba.

An kai hari musamman saboda rashin bayar da cikakkun bayanai game da musabbabin sauye-sauyen muhalli, da kuma barin gibin hankali cikin tunani.  Masanin yanayin kasa Andrew Sluyter ya yi jayayya cewa Diamond ya kasance jahilci kamar masu wariyar launin fata na karni na 19.  Sluyter ya kalubalanci ka'idar Diamond tun da alama yana nuna cewa yanayin muhalli yana haifar da zaɓin kwayoyin halitta, wanda ke haifar da wadata da iko ga wasu wayewa.  Sluyter kuma yana kai hari kan ƙayyadaddun muhalli ta hanyar la'anta shi a matsayin filin nazari sosai kuma sanannen gabaɗaya akan haɗin "sauri da ƙazanta" na Diamond na ilimin halitta da zamantakewa.

Daron Acemoglu da James A. Robinson ma sun soki aikin Diamond a cikin littafinsu Why Nations Fail.  Sun yi iƙirarin cewa ka'idar ta tsufa kuma ba za ta iya bayyana bambance-bambance a cikin ci gaban tattalin arziki ba bayan 1500 ko dalilan da ya sa jihohin da ke kusa da yanki na iya nuna bambance-bambancen arziki.  A maimakon haka sun fifita tsarin cibiyoyi wanda nasara ko gazawar al'umma ta ginu ne bisa tushen karfin cibiyoyinta[2].  Da yake rubutawa game da muhawarar hukumomi, Diamond ya yarda cewa cibiyoyi muhimmin dalili ne, amma ya bayar da hujjar cewa galibin ci gaban su yana da tasiri sosai daga yanayin kasa, kamar bayyananniyar yanayin yanki a Afirka inda kasashen arewa da kudanci ke da wadata fiye da na yankuna masu z

Yanayin ƙasa da gine-ginen Afirka kafin mulkin mallaka

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Tasirin yanayi da yalwar ƙasa akan ci gaban tsarin jihohi

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A cikin littafinsa States and Power in Africa, masanin kimiyyar siyasa Jeffrey Herbst ya yi jayayya cewa yanayin muhalli yana taimakawa wajen bayyana dalilin da ya sa, ya bambanta da sauran sassan duniya kamar Turai, yawancin al'ummomin da suka gabata a Afirka ba su bunkasa cikin al'ummomi masu yawa ba, masu zaman kansu, masu matsayi tare da iko mai karfi wanda ke gasa da jihohin makwabta don mutane da yankin.[20]

Herbst ya yi jayayya cewa kwarewar gina jihohin Turai ta kasance mai ban sha'awa sosai saboda ya faru ne a ƙarƙashin matsin lamba na ƙasa wanda ya fi son yaƙe-yaƙe na cin nasara - wato, ƙasa mai wucewa, ƙarancin ƙasa, da yawan jama'a. Da yake fuskantar barazanar yaki, 'yan siyasa sun aika da masu gudanarwa da sojoji daga cibiyoyin birane zuwa yankunan karkara don ɗaga haraji, tattara sojoji, da kuma karfafa yankuna masu kariya. Jihohin Turai saboda haka sun haɓaka cibiyoyi masu ƙarfi da alaƙar babban birnin.[21]

Sabanin haka, yanayin ƙasa da yanayin yanayi a Afirka kafin mulkin mallaka ya sanya kafa cikakken iko akan wasu yankuna da tsada sosai. Misali, saboda manoma na Afirka sun dogara da aikin gona mai ruwan sama kuma saboda haka sun saka hannun jari kadan a wasu sassan ƙasa, za su iya tserewa daga sarakuna maimakon yin yaƙi.

Wasu daular Afirka ta farko, kamar Daular Ashanti, sun sami nasarar tsara iko a kan manyan wurare ta hanyar gina hanyoyi. Manyan manufofi na mulkin mallaka sun tashi a cikin Savanna belt na Yammacin Afirka saboda dawakai da raƙuma zasu iya jigilar sojoji a kan ƙasa. A wasu yankuna, babu wata kungiya ta siyasa da ta kasance sama da matakin ƙauyen.

Ƙasashen Afirka ba su haɓaka cibiyoyi masu ɗaukar nauyi a ƙarƙashin mulkin mallaka ko bayan samun yancin kai.  Turawan mulkin mallaka ba su da wani kwarin gwiwa wajen bunkasa cibiyoyin gwamnati don kare yankunansu daga mamayewa, bayan da suka raba Afirka a taron Berlin.  A maimakon haka ‘yan mulkin mallaka sun mayar da hankali ne wajen cin gajiyar albarkatun kasa da kuma amfani da mulkin mallaka.[20]

Tasirin yanayin cututtuka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dokta Marcella Alsan ya yi jayayya da yaduwar tsetse fly ya hana farkon kafa jihar a Afirka.[22] Saboda kwayar cutar tsetse tana da kisa ga shanu da dawakai, al'ummomin da kwari ke fama da su ba za su iya dogaro da fa'idodin noma da dabbobi suka bayar ba. An hana al'ummomin Afirka adana kayan aikin gona, yin aiki a ƙasa, ko cin nama. Saboda yanayin cutar ya hana kafa al'ummomin noma, al'ummorin Afirka na farko sun yi kama da kananan kungiyoyin mafarauta da masu tarawa kuma ba jihohi masu tsakiya ba.[22]

Samun dabbobi na dabbobi ya ba al'ummomin Turai damar kafa cibiyoyin tsakiya, haɓaka fasahar ci gaba, da ƙirƙirar cibiyar aikin gona. Za su iya dogaro da dabbobinsu don rage buƙatar aikin hannu. Har ila yau, dabbobi sun rage fa'idar mallakar bayi. Al'ummomin Afirka sun dogara da amfani da abokin hamayya a matsayin aikin bawa inda kwari ya zama ruwan dare, wanda ya hana hadin gwiwar al'umma na dogon lokaci.[22]

Alsan ta yi jayayya cewa binciken da ta samu ya goyi bayan ra'ayin Kenneth Sokoloff da Stanley Engerman cewa abubuwan da suka shafi ba da gudummawa sun tsara cibiyoyin jihar.[22]

Llamas, chuño da Daular Inca

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Carl Troll ya yi jayayya cewa ci gaban Jihar Inca a tsakiyar Andes ya sami taimako daga yanayin da ke ba da damar yin bayani dalla-dalla game da abincin abinci. Chuño, wanda za'a iya adana shi na dogon lokaci, an yi shi ne da dankali da aka bushe a yanayin sanyi wanda ya zama ruwan dare a kudancin Peruvian highlands. Sabanin alaƙar da ke tsakanin jihar Inca da busassun dankali shine cewa ana iya adana wasu amfanin gona kamar masara da rana kawai.[23] Troll ya kuma yi jayayya cewa ana iya samun llamas, dabba mai kunshe na Incas, a cikin mafi yawan su a wannan yankin. Ya cancanci a yi la'akari da cewa matsakaicin girman Daular Inca ya dace da mafi girman rarraba alpacas da llamas. A matsayin aya ta uku Troll ya nuna fasahar ban ruwa kamar yadda yake da fa'ida ga ginin jihar Inca.[24] Duk da yake Troll ya yi la'akari da tasirin muhalli a Daular Inca, ya yi tsayayya da ƙaddamar da muhalli, yana jayayya cewa al'adun sun kasance a cikin asalin wayewar Inca.[24]

Tasirin yanayin ƙasa a kan gwamnatocin yan siyasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masana da yawa sun yi jayayya cewa abubuwan da ke tattare da yanayin ƙasa da muhalli suna shafar nau'ikan mulkin siyasa da al'ummomi ke tasowa, kuma suna tsara hanyoyi zuwa ga Dimokuradiyya da mulkin kama karya.

Daron Acemoglu, da Simon Johnson, da James A. Robinson sun sami shahara wajen nuna cewa cututtuka da kasa sun taimaka wajen samar da dabi'un demokradiyya da mulkin kama-karya, kuma ta hanyar wadannan ci gaban tattalin arziki da ci gaba.  A cikin littafinsu Why Nations Fail, da kuma wata takarda mai suna The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation, marubutan sun nuna cewa yanayin cutar mulkin mallaka ya tsara yadda Turawa za su daidaita yankin ko a'a, da kuma ko sun ci gaba da tsarin noma da kasuwannin aiki waɗanda ke da 'yanci da daidaito tsakanin cin zarafi da rashin daidaituwa.  Wadannan zabukan cibiyoyin siyasa da na tattalin arziki, a cewarsu, sun tsara dabi'un dimokuradiyya ko kama-karya fiye da shekaru masu zuwa

Kyaututtuka masu mahimmanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

don fahimtar tasiri da ƙirƙirar cibiyoyi a lokacin kafa jihohi na farko, masana tarihin tattalin arziki Stanley Engerman da Kenneth Sokoloff sun yi nazari kan ci gaban tattalin arzikin Amurka a lokacin mulkin mallaka.[1]  Sun gano cewa farkon nasara ko gazawar ƴan mulkin mallaka na Amurka ya ta'allaka ne akan ƙayyadaddun abubuwan ba da taimako ga kowane yanki.  Waɗannan abubuwan kyauta sun haɗa da yanayi, ribar ƙasa, yuwuwar amfanin gona, har ma da yawan jama'a na asali.  Cibiyoyin da aka kafa don cin gajiyar waɗannan abubuwan kyauta.  Waɗanda suka fi samun nasara sun haɓaka ikon canzawa da daidaitawa da sababbin yanayi na tsawon lokaci.  Misali, ci gaban cibiyoyi na tattalin arziki, irin su gonaki, ya samo asali ne sakamakon bukatar samar da dimbin dukiya da ma’aikata don girbi sukari da taba, yayin da kananan manoma suka bunkasa a wuraren da tattalin arzikin kasa ba ya nan.  Ko da yake da farko suna da riba, yankunan da ake noman noma suma sun sha wahala daga ɗimbin jama'a masu dogaro da yawa a tsawon lokaci yayin da aka ba bayi da ƴan asalin ƙasa 'yan haƙƙi, yana iyakance yawan jama'a da ke akwai don haɓaka ci gaban tattalin arziki da fasaha na gaba..[25]

Bayanan abubuwan da suka shafi sun kuma rinjayi cibiyoyin siyasa. Wannan ya nuna ta hanyar shuka da ke da ƙwararrun mutane ta amfani da ikonsu don tabbatar da cibiyoyin gwamnati na dogon lokaci da kuma aiwatar da dokoki waɗanda ke haifar da ci gaba da rashin daidaito a cikin al'umma. Engerman da Sokoloff sun sami tattalin arzikin kananan masu mallakar su zama mafi daidaito tun lokacin da suka hana wani rukuni na musamman daga kafawa, kuma suka rarraba ikon siyasa ta hanyar dimokuradiyya ga yawancin maza masu mallakar ƙasa. Wadannan bambance-bambance a cibiyoyin siyasa sun kasance masu tasiri sosai a ci gaban makarantu, yayin da al'ummomin da suka fi dacewa suka bukaci jama'a masu ilimi su yanke shawara na siyasa. A tsawon lokaci waɗannan fa'idodi na ma'aikata suna da tasiri mai yawa, kamar yadda yankuna masu ilimi da 'yanci suka fi dacewa don amfani da canjin fasaha a lokacin juyin juya halin masana'antu, suna ba da gudummawar ƙasa a cikin tattalin arzikin kasuwa mai tasowa.

Engerman da Sokoloff sun kammala cewa yayin da cibiyoyi suka yi tasiri sosai ga nasarar kowane yanki, babu wani nau'in cibiyoyi da ke zama tushen ci gaban tattalin arziki da jihohi.  Sauran sauye-sauye kamar baiwar abubuwa, fasaha, da ƙirƙirar haƙƙin mallaka suna da mahimmanci a cikin ci gaban al'umma.  Don ƙarfafa nasarar jiha dole ne wata cibiya ta zama mai daidaitawa kuma ta dace don nemo tushen ci gaban tattalin arziki mafi mahimmanci.  Marubutan sun kuma yi gardama cewa, duk da cewa ba ita kaɗai ce hanyar samun nasara ba, ci gaban hukumomi yana da dawwamammen tasiri na tattalin arziki da zamantakewa ga jihar.

Sauran fitattun malamai suna jayayya da yadda abubuwan da ke tattare da su suka ƙayyade cibiyoyin tattalin arziki da siyasa.[26][27]

Masana tattalin arziki na Amurka William Easterly da Ross Levine suna jayayya cewa ci gaban tattalin arziki ba ya dogara ne kawai da kayan aikin ƙasa - kamar yanayin yanayi, yanayin da ke tsayayya da cututtuka, ko ƙasa mai kyau ga amfanin gona. Sun jaddada cewa babu wata shaida cewa ba da gudummawar ƙasa tana rinjayar kuɗin shiga na ƙasa ban da ta hanyar cibiyoyi.[26] Sun lura cewa jihohi kamar Burundi matalauta ne - duk da yanayin muhalli mai kyau kamar ruwan sama mai yawa da ƙasa mai kyau - saboda lalacewar da mulkin mallaka ya yi. Sauran jihohi kamar Kanada tare da ƙananan kyauta sun fi kwanciyar hankali kuma suna da mafi girman kuɗin shiga ga kowane mutum.[28]

Easterly da Levine sun ci gaba da lura cewa nazarin yadda mahalli ke tasiri kai tsaye a ƙasa da aiki ya lalace ta hanyar ka'idodin wariyar launin fata na rashin ci gaba, amma wannan ba yana nufin cewa irin waɗannan ka'idojin za a iya lalata su ta atomatik. Suna jayayya cewa Diamond daidai yana jaddada muhimmancin ƙwayoyin cuta da amfanin gona a cikin dogon lokaci na ci gaban fasahar al'umma.[28] Sun gano cewa sakamakon koma baya yana tallafawa binciken Jared Diamond da David Landes cewa abubuwan da suka shafi GDP na kowane mutum. Koyaya, binciken Easterly da Levine sun fi tallafawa ra'ayin cewa cibiyoyin da ke da tsawo sun fi tsara sakamakon ci gaban tattalin arziki. Cibiyoyin da suka dace sun haɗa da haƙƙin mallaka masu zaman kansu da mulkin doka.[28]

Jeffrey B. Nugent da James A. Robinson sun kalubalanci malamai kamar Barrington Moore waɗanda ke riƙe da cewa wasu abubuwan da ke tattare da aikin noma dole ne su haifar da wasu kungiyoyin siyasa da tattalin arziki.[29] Nugent da Robinson sun nuna cewa Tattalin arzikin kofi a Kudancin Amurka ya bi hanyoyi daban-daban na ci gaban siyasa da tattalin arziki a cikin karni na sha tara.[27]

Wasu jihohin kofi, kamar Costa Rica da Colombia, sun zartar da dokoki kamar Dokar Gida ta 1862. Sun fifita masu karamin karfi, sun gudanar da zabuka, suna kiyaye kananan sojoji, kuma sun yi yakin basasa Shirye-shiryen masu karamin karfi ya sa gwamnati ta zuba jari a fannin ilimi.  Sauran jihohi kamar El Salvador da Guatemala suna samar da kofi a kan gonaki, inda mutane ba su da ikon yin amfani da su.  Ko wata jiha ta zama ƙaramar ƙasa ko shuka shuka ba ta dogara ne akan abubuwan da aka ba da kyauta ba amma bisa ƙa'idodin da aka kafa a ƙarƙashin mulkin mallaka - wato, dokokin shari'a da ke tabbatar da damar samun ƙasa, asalin jiga-jigan masu mulki, da matakin halattar gasar siyasa.

Tasirin kai tsaye na yanayin ƙasa akan ci gaban tattalin arziki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasirin ƙasa akan kasuwanci da yawan aiki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masana tarihi sun kuma lura cewa yawan jama'a da alama yana mai da hankali kan bakin tekun kuma jihohin da ke da manyan bakin teku suna cin gajiyar matsakaicin matsakaicin kudin shiga idan aka kwatanta da na kasashen da ba su da tudu.  Rayuwar bakin teku ta tabbatar da fa'ida tsawon shekaru aru-aru yayin da wayewa suka dogara ga bakin teku da hanyoyin ruwa don kasuwanci, ban ruwa, da kuma tushen abinci Sabanin haka, kasashen da ba su da bakin teku ko magudanar ruwa ba sau da yawa ba su zama birni kuma suna da karancin ci gaba saboda tafiyar hawainiyar jarin ilimi, ci gaban fasaha, da mutane.  Har ila yau, dole ne su dogara da kasuwanci mai tsada da kuma cin lokaci mai yawa, wanda yawanci yakan haifar da rashin shiga kasuwannin yankuna da na kasa da kasa, yana kara hana ci gaba.  Bugu da ƙari, wurare na ciki suna da ƙarancin ƙarancin yawan jama'a da matakan samar da aiki.  Koyaya, abubuwan da suka haɗa da ƙasa mai albarka, kogunan da ke kusa, da tsarin muhalli waɗanda suka dace da noman shinkafa ko alkama na iya ba da dama ga ɗimbin al'ummomin cikin ƙasa.[16]

Nathan Nunn dakuma Diego Puga ya lura cewa duk da cewa ƙasa mai ƙaƙƙarfan wuri yakan sa noma wahala, yana hana tafiye-tafiye, da iyakance haɓakar al'umma, ƙasashen Afirka na farko sun yi amfani da yanayi mai tsauri don amfanin su.[1]  Marubutan sun yi amfani da ma'auni na rugujewar ƙasa don ƙididdige yanayin yanayin yanayi a yankuna da dama na Afirka, yayin da suke sarrafa abubuwa masu sauyi kamar samuwar lu'u-lu'u da takin ƙasa.  Sakamakon ya nuna cewa a tarihi, rashin ƙarfi yana da alaƙa mai ƙarfi tare da raguwar matakan samun kudin shiga a duk faɗin duniya kuma ya yi mummunan tasiri ga ci gaban jihar a kan lokaci.  Sun lura cewa yanayi mai tsauri ya iyakance kwararowar hajojin kasuwanci da rage yawan amfanin gona, tare da keɓe al'umma daga haɓaka jarin ilimi.  Koyaya, binciken ya kuma nuna cewa filin yana da tasiri mai kyau ga wasu al'ummomin Afirka ta hanyar kare su daga cinikin bayi.  Al'ummomin da ke cikin wuraren da ke da tarkace na iya samun nasarar ɓoyewa daga masu cinikin bayi da kuma kare gidajensu daga lalacewa.  Binciken ya gano cewa a cikin wadannan wurare masu katsalandan yanayi sun haifar da fa'idar tattalin arziki na dogon lokaci da kuma taimakawa wajen kafa jihar bayan mulkin mallaka.[30]

Tasirin yanayi akan yawan aiki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasirin da yanayin yanayi da ruwa ke da shi a kan ci gaban tattalin arziki da GDP na kowane mutum sanannun malamai sun yi nazari ciki har da Paul Krugman, Jared Diamond, da Jeffrey Sachs. Ta hanyar amfani da masu canji don auna ƙaddamar da muhalli, kamar yanayin yanayi, abun da ke cikin ƙasa, latitude, da kasancewar cututtukan cututtuka, suna lissafa yanayin ci gaban tattalin arziki na duniya a kan ma'auni na gida, yanki da na duniya. Don yin haka, suna auna ci gaban tattalin arziki tare da GDP na kowane mutum wanda aka daidaita zuwa daidaiton ikon siye (PPP), yayin da suke la'akari da yawan jama'a da yawan ma'aikata.[16]

Masana tarihi na tattalin arziki sun gano cewa al'ummomi a Arewacin Hemisphere suna samun matsayi mafi girma na rayuwa, kuma yayin da latitude ya karu daga arewa ko kudu daga equator, matakan GDP na ainihi na kowane mutum yana karuwa.  Yanayi yana da alaƙa da haɓakar noma tunda ba tare da yanayin yanayi mai kyau ba, noma kaɗai ba zai samar da rarar da ake buƙata don ginawa da kula da tattalin arziƙin ba.  Wuraren da ke da yanayin zafi na wurare masu zafi sau da yawa suna fama da rashin ci gaba saboda ƙarancin ƙasa na haihuwa, wuce gona da iri na tsiro, yanayin yanayin muhalli da ke fifita cututtuka, da samar da ruwa mara inganci.  Wadannan abubuwan na iya haifar da yankuna masu zafi su fuskanci raguwar 30% zuwa 50% na yawan aiki dangane da yanayin yanayin zafi..[16][26] Cututtukan cututtukan da ke yaduwa a cikin yanayi mai zafi da na ruwa suna haifar da dubban mutuwar a kowace shekara. Har ila yau, suna da matsalar tattalin arziki a kan al'umma saboda tsadar kiwon lafiya, da kuma rashin son hannun jari na kasashen waje don saka hannun jari a cikin yanayin rashin lafiya. Saboda cututtukan cututtuka kamar zazzabin cizon sauro galibi suna buƙatar yanayin muhalli mai dumi don ci gaba, jihohi a tsakiyar zuwa manyan latitudes suna karewa ta halitta daga mummunar tasirin waɗannan cututtuken.[16]

Tsarin yanayi da mulkin mallaka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙididdigar yanayi, in ba haka ba ana magana da ita a matsayin paradox na equatorial, wani bangare ne na yanayin tattalin arziki.  A bisa wannan ka’ida, kusan kashi 70% na ci gaban tattalin arzikin kasa ana iya hasashen tazarar da ke tsakanin kasar da ma’adanar kasa, kuma idan aka yi nisa daga yankin equator da kasa ke da shi, gwargwadon yadda take samun ci gaba.  Ka'idar ita ce babbar hujja ta Philip M. Parker's Physioeconomics: Tushen Ci gaban Tattalin Arziki Mai Tsawon Gudu, wanda a cikinsa ya yi jayayya cewa tun da mutane sun samo asali ne a matsayin dabbobi masu shayarwa na wurare masu zafi, waɗanda suka ƙaura zuwa yanayin sanyi suna ƙoƙari su dawo da yanayin gida na physiological ta hanyar samar da dukiya.  Wannan aikin ya haɗa da samar da ƙarin abinci, mafi kyawun gidaje, dumama, tufafi masu dumi, da dai sauransu. Akasin haka, mutanen da suka kasance a cikin yanayi mai zafi sun fi jin dadin jiki kawai saboda zafin jiki, don haka ba su da sha'awar yin aiki don ƙara matakan jin dadi.  Saboda haka, bisa ga Parker GDP samfurin kai tsaye ne na ramuwa na dabi'a na mutane ga yanayin su

Masana ilimin ƙasa na siyasa sun yi amfani da akidar ƙaddamar da yanayi don ƙoƙarin hangowa da daidaita tarihin wayewa, da kuma bayyana bambancin zamantakewa da al'adu tsakanin mutane. Wasu suna jayayya cewa daya daga cikin yunkurin farko da masu ilimin ƙasa suka yi don bayyana ci gaban yanayin ƙasa na ɗan adam a duk faɗin duniya shine danganta yanayin ƙasar da ci gaban ɗan adam. Yin amfani da wannan akidar, masu ilimin ƙasa da yawa sun yi imanin cewa sun sami damar "bayyanawa da hango hasashen ci gaban al'ummomin ɗan adam". Wannan ya haifar da yankunan yanayi masu zafi da ake "ganin su a matsayin samar da mutane marasa wayewa, da yawa, da ke buƙatar ceto daga ikon mulkin mallaka na yamma".[10]

Ellsworth Huntington Har ila yau Ellsworth Huntington ya zagaya nahiyar Turai da fatan samun kyakkyawar fahimtar alakar da ke tsakanin sauyin yanayi da nasarar jihohi, inda ya buga bincikensa a cikin The Pulse of Asia, da kuma kara yin karin haske kan wayewa da yanayi. Kamar masanan siyasa, wani muhimmin sashi na aikinsa shi ne imani cewa yanayin Arewa-maso-yammacin Turai yana da kyau, inda yankunan da ke gaba da arewa suna da sanyi sosai, kuma yankunan da ke kusa da kudanci suna da zafi sosai, wanda ke haifar da malalaci, da yawan jama'a. Waɗannan ra'ayoyin sun kasance alaƙa mai ƙarfi da mulkin mallaka, kuma mai yiwuwa sun taka rawa wajen ƙirƙirar 'sauran' da kuma wallafe-wallafen da mutane da yawa suka yi amfani da su don ba da hujjar cin gajiyar ƙasashen da ba su ci gaba ba. Huntington ya kuma bayar da hujjar cewa yanayi na iya haifar da rugujewar wayewar da ta ci gaba ta hanyar fari, da karancin abinci, da kuma illa ga samar da tattalin arziki..[31]

Tsarin muhalli a cikin yawon shakatawa na dutse

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yankunan tsaye da na kwance suna da tasiri sosai a kan al'amuran zamantakewa, al'adu, da tattalin arziki na Yawon shakatawa na dutse. Tsayi yana da tasiri sosai a kan muhalli, yana canza zafin jiki, matsin lamba, da yanayin yanayi, wanda hakan ke shafar rayuwar shuka da dabba. Tsawon da mutane ke zaune yana da tasiri sosai ga bambance-bambance na zamantakewa, al'adu, da tattalin arziki, yana shafar komai daga rayuwar yau da kullun zuwa tsarin zamantakewa. Binciken farko na Apollo et al ya tabbatar da cewa halin mutanen tsaunuka game da yawon bude ido yana canzawa tare da karuwar tsawo. Wani bincike mai zurfi da yawa da aka gudanar a yankin Dutsen Everest ya tabbatar da cewa ƙaddamar da tsawo yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a dangantakar baƙi da mai masaukin baki.[32]

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Bayanan da aka ambata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 Empty citation (help)
  2. 1 2 3 Sluyter, Ander (2003). "Neo-environmental determinism, intellectual damage control, and nature/society science". Antipode. 35 (4): 813–817. Bibcode:2003Antip..35..813S. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8330.2003.00354.x.
  3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Hippocrates 1849 part 16".
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Hippocrates 1849.
  5. ↑ Conrad, Lawrence I. (1982). "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 25 (3): 268–307 [278]. doi:10.2307/3632188. JSTOR 3632188.
  6. ↑ Hannoum, Abdelmajid (February 2003). "Translation and the colonial imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn orientalist". 42. Wesleyan University: 61–81. ISSN 0018-2656. JSTOR 3590803. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ↑ Gates, Warren E. (July 1967). "The spread of Ibn Khaldun's ideas on climate and culture". Journal of the History of Ideas. 28 (3): 415–422. doi:10.2307/2708627. JSTOR 2708627.
  8. 1 2 Campbell, J. A.; Livingstone, David Noel (1983). "Neo-Lamarckism and the development of geography in the United States and Great Britain". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 8 (3): 267-294, at p. 278. doi:10.2307/622045. JSTOR 622045.
  9. ↑ (Jennifer ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  10. 1 2 Gilmartin 2009.
  11. ↑ Osborne, Michael A. (2000). "Acclimatizing the world: A history of the paradigmatic colonial science". Osiris. 15: 135–151, at pp. 138, 143. doi:10.1086/649323. ISSN 0369-7827. JSTOR 301945.
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Painter 2009, pg.177".
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  14. ↑ Painter & Jeffrey 2009.
  15. ↑ Ruse, Michael (1987). "Darwinism and determinism". Zygon (in Turanci). 22 (4): 419–442. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.1987.tb00781.x. ISSN 1467-9744.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Gallup, John Luke; Sachs, Jeffrey D.; Mellinger, Andrew D. (August 1999). "Geography and economic development" (PDF). International Regional Science Review. 22 (2): 179–232. Bibcode:1999IRSRv..22..179G. doi:10.1177/016001799761012334. ISSN 0160-0176. S2CID 11559764.
  17. ↑ Kolata, Alan L.; Ortloff, Charles (October 1989). "Thermal Analysis of Tiwanaku Raised Field Systems in the Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia". Journal of Archaeological Science. 16 (3): 233–263. Bibcode:1989JArSc..16..233K. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(89)90004-6.
  18. ↑ Huag, Gerald (March 2003). "Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization". Science. 299 (5613): 1731–1735. Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1731H. doi:10.1126/science.1080444. PMID 12637744. S2CID 128596188.
  19. ↑ deMenocal, Peter B. (December 2003). "African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene-Pleistocene". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 220 (1–2): 3–24. doi:10.1016/s0012-821x(04)00003-2.
  20. 1 2 Robinson, James (June 2002). "States and power in Africa: By Jeffrey I. Herbst: A review essay". Journal of Economic Literature. 40 (2): 510–19. doi:10.1257/002205102320161357.
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  22. 1 2 3 4 Alsan, Marcella (January 2015). "The effect of the Tsetse fly on African development". American Economic Review. 105: 382–410. doi:10.1257/aer.20130604.
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  24. 1 2 Gade, Daniel W. (1996). "Carl Troll on nature and culture in the Andes". Erdkunde (in Turanci). 50 (4): 301–316. doi:10.3112/erdkunde.1996.04.02.
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  26. 1 2 3 Easterly, William; Levine, Ross (January 2003). "Tropics, germs, and crops: How endowments influence economic development". Journal of Monetary Economics. 50: 3–39. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.628.7392. doi:10.1016/s0304-3932(02)00200-3. S2CID 24361048.
  27. 1 2 Nugent, Jeffrey B.; Robinson, James A. (March 2010). "Are factor endowments fate?". Revista de Historia Económica. 28 (1): 45–82. doi:10.1017/s0212610909990048. S2CID 53869605. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  28. 1 2 3 Easterly & Levine 2003.
  29. ↑ Nugent & Robinson 2010.
  30. ↑ Nunn, Nathan; Puga, Diego (February 2012). "Ruggedness: The blessing of bad geography in Africa" (PDF). The Review of Economics and Statistics. 94: 20–36. doi:10.1162/rest_a_00161. S2CID 16512034.
  31. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "auto1".
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