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Ƙaramin fashewar Toba

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Ƙaramin fashewar Toba
volcanic eruption (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙasa Indonesiya
Ƙasantuwa a yanayin ƙasa Lake Toba (en) Fassara
Kwanan wata 72 millennium "BCE"
Yana haddasa Lokacin hunturu na dutsen wuta
Volcanic explosivity index (en) Fassara Volcanic explosivity index 8: Supervolcanic (en) Fassara
Wuri
Map
 2°34′N 98°53′E / 2.57°N 98.88°E / 2.57; 98.88

fashewa Toba (wanda kuma ake kira Toba supereruption da Youngest Toba eruption) wani fashewar dutse ne wanda ya faru kusan shekaru 74,000 da suka gabata, a lokacin Late Pleistocene, a shafin yanar gizon Lake Toba na yanzu, a Sumatra, Indonesia. Ita ce ta ƙarshe a cikin jerin akalla fashewar caldera guda huɗu a can, caldera da aka sani a baya ya samo asali kimanin shekaru miliyan 1.2 da suka gabata. Wannan, fashewar karshe, yana da ƙididdigar fashewar dutse wuta na 8, yana mai da shi mafi girman fashewar fashewar wuta a cikin Quaternary, kuma ɗaya daga cikin manyan fashewar da aka sani a Tarihin Duniya.

Fitarwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Yanayin Tafkin Toba da aka nuna a ja a taswira

Tarihin fashewar Toba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ba a san ainihin ranar da fashewar ta faru ba, amma yanayin ajiyar toka ya nuna cewa ya faru ne a lokacin bazara na arewacin kasar saboda damina ce kawai ta iya ajiye tokar Toba a tekun Kudancin China . [1] Fashewar ta kasance mai yiwuwa kwanaki 9 zuwa 14. [2] Kwanan kwanan nan biyu na ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun argon-argon kwanan wata da fashewa zuwa 73,880 ± 320 [3] da 73,700 ± 300 shekaru da suka wuce. [4] An kunna jikin magma daban-daban guda biyar a cikin ƴan ƙarni kaɗan kafin fashewar. [5] [6] Faɗuwar ta fara ne da ƙarami da ƙayyadaddun faɗuwar iska kuma an bi ta kai tsaye da babban lokaci na kwararar wuta . [7] Lokacin ignimbrite yana da ƙananan maɓuɓɓugar ruwa, [8] amma ginshiƙan haɗin gwiwar da aka haɓaka a saman ɗigon pyroclastic ya kai tsayin 32 km (20 mi) . [9] Matsalolin man fetur akan fitar da sulfur ya haifar da fa'ida daga 1×1013 zuwa 1×1015, ya danganta da kasancewar iskar sulfur daban a cikin ɗakin magma na Toba. [10] Ƙarshen ƙarshen ƙima shine saboda ƙarancin sulfur a cikin magma. [10] Rubuce-rubucen kankara sun ƙididdige fitar da sulfur akan tsari na 1×1014

Sakamakon fashewar

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Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was at least 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi)[11]—about 2,000 cubic kilometres (480 cu mi) of ignimbrite that flowed over the ground, and approximately 800 cubic kilometres (190 cu mi) that fell as ash mostly to the west. However, as more outcrops become available, the most recent estimate of eruptive volume is 3,800 km3 (910 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent (DRE), of which 1,800 km3 (430 cu mi) was deposited as ash fall and 2,000 km3 (480 cu mi) as ignimbrite, making this eruption the largest during the Quaternary period.[12] Previous volume estimates have ranged from 2,000 km3 (480 cu mi)[13] to 6,000 km3 (1,400 cu mi).[14] Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of pyroclastic flows is over 600 m (2,000 ft).[15] The outflow sheet originally covered an area of 20,000–30,000 km2 (7,700–11,600 sq mi) with thickness nearly 100 m (330 ft), likely reaching into the Indian Ocean and the Straits of Malacca.[16] The air-fall of this eruption blanketed the Indian subcontinent in a layer of 5 cm (2.0 in) ash,[17] the Arabian Sea in 1 mm (0.039 in),[18] the South China Sea in 3.5 cm (1.4 in),[19] and Central Indian Ocean Basin in 10 cm (3.9 in).[20] Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than 38,000,000 km2 (15,000,000 sq mi) in 1 cm (0.39 in) or more thickness (~7.5% of the Earth's surface).[12] In Sub-Saharan Africa, microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of South Africa,[21] in the lowlands of northwest Ethiopia,[22] in Lake Malawi,[23] and in Lake Chala.[24] In South China, Toba tephras is found in Huguangyan Maar Lake.

Rushewar da ta biyo baya ta samar da caldera wanda ya cika da ruwa, ya haifar da Tafkin Toba. Tsibirin da ke tsakiyar tafkin an kafa shi ne ta hanyar resurgent dome.[25]

Tasirin yanayi

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Yanayi a lokacin fashewar

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Greenland Stadium 20 (GS20) wani abu ne mai sanyi na tsawon shekaru dubu a arewacin Tekun Atlantika wanda ya fara a lokacin fashewar Toba . [26] Lokacin farawar GS20 an sanya shi zuwa 74.0-74.2 kyr, kuma duk taron ya dauki kimanin shekaru 1,500.[26][27] Yana da ɓangaren filin wasa na taron Dansgaard-Oeschger 20 (DO20), wanda aka saba bayyana shi ta hanyar raguwa ba zato ba tsammani a cikin ƙarfin juyawa na Atlantic meridional (AMOC). AMOC mai rauni ya haifar da dumama a Kudancin Tekun da Antarctica, kuma wannan asynchrony an san Sai dai seesaw na bipolar.[28][29] Farawar taron sanyaya na GS20 ya dace da farkon taron dumama na Antarctic Isotope Maxima 19 (AIM19).[30] GS20 an haɗa shi da fitar da kankara a cikin Arewacin Atlantic, don haka an kuma kira shi Heinrich stadium 7a.[31] Abubuwan Heinrich sun fi tsayi, sanyi kuma suna da rauni AMOC a cikin Tekun Atlantika fiye da sauran filayen DO.[28] Daga 74 zuwa 58 kyr, Duniya ta sauya daga matakin isotope na ruwa (MIS) 5 zuwa MIS mai kankara 4, yana fuskantar sanyaya da fadada kankara.[32][33] Wannan canjin wani bangare ne na sake zagayowar interglacial-glacial na Pleistocene wanda bambance-bambance a cikin yanayin duniya suka haifar.[34] Yanayin zafi na teku ya sanyaya da 0.9 °C (1.6 °F) ° C (1.6 ° F). [35] Matsayin teku ya fadi 60 metres (200 ft) m (200 . [36] Yankin kankara na Arewacin Hemisphere ya fara fadadawa sosai kuma ya wuce girman Ƙarshen Ƙarshen A gabashin Turai, Arewa maso gabashin Asiya da Cordillera na Arewacin Amurka.[37] Kudancin Hemisphere glaciation ya girma har zuwa iyakarsa a lokacin MIS 4.[38] Australasia, Afirka da Turai sun kasance suna da yanayin sanyi da busasshiyar yanayi.[39][40][41]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Bühring, Christian; Sarnthein, Michael (2000). "Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply". Geology. 28 (11): 1056. Bibcode:2000Geo....28.1056B. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
  2. ↑ Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01). "The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool". Bulletin Volcanologique (in Turanci). 41 (3): 286–298. Bibcode:1978BVol...41..286N. doi:10.1007/BF02597228. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128626019.
  3. ↑ Storey, Michael; Roberts, Richard G.; Saidin, Mokhtar (2012-11-13). "Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 109 (46): 18684–18688. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10918684S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208178109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3503200. PMID 23112159.
  4. ↑ Channell, J.E.T.; Hodell, D.A. (2017). "High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary". Quaternary Geochronology. 42: 56–59. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002. ISSN 1871-1014.
  5. ↑ Pearce, Nicholas J.G.; Westgate, John A.; Gualda, Guilherme A.R.; Gatti, Emma; Muhammad, Ros F. (2019-10-14). "Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra". Journal of Quaternary Science. 35 (1–2): 256–271. doi:10.1002/jqs.3149. ISSN 0267-8179. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  6. ↑ Lubbers, Jordan; Kent, Adam J. R.; de Silva, Shanaka (2024-01-18). "Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 179 (2): 12. Bibcode:2024CoMP..179...12L. doi:10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7. ISSN 0010-7999.
  7. ↑ Chesner, Craig A. (2012). "The Toba Caldera Complex". Quaternary International. 258: 5–18. Bibcode:2012QuInt.258....5C. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025. ISSN 1040-6182.
  8. ↑ CHESNER, C (1998-03-01). "Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia". Journal of Petrology. 39 (3): 397–438. doi:10.1093/petrology/39.3.397. ISSN 1460-2415.
  9. ↑ Woods, Andrew W.; Wohletz, Kenneth (1991). "Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns". Nature (in Turanci). 350 (6315): 225–227. Bibcode:1991Natur.350..225W. doi:10.1038/350225a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Chesner, Craig A.; Luhr, James F. (2010-11-30). "A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (in Turanci). 197 (1–4): 259–278. Bibcode:2010JVGR..197..259C. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001.
  11. ↑ "Supersized eruptions are all the rage!". USGS. 28 April 2005.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Kutterolf, S.; Schindlbeck-Belo, J.C.; Müller, F.; Pank, K.; Lee, H.-Y.; Wang, K.-L.; Schmitt, A.K. (2023). "Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (in Turanci). 441: 107879. Bibcode:2023JVGR..44107879K. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879.
  13. ↑ Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01). "The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool". Bulletin Volcanologique (in Turanci). 41 (3): 286–298. Bibcode:1978BVol...41..286N. doi:10.1007/BF02597228. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128626019.
  14. ↑ Self, S.; Gouramanis, C.; Storey, M. (2019-12-01). "The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known?". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 2019: V51H–0141. Bibcode:2019AGUFM.V51H0141S.
  15. ↑ Chesner, Craig A.; Rose, William I. (1991-06-01). "Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia". Bulletin of Volcanology (in Turanci). 53 (5): 343–356. Bibcode:1991BVol...53..343C. doi:10.1007/BF00280226. ISSN 1432-0819.
  16. ↑ Chesner, Craig A. (2012). "The Toba Caldera Complex". Quaternary International. 258: 5–18. Bibcode:2012QuInt.258....5C. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025. ISSN 1040-6182.
  17. ↑ Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012). "The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years". Quaternary International. 258: 119–134. Bibcode:2012QuInt.258..119P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042. ISSN 1040-6182.
  18. ↑ Von Rad, Ulrich; Burgath, Klaus-Peter; Pervaz, Muhammad; Schulz, Hartmut (2002). "Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan". Geological Society, London, Special Publications (in Turanci). 195 (1): 445–461. Bibcode:2002GSLSP.195..445V. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25. ISSN 0305-8719.
  19. ↑ Bühring, Christian; Sarnthein, Michael (2000). "Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply". Geology. 28 (11): 1056. Bibcode:2000Geo....28.1056B. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
  20. ↑ Pattan, J. N; Shane, Phil; Banakar, V. K (1999-03-01). "New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin". Marine Geology. 155 (3): 243–248. Bibcode:1999MGeol.155..243P. doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1. ISSN 0025-3227.
  21. ↑ Smith, Eugene I.; Jacobs, Zenobia; Johnsen, Racheal; Ren, Minghua; Fisher, Erich C.; Oestmo, Simen; Wilkins, Jayne; Harris, Jacob A.; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Fitch, Shelby; Ciravolo, Amber; Keenan, Deborah; Cleghorn, Naomi; Lane, Christine S.; Matthews, Thalassa (2018). "Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago". Nature (in Turanci). 555 (7697): 511–515. Bibcode:2018Natur.555..511S. doi:10.1038/nature25967. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 29531318.
  22. ↑ Kappelman, John; Todd, Lawrence C.; Davis, Christopher A.; Cerling, Thure E.; Feseha, Mulugeta; Getahun, Abebe; Johnsen, Racheal; Kay, Marvin; Kocurek, Gary A.; Nachman, Brett A.; Negash, Agazi; Negash, Tewabe; O'Brien, Kaedan; Pante, Michael; Ren, Minghua (2024). "Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption". Nature (in Turanci). 628 (8007): 365–372. Bibcode:2024Natur.628..365K. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 38509364 Check |pmid= value (help).
  23. ↑ Lane, C. S.; Chorn, B. T.; Johnson, T. C. (2013). "Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (20): 8025–8029. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.8025L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1301474110. PMC 3657767. PMID 23630269.
  24. ↑ Baxter, A. J.; Verschuren, D.; Peterse, F.; Miralles, D. G.; Martin-Jones, C. M.; Maitituerdi, A.; Van der Meeren, T.; Van Daele, M.; Lane, C. S.; Haug, G. H.; Olago, D. O.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (2023). "Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa". Nature (in Turanci). 620 (7973): 336–343. Bibcode:2023Natur.620..336B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 10412447 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 37558848 Check |pmid= value (help). |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  25. ↑ "The Most Extreme Volcanic Eruption in Ancient History". 24 April 2025.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Polyak, Victor J.; Asmerom, Yemane; Lachniet, Matthew S. (2017-09-01). "Rapid speleothem δ13C change in southwestern North America coincident with Greenland stadial 20 and the Toba (Indonesia) supereruption". Geology (in Turanci). 45 (9): 843–846. Bibcode:2017Geo....45..843P. doi:10.1130/G39149.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
  27. ↑ Du, Wenjing; Cheng, Hai; Xu, Yao; Yang, Xunlin; Zhang, Pingzhong; Sha, Lijuan; Li, Hanying; Zhu, Xiaoyan; Zhang, Meiliang; Stríkis, Nicolás M.; Cruz, Francisco W.; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Zhang, Haiwei; Ning, Youfeng (2019). "Timing and structure of the weak Asian Monsoon event about 73,000 years ago". Quaternary Geochronology. 53: 101003. Bibcode:2019QuGeo..5301003D. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.05.002. ISSN 1871-1014.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Menviel, Laurie C.; Skinner, Luke C.; Tarasov, Lev; Tzedakis, Polychronis C. (2020). "An ice–climate oscillatory framework for Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (in Turanci). 1 (12): 677–693. Bibcode:2020NRvEE...1..677M. doi:10.1038/s43017-020-00106-y. ISSN 2662-138X.
  29. ↑ Anderson, H. J.; Pedro, J. B.; Bostock, H. C.; Chase, Z.; Noble, T. L. (2021-03-01). "Compiled Southern Ocean sea surface temperatures correlate with Antarctic Isotope Maxima". Quaternary Science Reviews. 255: 106821. Bibcode:2021QSRv..25506821A. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106821. ISSN 0277-3791.
  30. ↑ Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K.; Johnsen, S. J.; Kawamura, K.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Kohno, M.; Parrenin, F.; Popp, T.; Rasmussen, S. O. (2013-03-19). "Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)". Climate of the Past (in English). 9 (2): 749–766. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9..749S. doi:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013. ISSN 1814-9324. S2CID 17741316. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  31. ↑ Davtian, Nina; Bard, Edouard (2023-03-13). "A new view on abrupt climate changes and the bipolar seesaw based on paleotemperatures from Iberian Margin sediments". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120 (12): e2209558120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12009558D. doi:10.1073/pnas.2209558120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 10041096 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36913575 Check |pmid= value (help).
  32. ↑ Menking, James A.; Shackleton, Sarah A.; Bauska, Thomas K.; Buffen, Aron M.; Brook, Edward J.; Barker, Stephen; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V. (2022-09-16). "Multiple carbon cycle mechanisms associated with the glaciation of Marine Isotope Stage 4". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 13 (1): 5443. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5443M. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33166-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 9481522 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36114188 Check |pmid= value (help).
  33. ↑ Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Peltier, Carly; Barker, Stephen (2021). "A maximum in global glacier extent during MIS 4". Quaternary Science Reviews. 261: 106948. Bibcode:2021QSRv..26106948D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106948. ISSN 0277-3791.
  34. ↑ Hays, J. D.; Imbrie, John; Shackleton, N. J. (1976-12-10). "Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages: For 500,000 years, major climatic changes have followed variations in obliquity and precession". Science (in Turanci). 194 (4270): 1121–1132. doi:10.1126/science.194.4270.1121. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17790893.
  35. ↑ Shackleton, Sarah; Menking, James A.; Brook, Edward; Buizert, Christo; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V.; Baggenstos, Daniel; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P. (2021-10-27). "Evolution of mean ocean temperature in Marine Isotope Stage 4". Climate of the Past (in English). 17 (5): 2273–2289. Bibcode:2021CliPa..17.2273S. doi:10.5194/cp-17-2273-2021. ISSN 1814-9324.CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  36. ↑ Cutler, K.B; Edwards, R.L; Taylor, F.W; Cheng, H; Adkins, J; Gallup, C.D; Cutler, P.M; Burr, G.S; Bloom, A.L (2003). "Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 206 (3–4): 253–271. Bibcode:2003E&PSL.206..253C. doi:10.1016/s0012-821x(02)01107-x. ISSN 0012-821X.
  37. ↑ Batchelor, Christine L.; Margold, Martin; Krapp, Mario; Murton, Della K.; Dalton, April S.; Gibbard, Philip L.; Stokes, Chris R.; Murton, Julian B.; Manica, Andrea (2019-08-16). "The configuration of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets through the Quaternary". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 10 (1): 3713. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.3713B. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6697730. PMID 31420542.
  38. ↑ Schaefer, Joerg M.; Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Birkel, Sean; Doughty, Alice M.; Kelley, Sam; Barrell, David J.A.; Finkel, Robert C.; Winckler, Gisela; Anderson, Robert F.; Ninneman, Ulysses S.; Barker, Stephen; Schwartz, Roseanne; Andersen, Bjorn G. (2015). "The Southern Glacial Maximum 65,000 years ago and its Unfinished Termination". Quaternary Science Reviews (in Turanci). 114: 52–60. Bibcode:2015QSRv..114...52S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.009.
  39. ↑ Stewart, John R.; Fenberg, Phillip B. (2018-05-01). "A climatic context for the out-of-Africa migration: COMMENT". Geology. 46 (5): e442. Bibcode:2018Geo....46E.442S. doi:10.1130/g40057c.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
  40. ↑ Helmens, Karin F. (2014). "The Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle (MIS 5–2) re-examined based on long proxy records from central and northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews. 86: 115–143. Bibcode:2014QSRv...86..115H. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.12.012. ISSN 0277-3791.
  41. ↑ De Deckker, Patrick; Arnold, Lee J.; van der Kaars, Sander; Bayon, Germain; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Perner, Kerstin; Lopes dos Santos, Raquel; Uemura, Ryu; Demuro, Martina (2019). "Marine Isotope Stage 4 in Australasia: A full glacial culminating 65,000 years ago – Global connections and implications for human dispersal". Quaternary Science Reviews. 204: 187–207. Bibcode:2019QSRv..204..187D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.017. ISSN 0277-3791. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
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