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Afirka ta farko

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Afirka ta farko
aspect of history (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Prehistory
Zangon lokaci Prehistory

Tarihin farko na Afirka ya taso ne tun daga farkon kasancewar ɗan adam a Afirka har zuwa zamanin da a tarihin Afirka .

Paleolithic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙananan Paleolithic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Sake gina " Lucy "

Na farko da aka sani hominids sun samo asali ne a Afirka. A cewar ilmin burbushin halittu, farkon hominids 'skull anatomy ya kasance kama da na gorilla da chimpanzee, manyan birai waɗanda kuma suka samo asali a Afirka, amma hominids sun karbi locomotion na bipedal wanda ya 'yantar da hannayensu. Wannan ya ba su muhimmiyar fa'ida, wanda ya ba su damar zama a cikin gandun daji biyu da kuma a kan buɗaɗɗen savanna a lokacin da Afirka ke bushewa kuma savanna ke mamaye wuraren dazuzzuka.

A shekaru miliyan 4 da suka gabata, nau'in australopithecine hominid da yawa sun haɓaka a cikin Kudancin, Gabas da Tsakiyar Afirka . Sun kasance masu amfani da kayan aiki, kuma masu yin kayan aiki. Sun ɓata nama kuma sun kasance 'yan omnivores. Samfuri:Sfnp

A kusan shekaru miliyan 3.3 da suka gabata, an fara amfani da kayan aikin dutse na farko don ɓata kisa da wasu mafarauta suka yi da kuma girbi gawa da bargo daga ƙasusuwansu. A cikin farauta, Homo habilis mai yiwuwa ba zai iya yin takara da manyan mafarauta ba kuma har yanzu ya fi farauta farauta. Wataƙila H. habilis ya saci ƙwai a cikin gida kuma yana iya kama ƙananan farauta kuma ya raunana babban ganima ('ya'ya da tsofaffin dabbobi). An rarraba kayan aikin a matsayin Oldowan . Samfuri:Sfnp

Kusan shekaru miliyan 1.8 da suka gabata, Homo ergaster ya fara bayyana a tarihin burbushin halittu a Afirka. Daga Homo ergaster, Homo erectus ya samo asali ne shekaru miliyan 1.5 da suka wuce. Wasu daga cikin wakilan farko na wannan nau'in har yanzu suna da ƙananan ƙananan kwakwalwa kuma sun yi amfani da kayan aikin dutse na farko, kamar H. habilis . Daga baya kwakwalwar ta kara girma, kuma H. erectus a karshe ya kirkiro fasahar kayan aikin dutse mai sarkakiya mai suna Acheulean . Wataƙila mafarauta na farko, H. erectus ya ƙware fasahar yin wuta kuma shi ne hominid na farko da ya bar Afirka, ya mallaki mafi yawan Afro-Eurasia kuma wataƙila daga baya ya haifar da Homo floresiensis . Ko da yake wasu marubuta na baya-bayan nan sun yi nuni da cewa Homo georgicus shine homini na farko kuma na farko da ya taɓa rayuwa a wajen Afirka, masana kimiyya da yawa suna ɗaukar H. Georgicus a matsayin farkon memba na H. erectus . Samfuri:Sfnmp

Tsakiyar Paleolithic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Abubuwan al'adun gargajiya na Afirka (maganin mashi) wanda aka yi kwanan watan a zamanin ƙarshen Dutse

Bayanan burbushin sun nuna Homo sapiens (wanda aka fi sani da "mutane na zamani" ko "mutane na zamani") suna zaune a Afirka kimanin shekaru 350,000-260,000 da suka wuce. Sanannen burbushin Homo sapiens na farko sun haɗa da ragowar Jebel Irhoud daga Maroko ( c. 315,000 years ago ), [1] Ƙwanyar Florisbad daga Afirka ta Kudu ( c. 259,000 years ago ), kuma Omo ya kasance daga Habasha ( c. 233,000 years ago ). [2] [3] [4] [5] Masana kimiya sun ce mai yiwuwa Homo sapiens ya taso tsakanin shekaru 350,000 zuwa 260,000 da suka wuce ta hanyar hadewar al'umma a Gabashin Afrika da Afirka ta Kudu . [6]

Shaida iri-iri iri-iri masu nuni ga zamanin zamani na Halayyar zuwa Zamanin Dutsen Tsakiyar Afirka, wanda ke da alaƙa da farkon Homo sapiens da fitowar su. Hotunan da ba za a iya gani ba, da faɗaɗa dabarun rayuwa, da sauran halaye na “zamani” an gano su tun daga wancan lokacin a Afirka, musamman Kudu, Arewa, da Gabashin Afirka. Wurin kogon Blombos a Afirka ta Kudu, alal misali, ya shahara da shingen ocher mai kusurwa huɗu da aka zana tare da zane-zane na geometric . Yin amfani da dabarun saduwa da yawa, an tabbatar da shafin yana kusa da 77,000 da 100-75,000 shekaru. [7] [8] An samu kwantena harsashi kwai na jimina da aka zana tare da zane-zane na geometric tun shekaru 60,000 da suka gabata a Diepkloof, Afirka ta Kudu. [9] An samo beads da sauran kayan ado na mutum daga Maroko wanda zai iya kai shekaru 130,000; haka kuma, Kogon Hearths a Afirka ta Kudu ya samar da adadin beads masu yawa tun kafin shekaru 50,000 da suka gabata, [10] kuma an sami beads ɗin harsashi waɗanda ke kusan shekaru 75,000 da suka gabata a kogon Blombos, Afirka ta Kudu. [11] [12] [13]

An kuma samo makamai masu linzami na musamman a wurare daban-daban a Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Afirka, ciki har da kasusuwa da kiban dutse a wuraren Afirka ta Kudu irin su Sibudu Cave (tare da allurar kashi na farko da aka samu a Sibudu) wanda ya kasance kimanin shekaru 60,000-70,000 da suka wuce, [14] [15] [16] [17] [5] [18] shekaru 90,000 da suka gabata. [19] Shaida kuma ta wanzu don tsarin zafin jiki na siliki don haɓaka ƙarfin sa don manufar yin kayan aiki, wanda ya fara kusan shekaru 164,000 da suka gabata a rukunin Pinnacle na Afirka ta Kudu kuma ya zama ruwan dare a can don ƙirƙirar kayan aikin microlithic a kusan shekaru 72,000 da suka gabata. [20] Makamai na farko da aka yi da dutse (wani kayan aiki na Homo sapiens ), tukwici na dutse ko jifar mashi, an gano su a cikin 2013 a wurin Gademotta na Habasha, kuma kwanan nan ya kasance kusan shekaru 279,000 da suka gabata. [21]

Wataƙila Homo naledi ya kasance tare da mutanen zamani a Afirka kimanin shekaru 300,000 da suka wuce.

A cikin 2008, an gano wani bitar sarrafa ocher mai yuwuwar samar da fenti wanda ya kasance har zuwa ca. Shekaru 100,000 da suka gabata a Blombos Cave, Afirka ta Kudu. Bincike ya nuna cewa an samar da wani gauraya mai wadataccen launi kuma an adana shi a cikin bawoyin abalone guda biyu, kuma cewa ocher, kashi, gawayi, niƙa da duwatsun guduma suma sun zama wani ɓangaren kayan aikin. Shaida ga rikitarwar aikin sun haɗa da sayo da haɗa albarkatun ƙasa daga maɓuɓɓuka daban-daban (yana nufin suna da samfurin tunani na tsarin da za su bi), mai yiwuwa ta yin amfani da fasahar pyrotechnology don sauƙaƙe cire kitse daga kashi, ta yin amfani da girke-girke mai yuwuwa don samar da fili, da yin amfani da kwantena harsashi don haɗawa da adanawa don amfani daga baya. [22] Halayen zamani, kamar yin ƙullun harsashi, kayan aikin ƙashi da kibau, da kuma yin amfani da launi na ocher, sun bayyana a wani wurin Kenya shekaru 78,000-67,000 da suka wuce. [23]

Fadada dabarun rayuwa fiye da farautar babban wasa da kuma bambance-bambancen da ke haifar da nau'ikan kayan aiki an lura da su azaman alamun zamani na ɗabi'a. Shafukan da yawa na Afirka ta Kudu sun nuna dogaro da farko kan albarkatun ruwa tun daga kifaye zuwa kifi. Pinnacle Point, musamman, yana nuna yadda ake amfani da albarkatun ruwa a farkon shekaru 120,000 da suka wuce, watakila don mayar da martani ga mafi yawan yanayi na cikin gida. [24] Ƙaddamar da dogara ga ma'ajiyar kifin da ake iya faɗi, alal misali, na iya rage motsi da sauƙaƙe tsarin zamantakewar al'umma da halayen alama. Kogon Blombos da Site 440 a Sudan duka suna nuna shaidar kamun kifi. Canjin taphonomic a cikin kwarangwal na kifi daga kogon Blombos an fassara shi azaman kama kifin mai rai, a sarari halin ɗan adam na niyya. [10] An san mutane a Arewacin Afirka ( Nazlet Sabaha, [25] Masar ) suna yin aikin haƙar ma'adinai, tun shekaru ≈100,000 da suka wuce, don gina kayan aikin dutse . [26]

Nasarar fadada Homo erectus (rawaya), Homo neanderthalensis (ochre) da Homo sapiens (ja).

An samo shaida a cikin 2018, game da kimanin shekaru 320,000 da suka wuce, a gidan Kenya na Olorgesailie, na farkon fitowar dabi'un zamani da suka hada da: hanyoyin sadarwar kasuwanci na nisa (wanda ya hada da kayayyaki irin su obsidian), amfani da pigments, da kuma yuwuwar yin abubuwan da ake iya gani. Mawallafa na bincike guda uku na 2018 a kan shafin sun lura cewa, shaidar waɗannan halayen sun kasance kusan zamani zuwa farkon sanannen burbushin Homo sapiens daga Afirka (kamar Jebel Irhoud da Florisbad), kuma suna nuna cewa halaye masu rikitarwa da na zamani sun fara a Afirka a kusa da lokacin bayyanar Homo sapiens . [27] A cikin 2019, an sami ƙarin shaidar farkon hadaddun makamai masu linzami a Afirka a Adouma, Habasha mai kwanan wata shekaru 80,000-100,000 da suka gabata, a cikin nau'ikan maki da ake ganin cewa na iya zama na darts da masu jefa mashi ke bayarwa. [28]

Babban Paleolithic

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Kimanin shekaru 65-50,000 da suka gabata, yaduwar nau'in nau'in daga Afirka ya kaddamar da mulkin mallaka na duniya ta hanyar 'yan adam na zamani. [29] [30] [31] [32] A shekara ta 10,000 BC, Homo sapiens ya bazu zuwa mafi yawan kusurwoyin Afro-Eurasia . Ana gano tarwatsa su ta hanyar ilimin harshe, al'adu da shaidar kwayoyin halitta . Samfuri:Sfnp [33] Eurasian baya-hijira, musamman West-Eurasian backflow, ya fara a farkon Holocene ko riga a baya a cikin Paleolithic lokaci, wani lokacin tsakanin 30-15,000 shekaru da suka wuce, bi pre-Neolithic da Neolithic ƙaura taguwar ruwa daga Gabas ta Tsakiya, mafi yawa shafi Arewacin Afrika, kahon Afirka, da kuma fadi da yankuna na yankin Sahel. [34]

Pre-Neolithic da Neolithic abubuwan ƙaura a Afirka. [34]

Affad 23 wani wurin binciken kayan tarihi ne dake yankin Affad na kudancin Dongola Reach a arewacin Sudan, [35] wanda ke dauke da "gaske gabobin sansanonin tarihi na tarihi (kayan tarihi na tsohuwar bukkar buda a duniya) da farauta da tarawa daban-daban na kimanin shekaru 50,000". [36]

Tabbacin farko na zahiri na aikin falaki na iya zama kalandar wata da aka samu akan kashin Ishango wanda aka yi kwanan watan tsakanin 23,000 zuwa 18,000 BC daga cikin Jamhuriyar Dimokuradiyyar Kwango a yanzu. Duk da haka, an yi sabani da wannan fassarar manufar abin. [37]

Masana sun yi iƙirarin cewa yaƙi ya kasance ba a cikin mafi yawan tarihin ɗan adam na baya [38] nan , kuma ya fito ne daga tsarin siyasa masu sarƙaƙƙiya sakamakon rashin zaman lafiya, noma, da sauransu. Rikicin tsakanin mutane yana da dogon tarihi. [39]

Bullowar noma da kwararowar hamadar Sahara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tsire-tsire da gawar ruwa a farkon Holocene (saman), tsakanin kimanin shekaru 12,000 zuwa 7,000 da suka wuce, da Eemiyan (kasa)

Kusan 16,000 BC, daga tsaunin Bahar Maliya zuwa arewacin tsaunukan Habasha, ana tattara goro, ciyawa da tubers don abinci. Daga 13,000 zuwa 11,000 BC, mutane sun fara tattara hatsin daji. Wannan ya yadu zuwa Yammacin Asiya, wanda ke kula da hatsin daji, alkama da sha'ir . Tsakanin 10,000 zuwa 8000 BC, arewa maso gabashin Afirka na noman alkama da sha'ir da kiwon tumaki da shanu daga kudu maso yammacin Asiya. Wani yanayin damina a Afirka ya mayar da tsaunukan Habasha zuwa dajin tsaunuka. Masu magana da omotic sun kasance cikin gida a cikin 6500-5500 BC. Kusan 7000 BC, mazaunan tsaunukan Habasha sun yi gida jakuna, kuma a shekara ta 4000 BC jakunan gida sun bazu zuwa kudu maso yammacin Asiya. Masu magana da harshen Cushitic, wani ɓangare suna juya baya daga kiwo, na gida da kuma gero yatsa tsakanin 5500 zuwa 3500 BC. Samfuri:Sfnmp

A cikin karni na 11 na BP, an ƙirƙira tukwane da kansa a Afirka, tare da tukwane na farko a can tun kusan 9,400 BC daga tsakiyar Mali. [40] Nan da nan ya bazu ko'ina cikin Kudancin Sahara da Sahel . [41] A cikin tsaunuka da savannas na Sahara da Sahel a Arewacin Yammacin Afirka, masu magana da Nilo-Saharan da mutanen Mandé sun fara tattarawa da yin gida da gero, shinkafar Afirka da dawa tsakanin 8000 zuwa 6000 BC. Daga baya kuma, an tattara gours, kankana, wake, da auduga suma an tattara su a cikin gida. Mutanen sun fara kama shanun daji suna rike da su a shingen ƙaya, wanda ya haifar da zaman gida . Samfuri:Sfnp Sun kuma fara yin tukwane da gina ƙauyuka na dutse (misali, Tichitt, Oualata ). Kamun kifi, ta yin amfani da harpoons mai kashin kashi, ya zama babban aiki a cikin koguna da tafkuna masu yawa da aka samu daga yawan ruwan sama. [42] An yaba wa al'ummar Mande da ci gaban aikin noma mai zaman kansa kimanin 4000-3000 BC. [43]

A yammacin Afirka, yanayin damfara ya haifar da faɗaɗa dazuzzukan dazuzzuka da daji daga Senegal zuwa Kamaru . Tsakanin 9000 zuwa 5000 BC, masu magana da Niger-Congo sun mallaki dabino mai da raffia . Tsire-tsire iri biyu, peas mai baƙar fata da voandzeia ( gyada na Afirka), an yi amfani da su cikin gida, sannan da okra da kola goro . Tun da yawancin tsire-tsire suna girma a cikin dazuzzuka, masu magana da Nijar da Kongo sun ƙirƙira gatari da aka goge don share dazuzzuka. Samfuri:Sfnp

Yawancin Kudancin Afirka al'umman pygmy ne da Khoisan waɗanda suka tsunduma cikin farauta da tarawa sun mamaye su. Wasu daga cikin tsoffin fasahar dutsen su ne suka samar da su. Samfuri:Sfnp

Tsawon shekaru dubu dari da dama Sahara ta yi mubaya’a tsakanin hamada da ciyayi na savanna a cikin zagayowar shekara 41,000 sakamakon sauye-sauye (“ gabatarwa ”) a cikin axis na duniya yayin da take zagaye da Rana wanda ya canza wurin damina ta Arewacin Afirka . Lokacin da damina ta Arewacin Afirka ta kasance mafi ƙarfi da hazo na shekara-shekara da kuma ciyayi na gaba a yankin Sahara suna ƙaruwa, wanda ke haifar da yanayin da aka fi sani da " Sahara kore ". Ga damina mai rauni na Arewacin Afirka, akasin haka, gaskiya ne, tare da raguwar hazo na shekara-shekara da ƙarancin ciyayi wanda ya haifar da wani lokaci na yanayin yanayin Sahara wanda aka fi sani da "Sahara hamada". Sahara ta kasance hamada tsawon shekaru dubu da dama, kuma ana sa ran za ta sake zama kore a kusan shekaru 15,000 (17,000 AD). [2]

Kafin hamadar Sahara, al'ummomin da suka ci gaba a kudancin Masar, a cikin ƙasar Sudan, sun kasance cikakkun mahalarta a juyin juya halin Neolithic kuma sun yi rayuwa mai ma'ana ga rayuwar makiyaya, tare da tsire-tsire da dabbobi. [44] An ba da shawarar cewa megaliths da aka samu a Nabta Playa misalai ne na sanannun na'urori na archaeoastronomical na farko a duniya, waɗanda suka riga Stonehenge kusan shekaru 1,000. [45] Rikicin al'adun zamantakewar da aka lura a Nabta Playa kuma an bayyana ta matakai daban-daban na iko a cikin al'umma an ba da shawarar a matsayin tushen tsarin tsarin al'ummar Neolithic a Nabta da Tsohon Masarautar Masar . [46] A shekara ta 5000 BC, Afirka ta shiga yanayin bushewa, kuma yanayin yankin Sahara a hankali ya zama bushewa. Jama'a sun yi tattaki daga yankin Sahara ta kowane bangare, gami da zuwa kwarin Nilu da ke kasa da Cataract na biyu, inda suka yi matsuguni na dindindin ko na dindindin. Wani babban koma bayan yanayi ya faru, wanda ya rage yawan ruwan sama da ake ta fama da shi a Tsakiya da Gabashin Afirka.

Karfe

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Shugaban ma'aikatan tagulla na ƙarni na 9 a cikin nau'in maciji na naɗe, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria

Shaida na fara narkewar karafa – gubar, da tagulla, da tagulla – kwanakin daga karni na huɗu BC. Samfuri:Sfnp

Masarawa sun narkar da tagulla a lokacin predynastic, kuma tagulla ya fara aiki bayan 3,000 BC a ƙarshe Samfuri:Sfnp a Masar da Nubia . Nubia ya zama babban tushen jan karfe da zinariya . [47] Yin amfani da zinare da azurfa a Masar ya samo asali ne tun lokacin da aka kayyade. Samfuri:Sfnp Samfuri:Sfnp

A cikin tsaunin Aïr na Nijar a yau mutane sun narkar da tagulla ba tare da abubuwan da ke faruwa a kwarin Nilu tsakanin 3,000 zuwa 2,500 BC ba. Sun yi amfani da wani tsari na musamman na yankin, wanda ke nuna cewa ba a kawo fasahar daga waje ba; ya zama mafi girma da kusan 1,500 BC. Samfuri:Sfnp

A karni na farko BC aikin ƙarfe ya kai Arewa maso yammacin Afirka, Masar, da Nubia. Zangato da Holl sun rubuta bayanan da ke nuna cewa an yi wa ƙarfe ƙarfe a Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya da Kamaru wanda zai iya kasancewa tun daga 3,000 zuwa 2,500 BC. [48] Assuriyawa masu amfani da makaman ƙarfe sun kori Nubians daga Masar a shekara ta 670 BC, bayan haka amfani da ƙarfe ya zama ruwan dare a cikin kwarin Nilu.

Ka'idar cewa baƙin ƙarfe ya bazu zuwa yankin Saharar Afirka ta hanyar birnin Nubian na Meroe [49] ba a yarda da shi ba, kuma wasu masu bincikeSamfuri:Which sun yi imani da cewa mutanen Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara sun kirkiro karfen karfe da kansu. An tsara aikin ƙarfe a yammacin Afirka tun daga shekara ta 2,500 BC a Egaro yammacin Termit a Nijar, kuma an yi aikin ƙarfe a can a 1,500 BC. An dade ana narkar da ƙarfe zuwa 2,000 BC a kudu maso gabashin Najeriya . [50] Afirka ta Tsakiya ta ba da yuwuwar shaidar ƙarfe yana aiki tun farkon ƙarni na 3 BC. [51] An samu narkewar ƙarfe a yankin da ke tsakanin tafkin Chadi da manyan tafkunan Afirka tsakanin 1,000 zuwa 600 BC, kuma a yammacin Afirka kusan 2,000 BC, da daɗewa kafin fasahar ta isa Masar. Kafin 500 BC, al'adun Nok a Jos Plateau sun riga sun narke ƙarfe. Samfuri:Sfnp [52] [53] [54]Samfuri:Request quotation[ ] ] tono wuraren binciken kayan tarihi da ke ɗauke da tanderun da ake narkewa da ƙarfe a wuraren da ke yankin Nsukka na kudu maso gabashin Najeriya a cikin ƙasar Igbo : tun daga 2,000 BC a wurin Lejja (Eze - Uzomaka 2009) [50] [55] 2009). [55] Har ila yau, wurin Gbabiri (a Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya) ya ba da shaida na karafa na ƙarfe, daga rage tanderun da aka yi da maƙera; tare da farkon kwanakin 896-773 BC da 907-796 BC bi da bi. [56]

Nassoshi

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  1. ↑ Callaway, Ewan (7 June 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
  2. ↑ Stringer, C. (2016). "The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 371 (1698): 20150237. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0237. PMC 4920294. PMID 27298468.
  3. ↑ Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed; Bailey, Shara E.; Freidline, Sarah E.; Neubauer, Simon; Skinner, Matthew M.; Bergmann, Inga; Le Cabec, Adeline; Benazzi, Stefano; Harvati, Katerina; Gunz, Philipp (2017). "New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens" (PDF). Nature. 546 (7657): 289–292. Bibcode:2017Natur.546..289H. doi:10.1038/nature22336. PMID 28593953. S2CID 256771372 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  4. ↑ Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Thomas, Mark G.; Manica, Andrea; Gunz, Philipp; Stock, Jay T.; Stringer, Chris; Grove, Matt; Groucutt, Huw S.; Timmermann, Axel; Rightmire, G. Philip; d'Errico, Francesco (1 August 2018). "Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 33 (8): 582–594. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005. ISSN 0169-5347. PMC 6092560. PMID 30007846.
  5. ↑ Vidal, Celine M.; Lane, Christine S.; Asfawrossen, Asrat; et al. (January 2022). "Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa". Nature. 601 (7894): 579–583. Bibcode:2022Natur.601..579V. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04275-8. PMC 8791829 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 35022610 Check |pmid= value (help).
  6. ↑ Mounier, Aurélien; Lahr, Marta (2019). "Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 3406. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.3406M. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w. PMC 6736881. PMID 31506422.
  7. ↑ Henshilwood, Christopher; et al. (2002). "Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa". Science. 295 (5558): 1278–1280. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1278H. doi:10.1126/science.1067575. PMID 11786608. S2CID 31169551.
  8. ↑ Henshilwood, Christopher S.; d'Errico, Francesco; Watts, Ian (2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 57 (1): 27–47. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005. PMID 19487016.
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