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Al'umma

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Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Al'umma
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare nagroup-like thing (en) Fassara da society (en) Fassara
Bangare naɗan adamtaka
Significant person (en) FassaraNiklas Luhmann (mul) Fassara
Karatun takimiyar al'umma, Kimiyyar zamantakewa, Ilimin ɗan adam, social philosophy (en) Fassara da anarchist anthropology (mul) Fassara

'Al’umma (society) rukuni ne na mutane waɗanda suke gudanar da mu’amala da juna a kai a kai, ko kuma babban rukuni na zamantakewa da ke rayuwa a yanki guda na ƙasa ko na zamantakewa, kuma galibi suna ƙarƙashin ikon siyasa guda da kuma manyan ƙa’idojin al’adu iri ɗaya.

Ana bambanta al’umma da tsarin alaƙoƙi (social relations) tsakanin mutane waɗanda suke da al’adu (culture) da cibiyoyin zamantakewa (institutions) na musamman. Saboda haka, ana iya bayyana wata al’umma a matsayin jim.illar dukkan alaƙoƙin zamantakewa da ke tsakanin mambobinta..

Tsarin zamantakewa ɗan adam yana da rikitarwa kuma yana da hadin kai sosai, yana nuna ƙwarewar aiki ta hanyar Matsayi na zamantakewa. Al'ummomi suna gina matsayi da sauran alamu na halayyar ta hanyar la'akari da wasu ayyuka ko ra'ayoyin da aka yarda da su ko ba a yarda da su ba - waɗannan tsammanin game da halayyar a cikin al'umma an san su da ka'idojin al'umma. Har zuwa lokacin da yake hadin gwiwa, al'umma na iya ba membobinta damar amfana ta hanyoyin da in ba haka ba za su kasance da wahala a kan mutum.

Al'ummomi sun bambanta bisa ga matakin fasaha da nau'in ayyukan tattalin arziki. Manyan al'ummomi tare da manyan kayan abinci galibi suna nuna tsarin rarrabuwa ko rinjaye. Al'ummomi na iya samun nau'o'i daban-daban na gwamnati, hanyoyi daban-daban don fahimtar zumunci, da matsayi daban-daban tsakanin jinsi. Halin ɗan adam ya bambanta sosai tsakanin al'ummomi daban-daban; mutane suna tsara al'umma, amma al'umma tana tsara mutane.

Magana da amfani

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Kalmar "al'umma" galibi tana nufin babban rukuni na mutane da ke zaune a cikin al'umma mai tsari a cikin ƙasa ko a fadin kasashe masu kama da juna, ko kuma "yanayin kasancewa tare da wasu mutane," kamar yadda a cikin kalmar "sun rayu a cikin al-umma ta zamani".[1]

The term dates back to at least 1513 and originates from the 12th-century French societe (modern French société), meaning "company."[2] The French term was derived from the Latin word societas ("fellowship," "alliance," or "association"), which itself comes from the noun socius ("comrade," friend, or ally).[2]

Kalmar "social" ta samo asali ne daga kalmar Latin socii ('abokan hulɗa'). An samo shi musamman daga jihohin Italiyanci na Socii, abokan tarihi na Jamhuriyar Roma, kodayake sun yi tawaye da Roma a cikin Yakin Jama'a na 91-87 BC.[3]

Ra'ayoyi

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KiA cikin ilmin halitta

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Mutane, tare da danginsu na kusa da Bonobos da chimpanzees, dabbobi ne masu yawan jama'a. Wannan mahallin halittu yana nuna cewa tushen zamantakewar da ake buƙata don kafa al'ummomi yana da wuya a cikin yanayin ɗan adam.[4] Al'ummar bil'adama suna da manyan digiri na hadin kai, kuma sun bambanta da muhimman hanyoyi daga kungiyoyin chimpanes da bonobos, gami da rawar iyaye na maza, [5] [6] amfani da harshe don sadarwa, [4] ƙwarewar aiki, [7] da kuma halin gina "nuts" (kayan zuhudu, gari, ko birane).[8]

Wasu masana kimiyyar halittu, ciki har da masanin ilimin halittu E.O. Wilson, sun rarraba mutane a matsayin masu zaman kansu, suna sanya mutane tare da tururuwa a matakin mafi girma na zamantakewa a kan bakan da ke cikin ilimin dabba, kodayake wasu ba su yarda ba. Rayuwar rukuni na zamantakewa na iya samo asali ne a cikin mutane saboda Zaɓin rukuni a cikin mahalli na zahiri wanda ya sa rayuwa ta zama da wahala.[9]

A cikin ilimin zamantakewa

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A cikin ilimin zamantakewa na Yamma, akwai manyan ka'idoji guda uku don fahimtar al'umma: aiki (wanda aka fi sani da tsarin aiki), ka'idar rikice-rikice, da Ma'amala ta alama.[10]

A ra'ayin Karl Marx, [11] 'yan adam a zahiri ne, dole ne kuma ta hanyar ma'anar halittu na zamantakewa waɗanda, bayan kasancewa " halittu masu haɗuwa", ba za su iya rayuwa ba kuma su biya bukatunsu ba sai ta hanyar hadin gwiwar zamantakewa da haɗin kai. Saboda haka, halayensu na zamantakewa sun kasance ainihin gaskiyar da aka ba su, an buga su tun daga haihuwa kuma an tabbatar da su ta hanyar hanyoyin zamantakewa; kuma, a cewar Marx, a cikin samarwa da sake haihuwar rayuwarsu ta zahiri, dole ne mutane su shiga cikin dangantakar samarwa wanda "ba tare da son rai ba".

Sabanin haka, masanin ilimin zamantakewa Max Weber [12] misali ya bayyana aikin ɗan adam a matsayin "social" idan, ta hanyar ma'anar ra'ayi da aka haɗa da aikin da mutane ke yi, "yana la'akari da halayyar wasu, kuma ta haka ne ya daidaita a cikin tafiyarsa".

Ayyuka

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Dangane da makarantar tunani mai aiki, mutane a cikin al'umma suna aiki tare kamar gabobin jiki a cikin jiki don ƙirƙirar halayyar fitowa, wani lokacin ana kiranta da Sanin jama'a.[10]Masana ilimin zamantakewa na karni na 19 Auguste Comte da Emile Durkheim, alal misali, sun yi imanin cewa al'umma ta zama "mataki" na gaskiya, wanda ya bambanta da kwayoyin halitta da inorganic. Saboda haka dole ne a gina bayani game da abubuwan da suka faru a cikin wannan matakin, mutane ne kawai masu zama na ɗan lokaci na matsayi na zamantakewa.

Ka'idar rikici

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Masu ra'ayin rikice-rikice suna da akasin haka, kuma suna nuna cewa mutane da kungiyoyin zamantakewa ko ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa a cikin al'umma suna hulɗa bisa ga rikici maimakon yarjejeniya. Ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun masanin rikice-rikice shine Karl Marx wanda ya yi tunanin al'umma kamar yadda yake aiki a kan "tushen" tattalin arziki tare da "babban tsari" na gwamnati, iyali, addini da al'adu. Marx ya yi jayayya cewa tushen tattalin arziki ya ƙayyade tsarin, kuma a cikin tarihi, canjin al'umma ya haifar da rikici tsakanin ma'aikata da wadanda suka mallaka hanyoyin samarwa.[10]

Ma'amala ta alama

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CA Ma'amala ta alama ce ta ilimin zamantakewa wanda ke mai da hankali kan mutane da kuma yadda mutum ke da alaƙa da al'umma.[10]Masu hulɗa na alama suna nazarin amfani da mutane na harshe da aka raba don ƙirƙirar alamomi da ma'anoni na yau da kullun, kuma suna amfani da wannan tsarin tunani don fahimtar yadda mutane ke hulɗa don ƙirƙirar duniyoyi na alama, kuma bi da bi, yadda waɗannan duniyoyi ke tsara halayen mutum.

A ƙarshen rabin karni na 20, masu ra'ayi sun fara kallon al'umma kamar yadda aka gina ta hanyar zamantakewa.[10]A cikin wannan hanyar, masanin ilimin zamantakewa Peter L. Berger ya bayyana al'umma a matsayin "dialectic": Mutane ne suka halicci al'umma, amma wannan halittar ta haifar da ko kuma ta tsara mutane.[13]

Black and white portrait of José Rizal
José Rizal, masanin ilimin al'ummomin mulkin mallaka

An soki jaddada ilimin zamantakewa da aka sanya akan aiki, ka'idar rikice-rikice, da kuma hulɗar alama, a matsayin Yurocentric.[14] Masanin ilimin zamantakewa na Malaysia Syed Farid al-Attas, alal misali, ya yi jayayya cewa masu tunani na Yamma suna da sha'awar tasirin zamani, kuma binciken da suka yi game da al'adun da ba na Yamma ba ya iyakance.[14] A matsayin misalai na masu tunani wadanda ba na yamma ba waɗanda suka ɗauki tsarin tsari don fahimtar al'umma, al-Attas ya ambaci Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) da José Rizal (1861-1896). [14]

Khaldun, wani Larabawa da ke zaune a karni na 14, ya fahimci al'umma, tare da sauran sararin samaniya, kamar yadda yake da "tsarin ma'ana", tare da tunanin sa'a da ya dace da ɓoyayyun dalilai. Khaldun ya tsara tsarin zamantakewa kamar yadda yake da nau'o'i biyu na asali: nomadic da sedentary. Rayuwar makiyaya tana da haɗin kai na zamantakewa (asabijja), wanda Khaldun ya yi jayayya ya samo asali ne daga dangi, al'adun da aka raba, da kuma buƙatar tsaro. Rayuwa mai zaman kanta, a ra'ayin Khaldun, an yi alama ta hanyar secularisation, rage haɗin kai na zamantakewa, da karuwar sha'awar alatu. Rizal dan kasar Filipino ne wanda ke rayuwa a ƙarshen zamanin mulkin mallaka na Mutanen Espanya wanda ya yi tunani game da al'ummomin mulkin mallaka. Rizal ya yi jayayya cewa rashin aiki, wanda Mutanen Espanya suka yi amfani da shi don tabbatar da mulkin mallaka, a maimakon haka ya haifar da mulkin mallaki. Rizal ya kwatanta zamanin mulkin mallaka, lokacin da Filipinos ke sarrafa hanyoyin kasuwanci kuma suna da ayyukan tattalin arziki mafi girma, zuwa lokacin mulkin mallaka. Amfani da cin zarafi, rikice-rikicen tattalin arziki, da manufofin mulkin mallaka waɗanda suka hana noma ya haifar da raguwar sha'awar aiki.

Nau'o'in

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Masana ilimin zamantakewa suna rarraba al'ummomi bisa ga matakin fasaharsu, kuma suna sanya al'ummomin cikin manyan rukunoni uku: kafin masana'antu, masana'antu.[10]

Rarrabawar waɗannan rukunoni sun bambanta, kuma rarrabuwa galibi suna dogara ne akan matakin fasaha, sadarwa, da tattalin arziki. Ɗaya daga cikin misalai na irin wannan rarrabuwa ya fito ne daga masanin zamantakewa Gerhard Lenski wanda ya lissafa: (1) farauta da tarawa; (2) aikin gona; (3) noma; da (4) masana'antu; da kuma al'ummomi na musamman (misali, kamun kifi ko kiwo).[15]

Wasu al'adu sun bunkasa a tsawon lokaci zuwa ga siffofin tsari da iko masu rikitarwa. Wannan Juyin Halitta na al'adu yana da tasiri sosai a kan tsarin al'umma. Ƙabilun masu tarawa, a wasu lokuta, sun zauna a kusa da kayan abinci na yanayi don zama ƙauyukan noma. Ƙauyuka sun girma sun zama garuruwa da birane. Birane sun zama birane da jihohin ƙasa. Koyaya, waɗannan matakai ba su da ma'ana.

Kafin masana'antu

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  A cikin al'umma kafin masana'antu, samar da abinci, wanda ake gudanarwa ta hanyar amfani da aiki mutum da dabbobi, shine babban aikin tattalin arziki. Wadannan al'ummomin za a iya raba su bisa ga matakin fasaharsu da hanyar samar da abinci. Wadannan sassan sune farauta da tattarawa, kiwo, lambu, da aikin gona.[15]

Yin farauta da tarawa

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refer to caption
Mutanen San a Botswana sun fara wuta da hannu.

Babban nau'in samar da abinci a cikin al'ummomin farauta da tarawa shine tattara tsire-tsire na yau da kullun da farautar dabbobin daji. Masu farauta suna motsawa koyaushe don neman abinci.[15]A sakamakon haka, ba sa gina ƙauyuka na dindindin ko ƙirƙirar kayan tarihi iri-iri. Bukatar motsi kuma tana iyakance girman waɗannan al'ummomin, kuma yawanci suna samar da ƙananan ƙungiyoyi kamar ƙungiyoyi da kabilun, yawanci tare da ƙasa da mutane 50 a kowace al'umma.[15][15]Ƙungiyoyi da kabilun suna da daidaito, kuma ana samun yanke shawara ta hanyar yarjejeniya. Babu ofisoshin siyasa na yau da kullun da ke dauke da iko na gaske a cikin al'ummomin ƙungiyar, maimakon haka shugabanci mutum ne kawai mai tasiri, kuma jagoranci ya dogara ne akan halaye na mutum.[15]Iyalin sun zama babban rukunin zamantakewa, tare da yawancin membobin suna da alaƙa da haihuwa ko aure.[15]

masanin ilimin ɗan adam Marshall Sahlins ya bayyana masu farauta-mai tarawa a matsayin "al'umma mai arziki ta asali" saboda tsawon lokacin hutun su: Sahlins sun kiyasta cewa manya a cikin al'ummomin masu tarawa suna aiki sa'o'i uku zuwa biyar a kowace rana.[16][17] Sauran masu bincike sun kalubalanci wannan hangen nesa, wadanda suka nuna yawan mace-mace da yaƙi na yau da kullun a cikin al'ummomin mafarauta da masu tarawa.[18][19][20] Masu goyon bayan ra'ayin Sahlins suna jayayya cewa jin daɗin mutane a cikin al'ummomin mafarauta suna kalubalantar dangantakar da ake tsammani tsakanin ci gaban fasaha da Ci gaban ɗan adam.[21]

FastociOk

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refer to caption
Mazajen Maasai suna yin adumu, rawa mai tsalle na gargajiya.

Maimakon neman abinci a kowace rana, membobin al'ummar makiyaya sun dogara da dabbobi masu gida don biyan bukatun abinci. Masu kiwo yawanci suna rayuwa ne, suna motsa garken su daga wannan makiyaya zuwa wani.[15]Girman al'umma a cikin al'ummomin makiyaya yayi kama da masu farauta (kimanin mutane 50), amma ba kamar masu farauta ba, al'ummomi na makiyaya yawanci sun kunshi al'ummoni da yawa - matsakaicin al'ummar makiyaya sun ƙunshi dubban mutane. Wannan shi ne saboda kungiyoyin makiyaya suna rayuwa a wuraren budewa inda motsi yake da sauƙi, wanda ke ba da damar haɗin siyasa.[15]Al'ummomin makiyaya suna haifar da wadataccen abinci, kuma suna da aiki na musamman da kuma matakan rashin daidaito. [10][15]

Aikin lambu

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'Ya'yan itatuwa da kayan lambu da aka shuka a cikin lambun lambu, waɗanda aka share daga daji ko gandun daji, suna samar da babban tushen abinci a cikin al'ummar lambu. Wadannan al'ummomin suna da irin wannan matakin fasaha da rikitarwa ga al'ummomi na makiyaya.[22] Tare da al'ummomin kiwo, al'ummomi na lambu sun fito ne kimanin shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata, bayan canje-canjen fasaha na juyin juya halin noma ya ba da damar noma amfanin gona da kiwon dabbobi.[22] Masu horticulturists suna amfani da aikin mutum da kayan aiki masu sauƙi don noma ƙasar don yanayi ɗaya ko fiye. Lokacin da ƙasar ta zama maras kyau, masu horticulturists sun share sabon makirci kuma sun bar tsohon makircin don komawa ga yanayin halitta. Za su iya komawa asalin ƙasar shekaru da yawa bayan haka kuma su sake fara aikin. Ta hanyar juyawa filayen lambu, masu horticulturists na iya zama a wani yanki na dogon lokaci. Wannan yana ba su damar gina ƙauyuka na dindindin ko na dindada.[15]

Kamar yadda yake tare da al'ummomin makiyaya, abinci mai yawa yana haifar da rarraba aiki mai rikitarwa. Matsayi na musamman a cikin al'ummomin lambu sun haɗa da masu sana'a, shamans (shugabannin addini), da 'yan kasuwa.[15]Wannan ƙwarewar rawar tana ba da damar al'ummomin lambu don ƙirƙirar kayan tarihi iri-iri. Rashin, albarkatun da za a iya karewa na iya haifar da rashin daidaito a cikin tsarin siyasa na lambu.[23]

Aikin gona

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Painting of farmers, with one plouging with two oxen
Yin noma tare da shanu a karni na 15

Al'ummomin noma suna amfani da ci gaban fasaha noma don noma amfanin gona a babban yanki. Lenski ya bambanta tsakanin al'ummomin lambu da na noma ta hanyar amfani da noma.[24]Babban kayan abinci saboda ingantaccen fasaha yana nufin al'ummomin noma sun fi al'ummomi na lambu girma. Babban abincin da ya fi yawa yana haifar da garuruwan da suka zama cibiyoyin kasuwanci. Cinikin tattalin arziki yana haifar da karuwar ƙwarewa, gami da aji mai mulki, da malamai, masu sana'a, 'yan kasuwa, da masu addini, waɗanda ba sa shiga kai tsaye cikin samar da abinci.[24]

An san al'ummomin noma musamman saboda matsanancin zamantakewar zamantakewa da motsi na zamantakewa. Kamar yadda ƙasa ita ce babbar hanyar wadata, matsayi na zamantakewa yana tasowa bisa ga mallakar ƙasa ba aiki ba. Tsarin rarrabuwa yana da bambance-bambance guda uku masu dacewa: aji mai mulki da talakawa, 'yan tsiraru na birane da mafi rinjaye na manoma, da' yan tsiraru masu karatu da marasa karatu. Wannan ya haifar da al'adu biyu daban-daban; ƙwararrun birane da talakawan manoma. Bugu da ƙari, wannan yana nufin bambance-bambance na al'adu a cikin al'ummomin noma sun fi bambance-mbance tsakanin su.[25]

Masu mallakar ƙasa yawanci suna haɗuwa da gwamnati, addini, da cibiyoyin soja don tabbatar da mallakar su, da kuma tallafawa tsarin amfani, Bautar, Bautar da, ko ma'aikata galibi shine babban mai samarwa. Masu mulkin al'ummomin noma galibi ba sa gudanar da daularsu don Amfanin kowa ko kuma a cikin sunan amfanin jama'a, amma a matsayin dukiyar da suke da ita. Tsarin kabilanci, kamar yadda aka samu a tarihi a Kudancin Asiya, suna da alaƙa da al'ummomin noma, inda ayyukan noma na rayuwa suka dogara da ma'anar aiki da horo. Masanin Donald Brown ya ba da shawarar cewa karfafawa a Yammacin zamani kan 'yanci da' yanci ya kasance a babban bangare martani ga tsananin tsananin al'ummomin noma.[25]

Masana'antu

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An industrial train
Sufuri na masana'antu, gami da jiragen kasa, na iya daidaita tattalin arziki, wanda ke haifar da ci gaban yawan jama'a.

Al'ummomin masana'antu, waɗanda suka fito a ƙarni na 18 a cikin Juyin Juya Halin Masana'antu sun dogara sosai ga injunan da ke amfani da su ta hanyar hanyoyin waje don samar da kayayyaki.[15][10]Ganin cewa a cikin al'ummomin da suka gabata yawancin ma'aikata suna faruwa ne a masana'antu na farko da aka mayar da hankali kan fitar da albarkatun kasa (aikin gona, kamun kifi, hakar ma'adinai, da dai sauransu), a cikin al-ummomin masana'antu, ma'aikata galibi ana mai da hankali kan sarrafa albarkatun ƙasa a cikin samfuran da aka gama.[26]Al'ummomin yau da kullun sun bambanta a cikin matakin masana'antu, tare da wasu suna amfani da mafi yawan sabbin hanyoyin samar da makamashi (misali kwal, mai, da makamashin nukiliya), wasu kuma suna ci gaba da dogaro da ikon mutum da dabba.[26]

Masana'antu suna da alaƙa da haɓaka yawan jama'a da haɓaka birane. Ƙarin yawan aiki, da kuma kwanciyar hankali da aka haifar ta hanyar ingantaccen sufuri, yana haifar da raguwar mace-mace da kuma haifar da karuwar yawan jama'a.[15]Samar da kayayyaki a cikin masana'antu da raguwar bukatar aikin gona yana haifar da birni.[10][15]Al'ummomin masana'antu galibi masu jari-hujja ne, kuma suna da manyan digiri na rashin daidaito tare da babban motsi na zamantakewa, yayin da 'Yan kasuwa ke amfani da kasuwa don tara dukiya mai yawa.[10]Yanayin aiki a masana'antu gabaɗaya suna da ƙuntatawa kuma suna da tsanani.[26]Ma'aikata, waɗanda ke da bukatun iri ɗaya, na iya shirya cikin Kungiyoyin kwadago don inganta waɗannan bukatun.[26]

Gabaɗaya, al'ummomin masana'antu suna da alamar karuwar ikon mutane. Ci gaban fasaha yana nufin cewa al'ummomin masana'antu sun kara damar yin yaƙi mai tsanani. Gwamnatoci suna amfani da fasahar bayanai don yin iko sosai akan jama'a. Har ila yau, al'ummomin masana'antu suna da tasirin muhalli.[26]

Bayan masana'antu

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Al'ummomin bayan masana'antu al'ummomin da ke cike da bayanai da ayyuka, maimakon samar da kayayyaki.[10]Al'ummomin masana'antu masu ci gaba suna ganin canji zuwa karuwar bangarorin sabis, akan masana'antu. Masana'antu na sabis sun haɗa da ilimi, kiwon lafiya da kuɗi.[10]

Many people gathered in a large meeting room
Taron Duniya kan Kungiyar Bayanai, Geneva

Al'umma ce ta bayanai inda amfani, halitta, rarraba, sarrafawa da haɗa bayanai muhimmiyar aiki ce.[27] Masu goyon bayan ra'ayin cewa al'ummar duniya ta zamani al'umma ce ta bayanai sun ce fasahar bayanai tana tasiri ga mafi mahimman nau'ikan tsarin zamantakewa, gami da ilimi, tattalin arziki, kiwon lafiya, gwamnati, yaƙi, da matakan dimokuradiyya.[28] Kodayake an tattauna manufar al'umma ta bayanai tun daga shekarun 1930, a yau, kusan koyaushe ana amfani da shi ga hanyoyin da fasahar bayanai ke tasiri ga al'umma da al'adu. Saboda haka yana rufe tasirin kwamfutoci da sadarwa a gida, wurin aiki, makarantu, gwamnati, da al'ummomi da kungiyoyi daban-daban, da kuma fitowar sabbin siffofin zamantakewa a cikin sararin samaniya.[29]  

Three people working on computers in a control room
Gidan kula da Seoul Cyworld

Yayinda samun damar samun albarkatun bayanai na lantarki ya karu a farkon karni na 21, an ba da kulawa ta musamman daga al'ummar bayanai zuwa al'ummar ilimi. Al'umma mai ilimi tana samarwa, rabawa, kuma tana ba da ga dukkan membobin al'umma ilimin da za a iya amfani da shi don inganta Yanayin ɗan adam.[30] Al'umma mai ilimi ta bambanta da al'umma mai bayanai ta hanyar cewa tana canza bayanai zuwa albarkatun da ke ba al'umma damar daukar mataki mai tasiri, maimakon kawai ƙirƙirar da rarraba bayanan maras kyau.[31]

Halaye

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ka'idojin zamantakewa sune ka'idojin da aka raba na halayyar da aka karɓa da ita ta kungiyoyi.[32] Ka'idojin zamantakewa, waɗanda zasu iya zama fahimtar al'ada waɗanda ke sarrafa halayyar membobin al'umma, da kuma sanya su cikin dokoki da dokoki, masu iko ne na halayyar ɗan adam. [33][34]

Matsayin zamantakewa sune ka'idoji, ayyuka, da kuma alamu na halayyar da ke da alaƙa da matsayin zamantakewar mutum.[10]A cikin tunanin aiki, mutane suna samar da tsarin al'umma ta hanyar ɗaukar matsayi na zamantakewa.[35]Dangane da ma'amala ta alama, mutane suna amfani da alamomi don kewayawa da sadarwa.[10]Erving Goffman ya yi amfani da kwatanci na gidan wasan kwaikwayo don haɓaka ruwan tabarau na wasan kwaikwayo, wanda ke jayayya cewa matsayi yana ba da rubutun da ke sarrafa hulɗar zamantakewa.Matsayin zamantakewa (social roles) su ne ƙa’idoji, ayyuka da nauye-nauye, da kuma salon ɗabi’a waɗanda suke da alaƙa da matsayin mutum a cikin al’umma.[36]

A mahangar functionalism a ilimin zamantakewa, mutane suna gina tsarin al’umma ne ta hanyar ɗaukar matsayai daban-daban na zamantakewas.[36] A cewar symbolic interactionism, mutane suna amfani da alamomi da ma’anoni domin fahimtar matsayinsu da kuma sadarwa game da waɗannan matsayi.[36]

Masanin ilimin zamantakewa Erving Goffman ya yi amfani da misalin wasan kwaikwayo wajen haɓaka abin da ake kira dramaturgical perspective. Wannan mahanga tana bayyana cewa matsayi na zamantakewa suna samar da wasu irin “rubutattun umarni” (scripts) waɗanda ke jagorantar yadda mutane suke hulɗa da juna a cikin al’umma.[10]

Jima'i da zumunci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
refer to caption
Iyalin Masar suna hawa kan karusar da aka ja a cikin 2019. Dangantakar iyali tana ɗaya daga cikin mahimman ka'idojin tsarawa a cikin al'ummomi da yawa.

Rarraba mutane cikin Matsayi na maza da mata an nuna su ta hanyar al'ada ta hanyar rarraba ka'idoji, ayyuka, Tufafi, halayyar, hakkoki, ayyuka, gata, matsayi, da iko. Wasu suna jayayya cewa matsayin jinsi ya samo asali ne daga bambancin jima'i, wanda ke haifar da rarraba aiki inda mata ke daukar aikin haifuwa da sauran ayyukan gida[37]Matsayin jinsi ya bambanta a tarihi, kuma ƙalubalen ƙa'idodin jinsi sun sake dawowa a cikin al'ummomi da yawa.[38][39]

Dukkanin al'ummomin ɗan adam suna tsarawa, ganewa da rarraba nau'ikan dangantakar zamantakewa bisa ga dangantakar da ke tsakanin iyaye, yara da sauran zuriya (dangi), da dangantaka ta hanyar aure (affinity). Har ila yau, akwai nau'i na uku na dangantakar iyali da aka yi amfani da ita ga iyaye masu kula da su ko yara masu kula da juna (ƙididdiga). Wadannan alaƙa da aka ayyana ta al'adu ana kiransu dangi. A cikin al'ummomi da yawa, yana ɗaya daga cikin mahimman ka'idojin tsara zamantakewa kuma yana taka rawa wajen watsa matsayi da gado.[40]   Dukkanin al'ummomi suna da ka'idojin haramtacciyar jima'i, bisa ga abin da aka haramta auren tsakanin wasu nau'ikan dangantakar dangi; kuma wasu al'ummomin suna da ka-idojin auren da aka fi so tare da wasu dangantakar durii.[41]

Ƙabilar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙungiyoyin kabilanci na ’yan Adam rukuni ne na zamantakewa da mutane ke bayyana kansu a matsayin wani rukuni bisa wasu halaye da suke da tarayya da su, waɗanda suke bambanta su da sauran ƙungiyoyi. Waɗannan halaye na iya kasancewa al’adu da al’adun gargajiya, zuriya, harshe, tarihi, tsarin zamantakewa, al’ada, ƙasa, addini, ko kuma yadda ake mu’amala da su a cikin yankin da suke zaune.[42][43]

Babu wata ma’anar da aka amince da ita gaba ɗaya game da abin da ke kafa ƙungiyar kabilanci,[44]Yan Adam kuma suna da ikon sauya alaƙarsu da ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa cikin sauƙi, har ma da barin ƙungiyoyin da a baya suke da ƙawance mai ƙarfi da su, idan hakan na iya kawo musu wata fa’ida ta kansu.[45]

Kabilanci (ethnicity) ya bambanta da manufar race, wadda ta fi dogara da siffofin jiki, duk da cewa duka ra’ayoyin biyu abubuwa ne da al’umma ta gina ta fuskar zamantakewa.[46]

Bayyana cewa wasu mutane suna cikin wata ƙungiyar kabilanci na iya zama abu mai rikitarwa, domin ko a cikin ƙungiyar da aka sani da suna guda, ana iya samun ƙananan rukunai masu bambancin al’adu ko asali. Haka kuma, tsarin waɗannan ƙungiyoyin kabilanci na iya sauyawa a tsawon lokaci, a matakin al’umma gaba ɗaya da kuma na mutum ɗaya.[6]

Rarrabuwar mutane zuwa ƙungiyoyin kabilanci na iya taka babbar rawa wajen samar da asalin zamantakewa da haɗin kai a tsakanin ƙungiyoyin da suka ginu bisa kabilanci da siyasa. Asalin kabilanci ya kasance yana da alaƙa sosai da haɓakar ƙasa-ƙasa (nation-state) a matsayin babbar hanyar tsarin siyasa a ƙarni na 19 da 20.[47][48][49]

Gwamnati da siyasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
refer to caption
Hedikwatar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a Birnin New York, wanda ke da ɗayan manyan ƙungiyoyin siyasa a duniya

Gwamnatoci suna kirkirar dokoki da manufofi waɗanda ke shafar mutanen da suke mulki. Akwai nau'o'in gwamnati da yawa a cikin tarihin ɗan adam, tare da hanyoyi daban-daban na rarraba iko, kuma tare da matakai daban-daban da hanyoyin sarrafa yawan jama'a. A farkon tarihin, an ƙaddara rarraba ikon siyasa ta hanyar wadatar Ruwa mai kyau, ƙasa mai kyau, da Yanayin yanayi na wurare daban-daban.[50] Yayin da yawan manoma suka taru a cikin manyan al'ummomi, hulɗa tsakanin kungiyoyi daban-daban ya karu, wanda ya haifar da ci gaba da ci gaban mulki a ciki da tsakanin al'ummomin.

Ya zuwa 2022, a cewar The Economist, kashi 43% na gwamnatocin kasa sun kasance dimokuradiyya, kashi 35% na mulkin mallaka, da kuma kashi 22% da ke dauke da abubuwa biyu.[51] Kasashe da yawa sun kafa kungiyoyin siyasa da kawance na kasa da kasa, mafi girma shine Majalisar Dinkin Duniya tare da kasashe mambobi 193.[52]

Kasuwanci da tattalin arziki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A map depicting the Silk Road and relevant trade routes
Hanyoyin cinikin kayan yaji masu nisa tare da Silk Road (kore) da sauran hanyoyin (ja) a kusa da karni na 1 AD

Ciniki, musayar kayayyaki da aiyuka da son rai, ya kasance wani bangare ne na al'ummomin mutane, kuma ana ganinsa a matsayin halayyar da ke bambanta mutane daga wasu dabbobi.[53] Har ma an ambaci kasuwanci a matsayin aikin da ya ba Homo sapiens babbar fa'ida a kan sauran hominids; shaidar ta nuna cewa farkon H. sapiens ya yi amfani da hanyoyin kasuwanci na nesa don musayar kayayyaki da ra'ayoyi, wanda ya haifar da fashewar al'adu da samar da ƙarin tushen abinci lokacin da farauta ba ta da yawa. Irin waɗannan hanyoyin cinikayya ba su wanzu ga Neanderthals da suka ƙare yanzu ba.[53][54] Kasuwanci na farko ya haɗa da kayan aiki don ƙirƙirar kayan aiki, kamar obsidian, musayar a kan gajeren nesa. Sabanin haka, a duk zamanin d ̄ a da kuma zamanin da, wasu daga cikin hanyoyin da suka fi tasiri suna dauke da abinci da kayan alatu, kamar cinikin kayan yaji.[55]

tattalin arziki ɗan adam na farko ya fi dacewa da bayar da kyauta fiye da tsarin musayar.[56] Kudin farko ya kunshi kayayyaki; mafi tsufa yana cikin nau'in shanu kuma mafi yawan amfani shine kwarangwal.[57][58] Tun daga wannan lokacin kudi ya samo asali ne a cikin tsabar kudi da aka bayar ta gwamnati, takarda da Kudin lantarki. [59][60] Nazarin ɗan adam na tattalin arziki shine kimiyyar zamantakewa wanda ke kallon yadda al'ummomi ke rarraba albarkatun da ba su da yawa tsakanin mutane daban-daban.[61] Akwai rashin daidaito mai yawa a cikin rarraba dukiya tsakanin mutane; tun daga 2018 a China, Turai, da Amurka, kashi goma mafi arziki na mutane suna da fiye da kashi bakwai cikin goma na jimlar dukiyar waɗannan yankuna.Tattalin arziƙin ’yan Adam na farko ya fi karkata ne ga tsarin bayar da kyauta fiye da tsarin musayar kaya da kaya (barter).[1] Kuɗin farko sun kasance abubuwan da ake amfani da su a matsayin kuɗi, wato kayan amfanin yau da kullum (commodities); mafi dadewa daga cikinsu shi ne dabbobi, musamman shanu, yayin da abin da aka fi amfani da shi shi ne ƙwarin teku (cowrie shells).[2][3]

Daga baya, kuɗi sun samu sauye-sauye har suka zama tsabar kuɗin da gwamnatoci ke fitarwa, kuɗin takarda, da kuma kuɗin lantarki (electronic money).[4][5]

Nazarin tattalin arziƙin ’yan Adam fanni ne na kimiyyar zamantakewa (social science) wanda ke binciken yadda al’umma ke rarraba albarkatun da suke da ƙaranci tsakanin mutane daban-daban.[6]

Akwai babban rashin daidaito wajen rabon arziki tsakanin ’yan Adam. Misali, a shekarar 2018, a China, Turai da Amurka, kashi goma cikin ɗari (10%) na mutanen da suka fi kowa arziki sun mallaki fiye da kashi bakwai cikin goma (70%) na jimillar arzikin waɗannan yankuna.[7][62]

Rikici

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
refer to caption
Komawar Napoleon bayan da ya gaza mamaye Rasha a 1812 (zane-zane na Adolph Northen, 1851)

Fassara zuwa Hausa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shirye-shiryen ɗan Adam na kashe wasu daga cikin jinsinsa cikin gungun mutane masu yawa ta hanyar rikicin da aka tsara, wato yaƙi, ya daɗe yana zama batun muhawara. Wata mahangar bincike tana ganin cewa yaƙi ya samo asali ne a matsayin wata hanya ta kawar da masu fafatawa, kuma tashin hankali wata dabi’a ce da ke cikin halittar ɗan Adam.

’Yan Adam suna aikata tashin hankali ga sauran ’yan Adam a wani matsayi da ya yi kama da na sauran birrai (primates). Sai dai, idan aka kwatanta da sauran birrai, ’yan Adam suna kashe manya cikin ƙima mai yawa, yayin da kashe jarirai (infanticide) yake faruwa a ƙima mai ƙaranci.. [63]

Wani makarantar tunani ya nuna cewa yaƙi wani abu ne na baya-bayan nan kuma ya bayyana saboda sauye-sauyen yanayin zamantakewa.[64] Duk da yake ba a daidaita ba, shaidar yanzu ta nuna halin yaƙi kawai ya zama ruwan dare game da shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata, kuma a yankuna da yawa har ma da kwanan nan.[64]

Binciken phylogenetic ya yi hasashen kashi 2% na mutuwar mutane da za a haifar da kisan kai, wanda kusan ya dace da yawan kisan kai a cikin al'ummomin rukuni.[65] Koyaya, yawan tashin hankali ya bambanta sosai bisa ga ka'idojin al'umma, [65] [66] da kuma yawan kisan kai a cikin al'ummomin da ke da tsarin shari'a da halayen al'adu masu ƙarfi game da tashin hankali suna tsaye a kusan 0.01%.[66]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
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