Jump to content

Alice Paul

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Alice Paul
Rayuwa
Haihuwa Mount Laurel (en) Fassara, 11 ga Janairu, 1885
ƙasa Tarayyar Amurka
Mazauni Paulsdale (en) Fassara
Harshen uwa Turanci
Mutuwa Moorestown (en) Fassara, 9 ga Yuli, 1977
Makwanci Cinnaminson Township (en) Fassara
Ƴan uwa
Ahali Helen Paul (en) Fassara
Ƴan uwa
Karatu
Makaranta Swarthmore College (en) Fassara
American University (mul) Fassara
Moorestown Friends School (en) Fassara
Georgetown University Law Center (en) Fassara
University of Pennsylvania (mul) Fassara
Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre (en) Fassara
Harsuna Turanci
Sana'a
Sana'a masana, Mai kare hakkin mata da suffragette (en) Fassara
Kyaututtuka
Wanda ya ja hankalinsa Emmeline Pankhurst da Christabel Pankhurst
Mamba Daughters of the American Revolution (en) Fassara
Silent Sentinels (en) Fassara
Women's Social and Political Union (en) Fassara
Fafutuka Feminism
Women's suffrage
alicepaul.org

Alice Stokes Paul (Janairu 11, 1885 - Yuli 9, 1977) ta kasance 'yar Amurka ce, mai ba da izini, mai bautar mata, kuma mai fafutukar kare hakkin mata, kuma ɗaya daga cikin manyan shugabannin da masu dabarun kamfen ɗin Kwaskwarimar Na goma sha tara ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka, wanda ya haramta nuna bambancin jima'i a cikin haƙƙin jefa kuri'a. Paul ya fara, tare da Lucy Burns da sauransu, sun shirya abubuwan da suka faru kamar su Woman Suffrage Procession da Silent Sentinels, waɗanda suka kasance wani ɓangare na nasarar kamfen ɗin da ya haifar da fasalin gyare-gyare a watan Agustan 1920.

Paul sau da yawa yana fama da zalunci na 'yan sanda da sauran cin zarafin jiki saboda gwagwarmayarta, koyaushe yana amsawa da rashin tashin hankali da ƙarfin zuciya. An tsare ta a cikin mummunan yanayi a shekarar 1917 saboda shiga cikin zanga-zangar Silent Sentinels a gaban Fadar White House, kamar yadda ta kasance sau da yawa a lokacin kokarin da aka yi a baya don samun kuri'un mata a Ingila.

Bayan 1920, Paul ya shafe rabin karni a matsayin shugaban Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa, wanda ya yi yaƙi don Kwaskwarimar Daidaitaccen Hakki, wanda Paul da Crystal Eastman suka rubuta, don tabbatar da daidaito na tsarin mulki ga mata. Ta sami babban nasara na dindindin tare da hada mata a matsayin rukuni da aka kare daga nuna bambanci ta Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964.

Rayuwa ta farko da ilimi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Paul da Helen Gardener, c. 1908-1915

An haifi Alice Stokes Paul a ranar 11 ga Janairu, 1885, ga William Mickle Paul I da Tacie Parry Paul a Paulsdale a Dutsen Laurel Township, New Jersey . [1] Ta kasance mai suna Alice Stokes, kakarta ta uwa kuma matar William Parry. 'Yan uwanta sune Willam Mickle Paul II, Helen Paul Shearer, da Parry Haines Paul . Ta girma a cikin al'adar Quaker na hidimar jama'a; Alice Paul ta fara koyo game da zaɓen mata daga mahaifiyarta, memba na Ƙungiyar Mata ta Amurka (NAWSA), kuma wani lokacin tana shiga mahaifiyarta wajen halartar tarurrukan sufragist.[2]

Paul ta halarci Makarantar Abokai ta Moorestown, inda ta kammala karatu a saman aji.[3] A shekara ta 1901, ta shiga Kwalejin Swarthmore, wacce kakanta da sauran Abokan Hicksite suka kafa a 1864. Yayinda take Swarthmore, Paul ta yi aiki a kwamitin zartarwa na Gwamnatin Dalibai, gogewar da wataƙila ta haifar da farin ciki ga gwagwarmayar siyasa. Ta kammala karatu daga Swarthmore tare da digiri na farko a ilmin halitta a shekara ta 1905. [2]

Bayan kammala karatunsa, wani bangare don kauce wa shiga koyarwa, Paul ya bi shekara ta zumunci a Birnin New York, yana zaune a Lower East Side a Rivington Street Settlement House . [4] Yin aiki a cikin yunkurin daidaitawa ya karfafa ƙudurin da ta yi na gyara rashin adalci a Amurka, amma nan da nan Paul ya fahimci cewa aikin zamantakewa ba shine hanyar da ta cimma wannan burin ba: "Na san a cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci ba zan taɓa zama ma'aikacin zamantakewa ba, saboda zan iya ganin cewa ma'aikatan zamantakewa ba sa yin kyau a duniya ... ba za ku iya canza halin da ake ciki ta hanyar aikin zamantakewa"  

A shekara ta 1907, bayan kammala karatun kimiyya, ilimin zamantakewa, da tattalin arziki, Paul ya sami digiri na Master of Arts daga Pennsylvania" id="mwWA" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="University of Pennsylvania">Jami'ar Pennsylvania . [2] Ta ci gaba da karatunta a Cibiyar Nazarin Quaker ta Woodbrooke a Birmingham, Ingila. Paul ya kuma dauki darussan tattalin arziki daga Jami'ar Birmingham yayin da yake ci gaba da samun kudi ta hanyar aikin zamantakewa. A Birmingham ne ta fara jin Christabel Pankhurst yana magana. Lokacin da Paul daga baya ya koma London don nazarin ilimin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki a Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta London, ta shiga ƙungiyar 'yan tawaye ta Mata da Siyasa (WSPU) karkashin jagorancin Christabel da mahaifiyarta, Emmeline Pankhurst . An kama Paul sau da yawa a Landan yayin zanga-zangar neman zabe kuma ya yi wa'adin kurkuku sau uku. Bayan dawowa daga Ingila a 1910, ta halarci Jami'ar Pennsylvania, inda ta sami Ph.D. a fannin zamantakewa. Rubutun ta yana da taken "The Legal Position of Women in Pennsylvania"; ya yi magana game da tarihin ƙungiyar mata a Pennsylvania da sauran Amurka kuma ya bukaci mata su zabi a matsayin babban batun ranar.

Bayan tabbatar da Kwaskwarimar ta goma sha tara, Paul ya shiga makarantun shari'a guda biyu, yana ɗaukar darussan rana da maraice don kammala da sauri. A shekara ta 1922, Paul ta sami LL. Digiri na B daga Kwalejin Shari'a ta Washington a Jami'ar Amurka.[5] A shekara ta 1927, ta sami digiri na biyu a fannin shari'a, kuma a 1928, ta sami digiri a fannin dokar farar hula daga Jami'ar Amurka.

Ayyuka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Burtaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Paul a cikin 1915

A shekara ta 1907, bayan kammala karatun digiri na biyu a Jami'ar Pennsylvania, Paul ta koma Ingila, inda ta shiga cikin ƙungiyar mata ta Burtaniya, a kai a kai tana shiga cikin zanga-zangar da kuma tafiye-tafiye na Ƙungiyar Mata da Siyasa (WSPU). Bayan "kwarewar juyawa" ganin Christabel Pankhurst yana magana a Jami'ar Birmingham, Paul ya zama mai sha'awar motsi. Ta fara shiga ta hanyar sayar da mujallar suffragist a kusurwoyin tituna. Idan aka yi la'akari da ƙiyayya ga mata masu rinjaye, wannan aiki ne mai wahala kuma ya buɗe idanunta ga cin zarafin mata da ke cikin motsi da ke fuskanta. Wadannan gogewa, haɗe da koyarwar Farfesa Beatrice Webb, sun shawo kan Paul cewa aikin zamantakewa da sadaka ba za su iya kawo canje-canjen zamantakewa da ake buƙata a cikin al'umma ba: wannan za a iya cim ma ta hanyar daidaito na doka ga mata.[6]

Yayinda yake a Landan, Paul ya kuma sadu da Lucy Burns, ɗan'uwan Amurka mai fafutuka, yayin da aka kama shi a ofishin 'yan sanda na Burtaniya, wanda zai zama muhimmin abokin tarayya na tsawon lokacin yakin neman zabe, da farko a Ingila, sannan a Amurka. Matan biyu sun burge fitattun mambobin WSPU kuma sun fara shirya abubuwan da suka faru da ofisoshin yakin neman zabe. Lokacin da Emmeline Pankhurst ta yi ƙoƙari ta yada motsi zuwa Scotland, Paul da Burns sun bi ta a matsayin mataimakan.

Paul ta sami amincewar 'yan uwanta na WSPU ta hanyar baiwarta tare da maganganun gani da kuma shirye-shiryenta na sanya kanta cikin haɗari na jiki don kara ganuwar motsi na sufuri. Yayinda yake a hedikwatar WSPU a Edinburgh, Paul da 'yan mata na cikin gida sun yi shiri don nuna rashin amincewa da jawabin Ministan Harkokin Waje, Sir Edward Grey. A mako guda da suka gabata, sun yi magana da mutane a kan tituna don inganta ilimi game da dalilin da ya sa suke zanga-zanga game da memba na majalisar. Bayan Grey ya tattauna dokar da aka gabatar da shi ya yi iƙirarin cewa za ta haifar da wadata a taron, Paul ya tashi tsaye ya ce: "To, waɗannan manufofi ne masu ban mamaki, amma ba za ku iya ba da su ga mata ba?" 'Yan sanda sun amsa ta hanyar jan ta daga taron kuma ta tituna zuwa ofishin' yan sanda, inda aka kama ta. Kamar yadda aka tsara, mutane da yawa sun kalli wannan aikin a matsayin yin shiru na jama'a game da zanga-zangar da ta dace da kuma kara yawan manema labarai da kuma jin tausayi na jama'ar.

Abubuwan da suka faru daga baya sun haɗa da ƙarin haɗarin raunin jiki. Kafin taron siyasa a St. Andrew's Hall a Glasgow a watan Agustan 1909, Paul ya kafa sansani a kan rufin zauren don ta iya magana da taron da ke ƙasa. Lokacin da 'yan sanda suka tilasta mata ta sauka, taron jama'a sun yi murna da kokarin ta. Daga baya, lokacin da Paul, Burns, da 'yan uwan su suka yi ƙoƙari su shiga taron, 'yan sanda sun buge su yayin da masu kallo suka yi ƙoƙari suka kare su. Bayan an kama Paul da 'yan zanga-zangar, taron jama'a sun taru a waje da ofishin 'yan sanda suna neman a saki matan.[7]

A ranar 9 ga Nuwamba, 1909, don girmama Ranar Ubangiji, Ubangiji Magajin Landan ya shirya biki ga ministocin majalisar a cikin Gidan Gida na birnin. Paul ya shirya martani na WSPU; ita da Amelia Brown sun yi kama da mata masu tsaftacewa kuma sun shiga ginin tare da ma'aikatan al'ada a karfe 9:00 na safe. Da zarar sun shiga cikin ginin, matan sun ɓoye har sai taron ya fara a wannan maraice. Sai suka fito daga ɓoye kuma suka "yi tsayin daka". Lokacin da Firayim Minista H. H. Asquith ya tsaya don yin magana, Brown ta jefa takalminta ta cikin gilashin gilashi, kuma mata biyu sun yi ihu, "Votes for women!" Bayan wannan taron, an kama mata biyu kuma an yanke musu hukuncin aiki tuƙuru na wata ɗaya bayan sun ki biyan tarar da lalacewar taga. An tsare ta a Kurkukun Holloway da ke Landan. 

Rashin biyayya da yajin aikin yunwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yayinda yake da alaƙa da Kungiyar Jama'a da Siyasa ta Mata, an kama Paul sau bakwai kuma an ɗaure shi sau uku.[8] A lokacin da take kurkuku ne ta koyi dabarun rashin biyayya daga Emmeline Pankhurst. Babban daga cikin wadannan dabarun yana buƙatar a bi da shi a matsayin fursunonin siyasa bayan kama shi. Wannan ba wai kawai ya aika da sako game da halattacciyar masu goyon baya ga jama'a ba har ma yana da damar samar da fa'idodi masu mahimmanci. A kasashe da yawa na Turai, gami da Ingila, an ba fursunonin siyasa matsayi na musamman: "[Ba a bincika T]hey ba a lokacin da aka kama shi, ba a sanya shi tare da sauran fursunoni ba, ba a buƙatar su sa tufafin kurkuku ba, kuma ba a tilasta musu ciyar ba idan sun shiga yajin aikin yunwa. " Ko da aka kama masu neman izini sau da yawa ba su matsayin fursunonin Siyasa ba, wannan nau'in rashin biyayya ya ba da manema labarai da yawa ga WSPU. Misali, a lokacin da aka kama shi a London (bayan an hana shi matsayin fursunonin siyasa), Paul ya ki sanya tufafin fursunoni. Bayan da matrons na kurkuku ba su iya cire ta da karfi ba, sai suka nemi taimako daga masu gadi maza. Wannan aikin, wanda aka yi la'akari da shi ba daidai ba ta hanyar Zamanin Victorian, ya ba da cikakken labarai ga motsi na sufuri.[6]

Wata sananniyar dabarar rashin biyayya ta farar hula da masu goyon baya suka yi amfani da ita ita ce yajin aikin yunwa. Yunkurin yunwa na farko da ya shafi WSPU ya gudanar da shi ne ta hanyar mai zane Marion Wallace Dunlop a watan Yunin 1909. A wannan fall, membobin WSPU suna amfani da shi sosai saboda tasirinsa wajen yada mummunar yadda aka yi musu da kuma samun saki da sauri daga masu kula da kurkuku. Ƙin abinci ya yi aiki don tabbatar da sakin Paul da wuri a lokacin da aka kama ta biyu na farko. Koyaya, a lokacin da ta kasance a kurkuku ta uku, mai kula da gidan ya ba da umarni sau biyu a kowace rana don tilasta wa Paul ƙarfi don kammala hukuncinsa na tsawon wata.

Kodayake kurkuku sun ci gaba da cewa tilasta ciyar da fursunoni don amfanin kansu ne, Paul da sauran mata sun bayyana wannan tsari a matsayin mai azabtarwa. Paul ta kamu da ciwon Gastritis mai tsanani a ƙarshen watan da take kurkuku. An fitar da ita daga kurkuku kuma nan da nan likita ya kula da ita. Koyaya, bayan wannan taron, lafiyarta ta kasance mai rauni har abada; sau da yawa tana samun mura da mura, wanda wani lokacin zai buƙaci asibiti.

An baiwa Paul lambar yabo ta yunwa 'don jaruntaka' ta WSPU.

Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan wahalar da ta samu a kurkuku ta karshe a London, Paul ta koma Amurka a watan Janairun 1910 don ci gaba da warkewarta da kuma samar da shirin yin aiki a gida.[8] Kwarewar Paul a Ingila an yada ta sosai, kuma kafofin watsa labarai na Amurka sun fara bin ayyukanta a lokacin da ta dawo gida. Ta yi amfani da koyarwar Woodbrooke da addininta kuma nan da nan ta yanke shawarar cewa tana so ta rungumi manufa ɗaya a matsayin shaida. Manufar da ta zaɓa ita ce amincewa da mata a matsayin 'yan ƙasa daidai.

Paul ta sake shiga Jami'ar Pennsylvania, tana bin Ph.D. yayin da take magana game da abubuwan da ta samu a cikin ƙungiyar sufuri ta Burtaniya ga masu sauraron Quaker kuma ta fara aiki don sufuri na Amurka a matakin gida. Bayan kammala karatunta, cikakken bayani game da tarihin matsayin shari'a na mata na Amurka, ta fara shiga cikin tarurrukan Ƙungiyar Mata ta Amurka (NAWSA), kuma a watan Afrilu 1910, an nemi ta yi magana a taron shekara-shekara na NAWSA. Bayan wannan babbar dama, Paul da Burns sun ba da shawarar ga jagorancin NAWSA kamfen don samun gyare-gyaren tarayya wanda ke tabbatar da kuri'un mata. Wannan ya saba wa dabarun NAWSA na jihar-by-state. Paul da Burns sun yi dariya da jagorancin NAWSA; kawai banda Jane Addams, wanda ya ba da shawarar cewa mata su rage shirin su. A matsayin martani, Paul ya nemi a sanya shi a Kwamitin Majalisa na kungiyar.

1913 Gudun Zaɓin Mata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Inez Milholland yana jagorantar Gudanar da Mata a kan doki a 1913
Rufewa ga shirin na 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession, wanda Paul ya shirya

Ɗaya daga cikin manyan ayyukan farko na Paul shine farawa da shirya Shirin Mata na 1913 a Washington, DC, ranar da za a rantsar da Shugaba Wilson. Paul ya ƙaddara ya matsa wa Wilson saboda ofishin Shugaban kasa zai iya rinjayar Majalisa sosai. Ta sanya masu sa kai don tuntuɓar masu sufragists a duk faɗin ƙasar da kuma tara magoya baya don tafiya a cikin fareti. A cikin 'yan makonni, Bulus ya yi nasarar tara kusan masu zanga-zanga dubu takwas da ke wakiltar mafi yawan ƙasar. Koyaya, tana da matsala sosai don samun goyon bayan ma'aikata don zanga-zangar. Paul ya nace cewa hanyar fareti ta wuce ta Pennsylvania Avenue inda Shugaba Wilson zai kasance. Manufarta ita ce ta aika da sakon cewa turawa ga 'yancin mata ya wanzu kafin Wilson kuma zai wuce shi idan ya cancanta. Jami'an Washington da farko sun yi tsayayya da wannan hanyar, kuma a cewar mai ba da labari Christine Lunardini, Paul ne kawai ya yi imanin cewa za a gudanar da fareti a wannan hanyar. A ƙarshe, birnin ya ba da hanyar ga NAWSA. Koyaya, mai kula da birni ya yi iƙirarin cewa matan ba za su kasance lafiya ba a kan Hanyar Pennsylvania Avenue kuma sun ba da shawarar cewa ƙungiyar ta motsa fareti. Paul ya amsa ta hanyar neman mai kula da birni ya samar da karin 'yan sanda, wanda ba a yi ba. A ranar 3 ga Maris, 1913, fareti ya sami izini tare da Majalisa ta zartar da ƙuduri na musamman da ke ba da umarni ga mai kula da birni ya hana duk zirga-zirga na yau da kullun tare da hanyar fareti da kuma hana duk wani tsangwama tare da masu zanga-zangar.

A ranar taron, procession ya ci gaba da hanyar da Bulus yake so. Wannan taron, wanda sanannen lauyan ma'aikata Inez Milholland ya jagoranta da ke sanye da fararen tufafi kuma yana hawa doki, New York Times ta bayyana shi a matsayin "ɗaya daga cikin kyawawan abubuwan da aka taɓa yi a wannan ƙasar". An kuma nuna ƙungiyoyi da yawa, banners, squadrons, karusai, da jiragen ruwa a cikin fareti da ke wakiltar rayuwar mata. Ɗaya daga cikin sanannun abubuwan da aka gani shine tutar jagora a cikin fareti wanda ya bayyana, "Muna Bukatar Kwaskwarimar Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka da ke ba da izini ga Mata na Kasar. " Wasu kungiyoyi da shugabannin da suka halarci, duk da haka, suna son ƙungiyoyin mata masu baƙar fata da fararen fata da wakilan jihohi su ware; bayan tattaunawa mai yawa, NAWSA ta yanke shawarar cewa mata baƙar fata za su iya tafiya a inda suke so.[8] Duk da haka, an tambayi Ida B. Wells kada ta yi tafiya tare da tawagar Illinois; a ƙarshe, ta shiga ƙungiyar Chicago kuma ta ci gaba da tafiya tare da wakilan jihar.[9]

Fiye da rabin mutane miliyan sun zo don kallon fareti. Ba tare da isasshen kariya ta 'yan sanda ba, ba da daɗewa ba yanayin ya zama kusan rikici, tare da masu kallo suna matsawa kusa da mata da cewa ba za su iya ci gaba ba. 'Yan sanda ba su yi komai ba don kare mata daga masu tayar da kayar baya. Wani sanata wanda ya shiga cikin tafiyar daga baya ya shaida cewa shi da kansa ya ɗauki lambobin lambar jami'ai 22 da suka tsaya ba tare da aiki ba, ciki har da sajan biyu. A ƙarshe, mambobin Massachusetts da Pennsylvania National Guard sun shiga tsakani, kuma ɗalibai daga Kwalejin Aikin Gona ta Maryland sun ba da shingen ɗan adam don taimakawa mata su wuce. Wasu asusun har ma sun bayyana Boy Scouts kamar yadda suke shiga da kuma ba da taimakon farko ga waɗanda suka ji rauni. Lamarin ya haifar da tattaunawar jama'a game da martani na 'yan sanda ga zanga-zangar mata, wanda ya haifar da wayar da kan jama'a da tausayi ga NAWSA. [8]

Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hanyoyin Paul na yaƙi sun fara haifar da tashin hankali tsakanin ita da shugabannin NAWSA, waɗanda suka yi tunanin tana motsawa da ƙarfi a Washington. A ƙarshe, rashin jituwa game da dabarun da dabarun ya haifar da hutu tare da NAWSA. Paul ya kafa Kungiyar Majalisa don Zaɓin Mata kuma, daga baya Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa (NWP) a cikin 1916.[19]

NWP ta fara gabatar da wasu hanyoyin da ƙungiyar sufuri ta yi amfani da su a Burtaniya kamar masu tsaron gida kuma sun mai da hankali gaba ɗaya kan cimma gyare-gyaren kundin tsarin mulki don sufuri na mata.[8] Alva Belmont, mai yawan jama'a a lokacin, ita ce babbar mai ba da gudummawa ga kokarin Paul. NWP ta kasance tare da labaran jarida da kuma buga jaridar mako-mako, The Suffragist .

Masu Tsaro Masu Shiru

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "Alice Paul". National Women's History Museum. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 "Who Was Alice Paul". Alice Paul Institute. Archived from the original on September 9, 2014.
  3. ↑ "Paul, Alice Stokes". Social Welfare History Project. January 21, 2011. Archived from the original on April 25, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2025.
  4. ↑ "Image 3 of Official program woman suffrage procession. Washington, D.C. March 3, 1913". Library of Congress. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  5. ↑ "Honoring Alice Paul". Washington College of Law. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
  6. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  7. ↑ Fotheringham, Ann (September 25, 2018). "Thanks for the Memories: Glasgow's Votes for Women celebration at Mitchell". Evening Times. Retrieved September 27, 2018.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Dodd, Lynda G. (2008). "Parades, pickets, and prison: Alice Paul and the virtues of unruly constitutional citizenship". Journal of Law & Politics. 24 (4): 339–443. SSRN 2226351.
  9. ↑ Sklar, Kathryn Kish; Dias, Jill (1997). "How Did the National Woman's Party Address the Issue of the Enfranchisement of Black Women, 1919–1924?". Retrieved December 18, 2018.

A cikin Zaben shugaban Amurka na 1916, Paul da Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa (NWP) sun yi yakin neman zabe a jihohin yamma inda mata za su iya jefa kuri'a a kan ci gaba da kin amincewa da Shugaba Woodrow Wilson da sauran 'Yan Democrat na yanzu don tallafawa Kwaskwarimar Zabe. Paul ya tafi Mabel Vernon don taimaka mata ta shirya kamfen ɗin zanga-zanga. A watan Janairun 1917, NWP ta shirya zanga-zangar siyasa ta farko da zanga-zambe a Fadar White House. Dokar Clayton Antitrust ta shekara ta 1914 ta ba da izini ga yin zanga-zangar, don haka mata ba sa yin wani abu ba bisa ka'ida ba. Masu zanga-zangar, da ke shiga cikin yakin neman rashin biyayya na farar hula da aka sani da "Silent Sentinels", sun yi ado da fari, shiru kuma tare da 2,000 da ke shiga sama da shekaru biyu, sun kasance kwanaki shida a mako, suna riƙe da banners suna neman haƙƙin jefa kuri'a. Paul ya san hanyar da za su iya cimma burinsu ita ce ta hanyar nuna halin Shugaban kasa game da zaɓen, don haka yin zanga-zanga zai cimma wannan a hanya mafi kyau. Kowace rana Bulus zai ba da "Janar Dokoki", yana zaɓar mata don su zama masu kula da waɗanda za su yi magana don ranar. Ita ce "Komandan", kuma Mabel Vernon ita ce "Officer of the Day". Paul ya kirkiro kwanakin jihar don samun masu sa kai don yin zanga-zangar, kamar Pennsylvania Day, Maryland Day, da Virginia Day. Ta kuma yi kwanaki na musamman ga mata masu sana'a, kamar likitoci, ma'aikatan jinya, da lauyoyi.[1]

Bayan Amurka ta shiga Yaƙin Duniya na I watan Afrilu na shekara ta 1917, mutane da yawa sun kalli masu zanga-zangar Silent Sentinels a matsayin marasa aminci. Paul ya tabbatar da cewa za a ci gaba da yin zanga-zanga. A watan Yunin 1917, an kama masu zanga-zangar saboda "tsayar da zirga-zirga". A cikin watanni shida masu zuwa, an yanke wa mutane da yawa, ciki har da Paul, hukunci kuma an tsare su a Gidan aiki na Occoquan a Virginia (wanda daga baya ya zama Lorton Correctional Complex) da Gundumar Columbia.

Lokacin da jama'a suka ji labarin kamawar farko, wasu sun yi mamakin cewa manyan 'yan mata da mata masu alaƙa da juna suna zuwa kurkuku saboda zanga-zangar lumana. Shugaba Wilson ya sami mummunar tallace-tallace daga wannan taron kuma ya yi fushi da matsayin da aka tilasta masa shiga. Nan da nan ya gafarta wa mata na farko da aka kama a ranar 19 ga Yuli, kwana biyu bayan an yanke musu hukunci, amma ya ci gaba da bayar da rahoto game da kamawa da cin zarafin. Alal misali, Jaridar Boston ta bayyana cewa, "Ƙaramin ƙungiyar da ke wakiltar NWP an yi mata cin zarafi kuma an yi mata rauni daga ma'aikatan gwamnati, sojoji, da ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa har sai ƙoƙarin da take yi na jawo hankalin Shugaban kasa ya nutse cikin lamirin dukan al'umma".[2]

Suffragists sun ci gaba da yin zanga-zanga a waje da Fadar White House bayan gafarar Wilson kuma a duk lokacin yakin duniya na farko. Banners din su sun ƙunshi irin waɗannan taken kamar "Mista Shugaba, Yaya Tsawon Lokaci Mata Su Yi Tsaro ga 'Yanci?" [3] da kuma "Za Mu yi Yaƙi da Abubuwan da muke Tsayawa Kusan Zuciyarmu - Don Dimokuradiyya, Don Hakkin Wadanda suka miƙa wa Hukuma don samun Murya a cikin Gwamninsu. " Tare da fatan kunyatar da Wilson, wasu daga cikin banners sun nakalto kalmomin Wilson a kansa. Wilson ya yi watsi da waɗannan mata, amma 'yarsa Margaret ta yi murna, babbar nasara ga masu zanga-zangar. Kodayake masu goyon bayan sufragists sun yi zanga-zanga cikin lumana, wasu lokuta ana adawa da zanga-zangarsu. Yayin da suke zanga-zangar, samari za su tsananta wa mata kuma su buge su, tare da 'yan sanda ba su taɓa shiga tsakani a madadin masu zanga-zambe ba. Har ma 'yan sanda za su kama wasu maza da suka yi kokarin taimakawa matan da ake yi musu duka. Ko da yake sun yi zanga-zanga a lokacin yaƙi, sun ci gaba da tallafawa jama'a ta hanyar tayar da hankali. An kama wasu masu zanga-zangar kuma an tura su Occoquan ko Gundumar Gundumar a duk wannan lokacin. Ba a sake ba da gafara ba.[2]

Kurkuku, yajin aikin yunwa, da kuma wucewar Kwaskwarima ta goma sha tara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Paul toasting (tare da ruwan inabi) sashi na Kwaskwarima ta goma sha tara a ranar 26 ga watan Agusta, 1920 [4]

A cikin hadin kai tare da sauran masu fafutuka a cikin kungiyarta, Paul da gangan ya yi ƙoƙari ya karɓi hukuncin ɗaurin watanni bakwai wanda ya fara a ranar 20 ga Oktoba, 1917. Ta fara yin hidima a lokacinta a Gundumar Gundumar.[25]

Ko an tura su Occoquan ko Kurkukun Gundumar, ba a ba mata kulawa ta musamman ba a matsayin fursunonin siyasa. Dole ne su zauna a cikin mawuyacin hali tare da rashin tsabta, abinci mai cike da abinci, da kuma mummunan wurare.[2] Don nuna rashin amincewa da yanayin da ke gidan yarin gundumar, Paul ya fara yajin aikin yunwa. Wannan ya haifar da cewa an tura ta zuwa asibitin asibiti na kurkuku kuma an tilasta ta ciyar da ƙwai ta hanyar bututun abinci. "Yana kama da kusan ba za a iya tunaninsa ba yanzu, shin ba haka ba ne?" Paul ya gaya wa wani mai tambayoyin daga American Heritage lokacin da aka tambaye shi game da ciyar da tilas, "Yana da ban tsoro cewa gwamnatin maza za ta iya kallon irin wannan matsanancin raini ga motsi wanda ke neman komai sai dai irin wannan ƙaramin abu mai sauƙi kamar haƙƙin jefa kuri'a. "

A ranar 14 ga Nuwamba, 1917, 'yan adawa da aka daure a Occoquan sun jimre da zalunci da ake zargi da amincewa da hukumomin kurkuku wanda aka fi sani da "Night of Terror". Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa (NWP) ta je kotu don nuna rashin amincewa da yadda ake bi da mata kamar Lucy Burns, Dora Lewis, da Alice Cosu, abokin zamanta a Kurkukun Occoquan, wanda ya kamu da ciwon zuciya yayin da ya ga yanayin Dora.[5] Daga baya aka tura matan zuwa Gundumar Gundumar inda Paul ya lalace. Duk da zalunci da ta fuskanta kuma ta shaida, Paul ya kasance ba tare da tsoro ba. A ranar 27 da 28 ga watan Nuwamba, an saki dukkan 'yan adawa daga kurkuku.[19] A cikin watanni biyu, Wilson ta sanar da lissafin kan 'yancin mata na jefa kuri'a.[5]

Bayan Zaɓin Ƙara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan Suffrage, Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa (NWP) ta ci gaba da yin lobby a Majalisa da kasashen waje, tana ba da shawara ga daidaito na doka ga mata. Alice Paul da mambobin NWP sun sami nasarar yin amfani da su don hada tanadin daidaito a cikin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, kamar kalmar nan "daidaitaccen haƙƙin maza da mata da na manyan da ƙananan ƙasashe". An ba da NWP tare da tsara sama da 300 na dokoki waɗanda suka zama doka. Paul ta kasance a cikin mukamai na jagoranci, a hukumance da kuma ba bisa ka'ida ba, har sai da ta koma Connecticut a shekara ta 1974.

Kwaskwarimar Daidaita Hakki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
In January 2019, the House and Senate introduced resolutions to remove the deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, which was added in 1972 and which Paul accurately predicted would compromise the ERA's chances for success.

Da zarar an sami 'yancin zaɓe a cikin 1920, Paul da wasu mambobin Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa sun mai da hankali ga tabbacin tsarin mulki na daidaito ta hanyar Kwaskwarimar Hakkin Haɗin Kai (ERA), wanda Paul da Crystal Eastman suka rubuta.[6] An tsara shi kuma an gabatar da shi ga Majalisa a cikin 1923, rubutun asali na Kwaskwarimar Daidaitaccen Hakki - wanda Paul da Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa suka kira "Lucretia Mott Amendment" don girmama wannan mai adawa da bautar da masu fafutuka na ƙarni na baya - karanta, "Maza da mata za su sami daidaito daidai a duk faɗin Amurka kuma duk wani wuri da ke ƙarƙashin ikon ta" A cikin 1943, an sake sunan gyaran da shi "Alice Paul Amendment, kuma ya ƙunshi kalmomin da aka rage shi zuwa ga wannan tsarin mulki wanda har yanzu ya wanzuwar Amurka ba za ta hanyar Amurka ba za a duk wani asusun da ita ba.[7][8] Paul ya fahimci darajar siyasa guda ɗaya don gina hadin gwiwa da tabbatar da nasara.[9]

Ba kowa ya amince da matakan gaba ko ERA ba; daga farko, gyaran yana da masu sukar sa. Duk da yake gwagwarmayar Paul a cikin shekaru bayan sufuri ta mayar da hankali kan tabbatar da kariya ta doka don daidaito na mata a Amurka da kasashen waje, wasu masu gwagwarmaya da wasu mambobin NWP sun mayar da hankali ga batutuwa da yawa daga kula da haihuwa da sanyaya iska zuwa ilimantar da sabbin mata masu jefa kuri'a. Wasu daga cikin abokan Paul na baya a cikin sufuri sun sami ERA mai wahala, musamman tunda sun yi imanin cewa zai lalata dokokin kariya - dokoki game da yanayin aiki ko mafi yawan sa'o'i da ke kare mata a wurin aiki. Idan ERA ta tabbatar da daidaito, abokan adawar sun yi jayayya, dokokin kariya ga mata za su zama marasa amfani kuma marasa amfani. Kungiyar masu jefa kuri'a ta mata (LWV), wacce ta goyi bayan dokokin wurin aiki ga mata, ta yi adawa da Kwaskwarimar Daidaitaccen Hakki. Paul da abokan aikinta, ciki har da ƙaramin rukuni daga NWP, sun yi tunanin cewa dokokin wurin aiki na jima'i sun ƙuntata ikon mata na yin gasa don aiki tare da maza da samun albashi mai kyau. A zahiri, Paul ya yi imanin cewa dokokin kariya sun cutar da masu karbar albashi saboda wasu ma'aikata sun kore su kawai maimakon aiwatar da kariya a kan yanayin aiki wanda ke kare mata. An biya mata ƙasa da maza, sun rasa ayyuka suna buƙatar su yi aiki da daddare - sau da yawa haramtacciyar doka a ƙarƙashin dokokin kariya - kuma an daɗe an hana su shiga ƙungiyoyin kwadago daidai da maza. Ta kuma yi imanin cewa ya kamata a bi da mata a karkashin doka kamar yadda maza suke ba a matsayin aji da ke buƙatar kariya ba. Ga Paul, irin wannan kariya wani nau'i ne kawai na "rashin daidaito na doka," matsayin da Harriot Stanton Blatch ya raba.[10] Ga Paul, ERA ita ce hanya mafi inganci don tabbatar da daidaito na doka. Paul ya yi tsammanin ma'aikatan mata su taru a bayan ERA; wasu sun yi, da yawa ba su yi ba. Duk da yake da farko, akwai bege tsakanin mambobin NWP cewa za su iya tsara lissafin da zai inganta daidaito yayin da yake tabbatar da kariya ta aiki ga mata, ga Paul, wannan ya saba wa juna. Abin da ya fi haka, ta yi mamakin lokacin da Florence Kelley, Ethel Smith, Jane Addams, da sauran masu goyon bayan mata suka rabu da ita kuma suka dace da dokokin kariya.

Yayinda Paul ta ci gaba da aiki tare da NWP har ma ta sake zama shugaban kasa a cikin shekarun 1940, ta ci gaba leken asiri ga daidaito na mata a matsayin aikinta na musamman. Tare da ERA, Paul ya yi aiki a madadin irin wannan kokarin a cikin dokokin jihohi da kuma yanayin kasa da kasa. Ta taimaka wajen tabbatar da cewa sanarwar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta haɗa da daidaito ga mata. Ta yi fatan cewa wannan zai karfafa Amurka ta bi hakan. Paul ya yi aiki don canza dokokin da suka canza matsayin 'yan ƙasa na mace bisa ga na mijinta. A Amurka, matan da suka auri maza daga kasashen waje sun rasa 'yancin Amurka kuma Amurka ta dauke su' yan ƙasa na kowace ƙasa da mazajensu suka fito. Ga Bulus, wannan keta daidaito ne. Saboda haka, ta yi nasarar yin aiki a madadin Yarjejeniyar Daidaita Kasa ta Duniya a 1933 da kuma Amurka don nasarar aiwatar da Dokar Daidaita Kasuwanci a 1934, wanda ya bar mata su riƙe 'yancin su a lokacin aure. Bayan da aka kafa Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a 1945, Paul ya so ya tabbatar da cewa daidaito na mata wani bangare ne na sashin kungiyar kuma cewa Hukumar Kula da 'Yancin Dan Adam ta haɗa da mayar da hankali kan daidaito na Mata a cikin Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[11] Ta yi nasara: fitowar karshe ta sanarwar a 1948 ta buɗe tare da ambaton "daidaitaccen haƙƙin maza da mata".

An gabatar da ERA a Majalisa a cikin 1923 kuma yana da tsaunuka da kwari daban-daban na tallafi a cikin shekaru masu zuwa yayin da Paul ya ci gaba da turawa don wucewa. Akwai rahotanni masu kyau na kwamitin a Majalisa a ƙarshen shekarun 1930, kuma tare da ƙarin mata da ke aiki a ayyukan maza a lokacin yakin, goyon bayan jama'a ga ERA ya karu. A shekara ta 1946, ERA ta wuce da kuri'u uku a Majalisar Dattijai, ba mafi rinjaye da ake buƙata don ci gaba ba. Shekaru hudu bayan haka, zai sami kuri'un Majalisar Dattijai amma ya kasa a cikin Majalisar, don haka ya dakatar da shi daga ci gaba.[12]

An karfafa Paul lokacin da gwagwarmayar mata ta sami tururi a cikin shekarun 1960 da 1970, wanda ta yi fatan zai nuna nasara ga ERA. Lokacin da lissafin ya wuce Majalisa a 1972, Paul bai yi farin ciki ba game da canje-canje a cikin kalmomin ERA wanda yanzu ya haɗa da iyakar lokaci don tabbatar da wucewarsa.[13] Masu ba da shawara sun yi jayayya cewa wannan sulhu - sabon lokacin da aka kara shekaru bakwai don tabbatarwa a cikin jihohi - ya ba da damar wucewar ERA a Majalisa, amma Paul ya yi hasashen cewa hada iyakar lokaci zai tabbatar da cin nasara. Bugu da kari, wannan sigar ta sanya ikon tilasta aiki a hannun gwamnatin tarayya kawai; asalin Paul da kuma sake fasalin 1943 ya buƙaci jihohi biyu da gwamnatin tarayya su kula da tanadinta. Fassarar Paul ta kasance mai basira da dabarun siyasa: 'yan siyasa da suka yi imani da haƙƙin jihohi, gami da jihohin Kudancin da yawa, [14] sun fi dacewa da tallafawa ERA wanda ya ba jihohi wasu ikon tilasta iko fiye da sigar da ba ta yi ba.[10] An tabbatar da cewa Paul daidai ne: yayin da ERA ta sami karin shekaru uku daga Majalisa, ya kasance jihohi uku ba tare da waɗanda ake buƙata don tabbatarwa ba.

Paul ya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen kara kariya ga mata a cikin Title VII na Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964, duk da adawar masu sassaucin ra'ayi waɗanda suka ji tsoron hakan zai kawo karshen dokokin kariya ga Mata. An kara haramtacciyar nuna bambancin jima'i ga Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta Howard W. Smith, wani dan jam'iyyar Democrat mai iko na Virginia wanda ya jagoranci Kwamitin Dokokin Majalisar. An amince da gyaran Smith ta hanyar kuri'un mai ba da kuɗi na 168 zuwa 133. Shekaru ashirin, Smith ya dauki nauyin Kwaskwarimar Daidaitaccen Hakki a cikin House saboda ya yi imani da daidaito ga mata, duk da cewa ya yi adawa da daidaito na baƙi. Shekaru da yawa, ya kasance kusa da Jam'iyyar Mata ta Kasa, musamman ga Paul. Ita da sauran 'yan mata sun yi aiki tare da Smith tun 1945, suna ƙoƙarin neman hanyar da za ta haɗa jima'i a matsayin ƙungiyar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam.[15]

Alice Paul, kamar yawancin mata da masu tsattsauran ra'ayi na farko, ta yi adawa da zubar da ciki. An nakalto Paul yana cewa, "Abortion shine mafi girman cin zarafin mata". [16]

Kabarin Paul a Cinnaminson, New Jersey

Paul tana da rayuwar zamantakewa har sai da ta koma Washington, DC, a ƙarshen 1912. Ta kasance memba mai aiki a cikin ''Ya'ya mata na juyin juya halin Amurka . [17] Tana jin daɗin dangantaka ta kusa da mata kuma ta yi abota da kuma wasu lokuta tare da maza. Paul bai adana wasiƙu na sirri ba ga mafi yawanci, don haka akwai ƙananan bayanai game da rayuwarta. Da zarar Paul ta ba da kanta ga lashe kuri'un mata, sai ta sanya kokarin sufuri na farko a rayuwarta. Duk da haka, Elsie Hill da Dora Kelly Lewis, mata biyu da ta sadu da su tun da wuri a cikin aikinta na NAWSA, sun kasance kusa da ita duk rayuwarsu. Ta san William Parker, masanin da ta sadu da shi a Jami'ar Pennsylvania, na shekaru da yawa; yana iya gabatar da tayin aure a shekarar 1917.[56]

A shekara ta 1974, Paul ya kamu da bugun jini kuma an sanya shi a gidan kula da tsofaffi a ƙarƙashin kulawar dan uwanta, wanda ya lalata dukiyarta. Labarin jiharta ba tare da kudi ba ya kai ga abokai, kuma asusun ajiyar Quaker da sauri ya taimaka wa Paul. Paul ya mutu yana da shekaru 92 a ranar 9 ga Yuli, 1977, a Greenleaf Extension Home wani wurin Quaker a Moorestown, New Jersey, kasa da mil daga wurin haihuwarta da gidan yarinta. [18][19] An binne ta a Westfield Friends Burial Ground a Cinnaminson, New Jersey . Baƙi galibi suna barin bayanan a kan kabarinta don gode mata saboda aikinta na tsawon rayuwarta a madadin haƙƙin mata.

Paul da aka nuna a shirin auren farko na 2012 na tsabar kudi na dala goma a matsayin mai maye gurbin shugaban kasa ba shi da matar aure
Gidan zama na Alice Paul a Kwalejin Swarthmore a Swarth More, Pennsylvania, mai suna don girmama Paul

An shigar da Paul a cikin Hall of Fame na Mata na Kasa a 1979, [20] kuma a cikin Hall na Fame na New Jersey a 2010.

Alma mater dinta, Kwalejin Swarthmore, ta ba da sunan Cibiyar Mata ta Alice Paul don girmama ta, sunan da ake amfani da shi daga 1975 zuwa farkon shekarun 1990. [21] A shekara ta 2004, Swarthmore ta bude gidan zama na Alice Paul. Jami'ar Jihar Montclair a New Jersey ta kuma ba da sunan ɗakin kwana (Alice Paul Hall) don girmama ta. A ranar 12 ga Afrilu, 2016, Shugaba Barack Obama ya sanya gidan Sewall-Belmont a matsayin Belmont-Paul Women's Equality National Monument, mai suna Alice Paul da Alva Belmont . [22] Jami'ar Pennsylvania, alma mater dinta na digiri, tana kula da Cibiyar Alice Paul don Bincike kan Jima'i, Jima'a, da Mata. [23]

Kasashe biyu sun girmama ta hanyar bayar da hatimi: Biritaniya a 1981 [24] da Amurka a 1995. Stamp din Amurka shine jerin manyan Amurkawa na $ 0.78.[25]

Paul ya bayyana a kan tsabar zinare na rabin ounce na Amurka a cikin 2012 a matsayin wani ɓangare na jerin tsabar zinariya na farko. Wani tanadi a cikin Shirin Kudin Shugaban kasa na $ 1 ya ba da umarnin cewa a girmama ma'aurata na Shugaban kasa. Kamar yadda Shugaba Chester A. Arthur ya kasance gwauruwa, an nuna Paul yana wakiltar "zamanin Arthur". Ma'aikatar Baitulmalin Amurka ta ba da sanarwar a cikin 2016 cewa hoton Bulus zai bayyana a bayan sabon lissafin $ 10 tare da Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, da kuma 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession wanda Paul ya fara kuma ya shirya.

A shekara ta 1987, wata kungiya ta mata ta New Jersey ta tara kudi don siyan takardun Paul lokacin da suka zo don siyarwa don a kafa tarihin. Takardunta da abubuwan tunawa yanzu suna hannun ɗakin karatu na Schlesinger a Jami'ar Harvard, da kuma Smithsonian Institution a Washington, DC. A cikin 1990, wannan rukuni, yanzu Cibiyar Alice Paul, ta sayi gidan gona na tubali, Paulsdale, a Dutsen Laurel, New Jersey, inda aka haifi Paul. Paulsdale alama ce ta Tarihi ta Kasa kuma tana kan New Jersey da National Registers of Historic Places . Cibiyar Alice Paul ta kiyaye gadonta da rai tare da nune-nunen ilimi game da rayuwarta, nasarorin da ta samu, da kuma bayar da shawarwari don daidaiton jinsi.[26][27]

Hilary Swank ta buga Paul a cikin fim din 2004 Iron Jawed Angels, wanda ya nuna yunkurin mata na 1910 don wucewa na Kwaskwarimar 19. A cikin 2018, Alice Paul ta kasance babban hali a cikin wani labari na Timeless (Season 2, Episode 7) wanda ke nuni da Paul yana ba da jawabi mai ban sha'awa ga Shugaba Woodrow Wilson yayin tafiya wanda ya ƙare da tashin hankali na 'yan sanda a kan masu zanga-zangar. A cewar tarihi, Paul ya kasance a taron kuma an kama shi, amma babu wata shaida da ta yi magana da Wilson a wannan rana. A cikin 2022, Suffs, wani kiɗa da Shaina Taub ta rubuta, an fara shi a Gidan wasan kwaikwayo na Jama'a tare da Alice Paul a matsayin babban hali.[28]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :14
  2. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Dodd
  3. ↑ Bernikow, Louise (October 30, 2004). "Night of Terror Leads to Women's Vote in 1917". Women's eNews.
  4. ↑ "Who Was Alice Paul?". Alice Paul Institute. Archived from the original on September 9, 2014. Retrieved April 6, 2017.
  5. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  6. ↑ "Alice Paul Biography". Lakewood Public Library: Women in History. Archived from the original on June 19, 2006. Retrieved May 1, 2006.
  7. ↑ "Women of Protest: Photographs of the National Woman's Party". Library of Congress.
  8. ↑ "Alice Paul Institute: History of the Equal Rights Amendment". www.alicepaul.org/era/. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
  9. ↑ Cott, Nancy F. (June 1984). "Feminist Politics in the 1920s: The National Woman's Party". Journal of American History: 7. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
  10. 1 2 Fry, Amelia R. (September 1995). "Alice Paul and the ERA". Social Education: 285–289. .
  11. ↑ "Alice Paul". National Park Service; Belmont-Paul Women's Equality. Retrieved March 1, 2019.
  12. ↑ "Chronology of the Equal Rights Amendment, 1923–1996". National Organization for Women. January 21, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2019.
  13. ↑ Fry, Amelia (September 1995). "Alice Paul and the ERA". Social Education: 285–286. .
  14. ↑ Kyvig, David E. (1996). "Historical Misunderstandings and the Defeat of the Equal Rights Amendment". The Public Historian. 18 (1): 54–55. doi:10.2307/3377881. JSTOR 3377881.
  15. ↑ Freeman, Jo (March 1991). "How 'Sex' Got into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy". Law and Inequality. 9 (2): 163–184.
  16. ↑ "BBC – Ethics – Abortion: Early feminists". www.bbc.co.uk (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-02-09.
  17. ↑ "Suffrage March Centennial Anniversary Online Exhibition". Daughters of the American Revolution. Retrieved October 12, 2024.
  18. ↑ "Greenleaf Extension Home". Archived from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Education
  20. ↑ "Alice Paul". National Women's Hall of Fame.
  21. ↑ "Women's Resource Center Records". TriCollege Libraries Archives and Manuscripts.
  22. ↑ Hefler, Jan (April 14, 2016). "White House honors Alice Paul's Washington headquarters". Philly.com.
  23. ↑ University of Pennsylvania (January 21, 2020). "Alice Paul Center". Alice Paul Center.
  24. ↑ Macaulay, Susan. "Alice Paul (Suffragette/Political Activist)". amazingwomenrock.com (in Turanci). Retrieved June 25, 2018.
  25. ↑ "78-Cent Paul". Arago: People, Postage & The Post. July 6, 1995. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
  26. ↑ "Permanent Exhibit Opens at Alice Paul Institute – Mid-Atlantic Regional Center for the Humanities". march.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original on February 23, 2022. Retrieved June 28, 2019.
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Institute
  28. ↑ "Suffs (Off-Broadway, Public Theater/Newman Theater, 2022)". Playbill (in Turanci). Retrieved April 9, 2022.

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Iron Jawed Angels, fim na 2004 game da Alice Paul da Lucy Burns da motsi, wanda ya haifar da wucewar Kwaskwarimar goma sha tara.
  • Jerin shugabannin kare hakkin bil'adama
  • Jerin masu goyon bayan mata da mata
  • Jerin masu fafutukar kare hakkin mata
  • Jerin lokaci na zaɓen mata
  • Jerin lokaci na zaɓen mata a Amurka
  • Kungiyoyin 'yancin mata

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Paul&oldid=734520"