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Babban madatsar ruwa ta Aswan

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Babban madatsar ruwa ta Aswan
سد أسوان
Wuri
Ƴantacciyar ƙasaMisra
Governorate of Egypt (en) FassaraAswan Governorate (en) Fassara
Geographical location Nil
Flanked by Nil
Coordinates 23°58′17″N 32°52′49″E / 23.97143°N 32.88019°E / 23.97143; 32.88019
Map
Altitude (en) Fassara 171 m, above sea level
History and use
Opening1960
Manager (en) Fassara General Authority for the High Dam and Aswan Reservoir
Maximum capacity (en) Fassara 2,100 megawatt (en) Fassara

Babban madatsar ruwa Aswan, wanda galibi ake kira kawai madatsar ruwa ta Aswan, tana ɗaya daga cikin manyan madatsar jiragen ruwa a duniya, wanda aka gina tsakanin 1960 da 1970 a fadin Kogin Nilu a Aswan, Misira. Gwamnatin Masar ce ta haɓaka aikin tare da taimakon Tarayyar Soviet don inganta kula da ambaliyar ruwa, samar da ƙarin ajiyar ruwa don ban ruwa da samar da wutar lantarki. An ga madatsar ruwan a matsayin muhimmiyar mahimmanci ga shirye-shiryen Masana'antu na kasar. Kamar aiwatarwa da ta gabata, Babban Dam din ya yi tasiri sosai ga tattalin arziki da al'adun Masar.

Lokacin da aka kammala shi, shi ne madatsar ruwa mafi tsayi a duniya, wadda ta zarce madatsar ruwa ta Chatuge a Amurka. An gina madatsar ruwa, wadda ta ƙirƙiri madatsar ruwa ta tafkin Nasser, 7 km (4.3 mi) sama da madatsar ruwan Aswan Low, wanda aka kammala a shekarar 1902 kuma an riga an yi amfani da shi sosai.

Da yake an gina tsohon madatsar ruwa, ambaliyar ruwa ta shekara-shekara ta kogin Nilu a ƙarshen bazara ta ci gaba da wucewa ba tare da wani cikas ba a kwarin daga magudanar ruwa ta Gabashin Afirka . Waɗannan ambaliyar ruwa suna kawo ruwa mai yawa tare da abubuwan gina jiki na halitta da ma'adanai waɗanda ke wadatar da ƙasa mai kyau a gefen ambaliyar ruwa da kuma yankin delta ; wannan hasashen ya sa kwarin Nilu ya zama wuri mai kyau don noma tun zamanin da . Duk da haka, wannan ambaliyar ruwa ta halitta ta bambanta, domin shekarun ruwan sama masu yawa na iya lalata dukkan amfanin gona, yayin da shekarun ƙarancin ruwa na iya haifar da fari mai yawa da kuma yunwa . Duk waɗannan abubuwan biyu sun ci gaba da faruwa lokaci-lokaci.

Tarihin gini

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Yunkurin farko da aka rubuta na gina madatsar ruwa kusa da Aswan ya faru ne a ƙarni na 11, lokacin da Khalifan Fatim Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ya kira babban masanin ilmin taurari na Larabawa kuma injiniya Ibn al-Haytham (wanda aka sani da Alhazen a Yamma) zuwa Masar don daidaita ambaliyar ruwa ta Kogin Nilu, aikin da ke buƙatar yunƙurin gaggawa a madatsar ruwa ta Aswan. Bayan aikinsa a fagen ya shawo kansa game da rashin amfani da wannan makircin, kuma yana jin tsoron fushin Khalifa, ya yi kamar mahaukaci ne . An tsare shi a gidan yari tun daga 1011 har zuwa mutuwar al-Hakim a 1021, a lokacin ne ya rubuta littafinsa mai tasiri na Littattafan Haske .

Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan, 1898–1902

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Turawan Birtaniya sun fara gina madatsar ruwa ta farko a fadin kogin Nilu a shekarar 1898. Ginin ya ci gaba har zuwa shekarar 1902 kuma an bude madatsar ruwa a ranar 10 ga Disamba, 1902. Sir William Willcocks ne ya tsara aikin kuma ya kunshi fitattun injiniyoyi da dama, ciki har da Sir Benjamin Baker da Sir John Aird, wanda kamfaninsa, John Aird & Co., shine babban dan kwangilar.

Duk da cewa Dulles ya yi imanin cewa Nasser yana yin zamba ne kawai kuma Tarayyar Soviet ba za ta taimaki Nasser ba, ya yi kuskure: Tarayyar Soviet ta yi wa Nasser alƙawarin samun makamai da yawa don a biya shi da wuri na hatsi da audugar Masar. A ranar 27 ga Satumba, 1955, Nasser ya sanar da yarjejeniyar makamai, inda Czechoslovakia ta yi aiki a matsayin mai shiga tsakani don goyon bayan Tarayyar Soviet. Maimakon kai hari ga Nasser saboda komawa ga Tarayyar Soviet, Dulles ya nemi inganta dangantaka da shi. A watan Disamba na 1955, Amurka da Burtaniya sun yi alkawarin dala 56 da dala 14 miliyan, bi da bi, don gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan.

Gamal Abdel Nasser yana lura da aikin gina madatsar ruwa, 1963

Duk da cewa yarjejeniyar makamai ta Czech ta haifar da kwarin gwiwa ga Amurka ta zuba jari a Aswan, Birtaniya ta ambaci yarjejeniyar a matsayin dalilin soke alkawarinta na asusun madatsun ruwa. Dulles ya fusata sosai da amincewar da Nasser ya yi wa China a fannin diflomasiyya, wanda ya saba wa manufar Dulles ta takaita kwaminisanci.

Wasu dalilai da dama sun taimaka wa Amurka ta yanke shawarar janye tayinta na samar da kudaden gina madatsar ruwa. Dulles ya yi imanin cewa Tarayyar Soviet ba za ta cika alkawarinta na tallafawa sojoji ba. Ya kuma fusata da rashin daidaiton Nasser da kuma yunkurin yin amfani da bangarorin biyu na Yaƙin Cacar Baki . A lokacin, sauran kawayen Yammacin Turai a Gabas ta Tsakiya, ciki har da Turkiyya da Iraki, sun nuna rashin jin daɗin cewa ana ba wa Masar, ƙasa mai ci gaba da tsaka-tsaki, taimako mai yawa.

A watan Yunin 1956, Tarayyar Soviet ta ba Nasser dala $1.12 biliyan a kashi 2% na ribar ginin madatsar ruwan. A ranar 19 ga Yuli, Ma'aikatar Harkokin Wajen Amurka ta sanar da cewa tallafin kuɗi na Amurka ga Babban Madatsar ruwan "ba zai yiwu ba a halin yanzu."

A ranar 26 ga Yulin 1956, tare da yabo daga Masar, Nasser ya sanar da mayar da magudanar ruwa ta Suez ta ƙasa, wadda ta haɗa da diyya mai kyau ga tsoffin masu ita. Nasser ya tsara kuɗaɗen shiga da magudanar ruwa ke samu don taimakawa wajen samar da kuɗin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa. Lokacin da Yaƙin Suez ya ɓarke, Birtaniya, Faransa, da Isra'ila sun kwace magudanar ruwa da Sinai. Amma matsin lamba daga Amurka da Tarayyar Soviet a Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya da wasu wurare ya tilasta musu janyewa.

Duk da girmansa, aikin Aswan bai yi wa ma'aunin biyan bashin Masar illa ba. Kudaden Tarayyar Soviet guda uku sun rufe kusan dukkan buƙatun musayar kuɗi na ƙasashen waje na aikin, gami da kuɗin ayyukan fasaha, kayan aikin samar da wutar lantarki da na'urorin watsawa da aka shigo da su da kuma wasu kayan aikin da aka shigo da su don sake mallakar filaye. Masar ba ta fuskanci wani nauyi mai tsanani ba game da biyan bashin, yawancinsu an tsawaita su na tsawon shekaru 12 tare da riba mai ƙarancin kashi 2-1/2%. Biyan kuɗi ga Tarayyar Soviet ya ƙunshi ƙaramin magudanar ruwa ne kawai a rabin farko na shekarun 1960, kuma ƙaruwar kuɗin fitar da kaya da aka samu daga amfanin gona da aka noma a sabbin filayen da aka sake kwato sun fi daidaita matsakaicin biyan bashin da aka biya a cikin 'yan shekarun nan. A lokacin 1965-1970, waɗannan kuɗaɗen da aka samu daga fitarwa sun kai kimanin dala $126. miliyan, idan aka kwatanta da biyan bashin dala $113 miliyan. [1]

Gini da cika, 1960–1976

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Gaban tsakiyar ginin tunawa da Abotar Larabawa da Tarayyar Soviet. Wannan abun tunawa an gina shi ne don bikin kammala Babbar Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan. Shashen hagu yana ɗauke da tambarin Tarayyar Soviet, yayin da shashen dama kuma yake ɗauke da tambarin ƙasar Masar.

Haka kuma Tarayyar Soviet ta samar da kwararrun masana da manyan injinan aiki. Nikolai Aleksandrovich Malyshev na Cibiyar Hydroproject da ke Moscow ne ya tsara wannan katuwar madatsar ruwa ta dutse da yāka,[2][3] tare da taimakon wasu injiniyoyin ƙasar Masar. Injiniyoyi da ma'aikata 'yan ƙasar Masar guda 25,000 ne suka ba da gudummawa wajen ginin madatsun ruwan.

A da, injiniyoyin Jamus ta Yamma da na Faransa ne suka tsara aikin a farkon shekarun 1950, kuma an yi niyyar ba da kuɗaɗen aikin ta hanyar rance daga ƙasashen Yamma, sai dai Babbar Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan ta zama babban aikin taimako na ƙasashen waje mafi shahara na Tarayyar Soviet (USSR) bayan da Amurka, Burtaniya, da Bankin Duniya na Sake Gini da Ci gaba (IBRD) suka janye goyon bayansu a shekarar 1956. An ba da rancen farko na Soviet dalar amurka miliyan $100 a shekarar 1958 don biyan kuɗaɗen ginin madatsun ruwa na wucin gadi domin karkatar da kwararar kogin Nilu. An sake ba da ƙarin dalar amurka miliyan $225 a shekarar 1960 don kammala madatsar ruwan da gina wuraren samar da wutar lantarki, kuma bayan haka an samar da kusan dalar amurka miliyan $100 don farfaɗo da ƙasashe. Waɗannan lamuni na kusan dalar amurka miliyan $425 sun biya ne kawai kuɗaɗen musayar ƙasashen waje na aikin, gami da albashin injiniyoyin Soviet waɗanda suka lura da aikin kuma suka ɗauki alhakin girkawa da gwada kayan aikin na Soviet. Shirin ginin na gaske, wanda aka fara a shekarar 1960, kamfanonin ƙasar Masar ne suka yi shi a ƙarƙashin kwangila da Hukumar Babbar Madatsar Ruwa, kuma Masarawa ne suka ɗauki dukkan kuɗaɗen cikin gida. Shiga da Masar ta yi a cikin wannan harka ya ɗaukaka ƙarfi da mutuncin masana'antar gine-gine ta ƙasar sosai.[4]

A ɓangaren ƙasar Masar, kamfanin Arab Contractors na Osman Ahmed Osman ne ya jagoranci aikin. Matashin Osman ya ba da farashin kwangila wanda ya gaza na babban mai fafatawa da shi da rabi.[5]

  • 1960: An fara ginin a ranar 9 ga Janairu[6]
  • 1964: An kammala matakin farko na ginin madatsar ruwan, kuma tafkin ya fara cika da ruwa
  • 1970: An kammala Babbar Madatsar Ruwa, wato as-Sad al-'Aali, a ranar 21 ga Yuli[7]
  • 1976: Tafkin madatsar ruwan ya cika dakat da iyakar ƙarfinsa.

Zataccen Hoton Madatsar Ruwa

Bayanin Ƙa’idoji

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Aswan High Dam yana da tsawon 3,830 metres (12,570 ft). Yana da faɗin 980 m (3,220 ft) a ƙasan tushe, 40 m (130 ft) a saman (crest), kuma tsayinsa ya kai 111 m (364 ft)[8].

Yana ƙunshe da kimanin 43,000,000 cubic metres (56,000,000 cu yd) na kayan gini. A mafi girman aiki, yana iya fitar da ruwa har 11,000 cubic metres per second (390,000 cu ft/s). Haka kuma akwai hanyoyin gaggawa (emergency spillways) da za su iya fitar da ƙarin ruwa har 5,000 cubic metres per second (180,000 cu ft/s).

Hakanan, tashar Toshka Canal tana haɗa tafkin da ake kira Lake Nasser zuwa kwarin Toshka. Tafkin Lake Nasser yana da tsawon 500 km (310 mi)[9] kuma faɗinsa a mafi girma ya kai 35 km (22 mi).

Yana da yawan ruwa har 132 cubic kilometres (1.73×1011 cu yd). Jimillar sararin tafkin ya kai 5,250 square kilometres (2,030 sq mi).

Hoton panorama na Aswan Dam yana kallon kudu

Tsarin Ban Ruwa

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Ƙasashen gona kore masu ban ruwa a tsawon kogin Nilu a tsakiyar hamada
Madaidaicin ma'aunin ruwa
Manyan tsarin ban ruwa (a firi)

Sakamakon rashin samun isasshen ruwan sama mai kiyastawa, aikin jiran gona na ƙasar Masar ya dogara ne gaba ɗaya akan ban ruwa. Ta hanyar ban ruwa, ana iya yin girbi biyu a shekara, in ban da rami wanda ke ɗaukar kusan shekara guda yana girma.

Babbar madatsar ruwa ta Aswan tana bayar da kwararar ruwa, a matsakaici, mita kubik biliyan 55 (55 km3) a kowace shekara, inda kusan mita kubik biliyan 46 (46 km3) ake karkatar da su zuwa madatsun ruwa na ban ruwa.

A kwarin Nilu da bakin teku (delta), kusan murabba'in kilomita 336,000 (336,000 km2) ne ke amfana da waɗannan ruwaye inda suke samar da amfanin gona 1.8 a matsakaici a shekara. Amfanin ruwa na shekara-shekara na amfanin gona ya kai kusan mita kubik biliyan 38 (38 km3). Saboda haka, ingancin ban ruwa gaba ɗaya shine 38/46 = 0.826 ko kashi 83%. Wannan inganci ne mai girma na ban ruwa. Ingancin ban ruwa na fage ya yi ƙasa sosai, amma ana sake amfani da ruwan da aka rasa a can ƙasa rafi. Wannan sake amfani da ruwa akai-akai shi ne silar samar da babban inganci gaba ɗaya.

Teburin da ke ƙasa yana nuna rarraba ruwan ban ruwa a kan ƙananan madatsun ruwa da ke rassa daga babban madatsar ruwa guda ɗaya na ban ruwa, wato Madatsar Ruwa ta Mansuriya kusa da Giza.[10]

Ƙananan madatsun ruwa Isar da ruwa a m3/feddan *
Kafret Nasser 4,700
Beni Magdul 3,500
El Mansuria 3,300
El Hammami na sama 2,800
El Hammami na ƙasa 1,800
El Shimi 1,200
* Lokacin 1 ga Maris zuwa 31 ga Yuli. Feddan 1 daidai yake da hekta 0.42 ko kusan eka 1.
* Bayanai daga Aikin Gudanar da Amfanin Ruwa na Masar (EWUP)[11]

Yawan gishiri a cikin ruwan madatsar ruwa ta Aswan ya kai kusan kilogiram 0.25 a kowace mita kubik (0.25 kg/m3), matakin gishiri mai ƙasa sosai. A matsakaicin kwararar ruwa na shekara-shekara na mita kubik biliyan 55 (55 km3), shigar gishiri na shekara-shekara yana kaiwa tan miliyan 14. Matsakaicin yawan gishiri na ruwan magudanar ruwa da ake kora zuwa teku da tabukan dake gaɓar teku ya kai kilogiram 2.7 a kowace mita kubik (2.7 kg/m3).[12] A fitar ruwa na shekara-shekara na mita kubik biliyan 10 (10 km3) (ba a lissafta kilogiram 2 a kowace mita kubik (2 kg/m3) na shigar gishiri daga teku da tabuka ba, duba hoton "Madaidaicin ma'aunin ruwa"), fitar gishiri na shekara-shekara yana kaiwa tan miliyan 27. A shekarar 1995, fitar gishiri ya yi yawa fiye da shigar gishiri, kuma ƙasashen gona na Masar suna rage gishiri. Wani ɓangare na wannan na iya kasancewa ne saboda yawan ayyukan magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da aka gudanar a cikin shekarun da suka gabata domin sarrafa matakin ruwa da gishirin ƙasa.[13]

Kwashe ruwa ta hanyar magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da tashoshi na da matukar muhimmanci don hana lalacewar amfanin gona sakamakon matsalar ruwa (waterlogging) da gishirin ƙasa da ban ruwa ke haifarwa. Zuwa shekarar 2003, an samar wa fiye da murabba'in kilomita 20,000 (20,000 km2) tsarin magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa, kuma kusan murabba'in kilomita 7.2 na ruwa ake kwashewa a kowace shekara daga yankunan da ke da waɗannan tsarin. Jimillar kuɗin da aka kashe a magudanar ruwa na aikin gona cikin shekaru 27 daga 1973 zuwa 2002 ya kai kusan dalar amurka biliyan $3.1, wanda ya shafi kuɗin tsara aiki, gini, kulawa, bincike da horarwa. A cikin wannan lokacin, an aiwatar da manyan ayyuka guda 11 tare da tallafin kuɗi daga Bankin Duniya da sauran masu ba da tallafi.[14]

Tasiri

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Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan ta samar da kariya daga ambaliyar ruwa da fari, ta haifar da haɓakar aikin gona da samar da ayyukan yi, samar da wutar lantarki, da inganta sufurin ruwa wanda shi ma ke amfanar harkar buɗe ido. Sabanin haka, madatsar ruwan ta nutsar da wani babban yanki, wanda ya haifar da tsugunar da mutane fiye da 100,000. Yawancin wuraren tarihi na dā sun nitse a cikin ruwa yayin da aka ƙaura da wasu zuwa wani wurin. Ana zargin madatsar ruwan da haddasa zaizayar gaɓar teku, gishirin ƙasa, da matsalolin lafiya.

Kimantawa kan asarar da aka yi da kuma ribar da aka samu daga madatsar ruwan ya kasance abin muhawara shekaru da dama bayan kammala ta. Kamar yadda wani lissafi ya nuna, moriyar tattalin arziki na shekara-shekara na Babban Madatsar Ruwa nan da nan bayan kammala ta ya kasance fan miliyan 255 na ƙasar Masar ($587 miliyan ta amfani da canjin kuɗi na shekarar 1970 na dala $2.30 ga kowace fan 1 na Masar): fan miliyan 140 daga aikin gona, fan miliyan 100 daga samar da wutar lantarki ta ruwa, fan miliyan 10 daga kariya daga ambaliyar ruwa, da fan miliyan 5 daga inganta sufurin ruwa. A lokacin da aka gina ta, jimillar kuɗin da aka kashe, haɗi da wasu "ayyukan taimako" da ba a bayyana ba da kuma faɗaɗa layukan wutar lantarki, ya kai fan miliyan 450 na Masar. Idan ba a yi la'akari da mummunan tasirin muhalli da zamantakewa na madatsar ruwan ba, an kiyasta cewa an dawo da kuɗaɗen da aka kashe a kanta cikin shekaru biyu kacal.[15] Wani mai lura da al'amura ya lura cewa: "Tasirin Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan (...) ya kasance mai kyau ƙwarai da gaske. Kodayake madatsar ruwan ta ba da gudummawa ga wasu matsalolin muhalli, waɗannan sun kasance marasa tsanani fiye da yadda aka zata gaba ɗaya, ko kuma yadda mutane da yawa ke gaskatawa a halin yanzu."[16] Wani mai lura da al'amuran kuma bai yarda ba, inda ya ba da shawarar cewa ya kamata a rushe madatsar ruwan. Rushe ta zai ci kuɗi kaɗan ne kawai na kuɗaɗen da ake buƙata don "ci gaba da yaƙi da lahani da madatsar ruwan ke haifarwa" kuma ana iya dawo da hekta 500,000 na ƙasa mai kyau daga laka da ke kasan tafkin da aka kwashe ruwansa.[17] Samuel C. Florman ya rubuta game da madatsar ruwan: "A matsayinta na gini, an yi nasara. Amma a tasirinta a kan tsarin muhalli na kwarin Nilu – wanda yawancinsa za a iya hango shi tun da farko – gazawa ce".[18]

Ambaliyar ruwa da fari na lokaci-lokaci sun shafi Masar tun lokacin dā. Madatsar ruwan ta rage tasirin ambaliyar ruwa, kamar na shekarun 1964, 1973, da 1988. An inganta sufurin ruwa a tsawon kogin, a sama da kuma ƙasa da madatsar ruwan. Yin zirga-zirga a cikin teku a tsawon kogin Nilu wani babban aiki ne na buɗe ido da mutane suka fi so, wanda galibi ake yin sa lokacin hunturu lokacin da kwararar ruwan kogin Nilu na halitta zai yi ƙasa sosai da ba zai ba da damar jiragen ruwa na shakatawa su yi tafiya ba. An ƙirƙiri sabuwar masana'antar kamun kifi a kewayen Tafkin Nasser, kodayake tana fuskantar wahala saboda nisan da ke tsakaninta da duk wata babbar kasuwa. Yawan amfanin shekara-shekara ya kai kusan tan 35,000 a tsakiyar shekarun 1990. An kafa masana'antu na kamun kifi da shirya kaya kusa da Tafkin.[19]

Kamar yadda wani rahoto na sirri na hukumar CIA na shekarar 1971 ya nuna, kodayake Babban Madatsar Ruwa ba ta haifar da matsalolin muhalli masu tsanani kamar yadda wasu masu lura da al'amura ke zargi ba, gina ta ya kawo asarar tattalin arziki gami da riba. Waɗannan asarori sun samo asali ne mafi yawancinsu daga taruwar laka mai albarka a cikin tafkin madatsar ruwan wadda kogin Nilu ya saba ɗauko ta a dā. Zuwa lokacin (1971), babban tasirin ya kasance a kan masana'antar kamun kifi. Kamun kifi na Masar a cikin Tekun Bahar Rum, wanda a dā ya kai matsakaicin tan 35,000–40,000 a kowace shekara, ya ragu zuwa tan 20,000 ko ƙasa da haka, musamman saboda rashin ƙananan halittu na ruwa (plankton) waɗanda lakar ke ciyar da su, wanda hakan ya share kifin sardine a ruwayen Masar. Kamun kifi a cikin tafkin babban madatsar ruwan na iya rage asarar kifin ruwan gishiri a nan gaba, amma lissafi mafi inganci kawai ke nuna cewa za a iya kama tan 15,000–20,000 a ƙarshe. Rashin ci gaba da taruwar laka a bakin kogin ya kuma ba da gudummawa ga babbar matsalar zaizayar ƙasa. Bukatun takin zamani na kasuwanci da matsalolin gishiri da magudanar ruwa, waɗanda riga sun yi yawa a yankunan da ake ban ruwa na Tsakiya da Ƙasasar Masar, za su ƙaru kaɗan a Kudancin Masar saboda canji zuwa ban ruwa na dindindin.[4]

Kariya daga fari, aikin gona da samar da ayyukan yi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ƙauyen Masar ya amfana daga Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan ta hanyar ingantaccen ban ruwa da samar da wutar lantarki, kamar yadda aka nuna a nan a Al Bayadiyah, kudancin Luxor

Madatsun ruwan sun kuma kare Masar daga fari a shekarun 1972–1973 da 1983–1987 wanda ya daidaita Gabas da Yammacin Afirka. Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta bai wa Masar damar dawo da kusan feddan miliyan 2.0 (hekta 840,000) a yankin Delta na Nilu da kuma tsawon Kwarin Nilu, wanda ya ƙara yankin da ake ban ruwa na ƙasar da kashi ɗaya cikin uku. Wannan ƙaruwa ta samu ne ta hanyar ban ruwa ga abin da ya kasance hamada a dā da kuma noma hekta 385,000 waɗanda a dā ake amfani da su azaman wuraren jiran ambaliyar ruwa.[20] Kusan iyalai dubu ɗari biyar ne aka tsugunar a waɗannan sabbin ƙasashe. Musamman yankunan da ake noman shinkafa da rake sun ƙaru. Bugu da ƙari, kusan feddan miliyan 1 (hekta 420,000), mafi yawancinsu a Kudancin Masar, an canza su daga ban ruwa na ambaliya tare da girbi guda ɗaya kacal a shekara zuwa ban ruwa na dindindin wanda ke ba da damar girbi biyu ko fiye a shekara. A sauran ƙasashen da ake ban ruwa a dā, amfanin gona ya ƙaru saboda ana iya samun ruwa a lokuta masu muhimmanci na ƙarancin ruwa. Misali, amfanin alkama a Masar ya ninka sau uku tsakanin 1952 da 1991 kuma ingantuwar samun ruwa ya ba da gudummawa ga wannan ƙaruwa. Mafi yawan mita kubik biliyan 32 na ruwan sha, ko kusan kashi 40 na matsakaicin kwararar kogin Nilu wanda a dā ake asararsa a teku a kowace shekara, an sami damar amfani da shi ta hanya mai kyau. Yayin da kusan mita kubik biliyan 10 na ruwan da aka ajiye ke bita ta hanyar tiruri a Tafkin Nasser, adadin ruwan da ake da shi don ban ruwa har yanzu ya ƙaru da mita kubik biliyan 22.[19] Wasu lissafin sun nuna cewa tirurin ruwa daga Tafkin Nasser yana tsakanin mita kubik biliyan 10 da 16 a kowace shekara.[21]

Tawayoyin wutar lantarki a tashar samar da wutar lantarki ta Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan

Samar da wutar lantarki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tashar wutar lantarki ta Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan, tare da madatsar ruwan kanta a bango

Madatsar ruwan tana kunna injina guda goma sha biyu kowannensu mai ƙarfin 175 MW, tare da jimillar 2.1 GW. An fara samar da wutar lantarki a shekarar 1967. Lokacin da Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta fara kaiwa ga kololuwar aikinta a shekarar 1970, ta samar da kusan rabin wutar lantarki ta Masar (kusan kashi 15 cikin 100 zuwa shekarar 1998), kuma ta ba mafi yawan ƙauyukan Masar damar amfani da wutar lantarki a karon farko. Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta kuma inganta inganci da faɗaɗa tsofaffin tashoshin wutar lantarki na Aswan ta hanyar daidaita kwararar ruwa daga sama.[19] A lokacin da aka kammala ta, ita ce tashar wutar lantarki mafi girma a Afirka kuma ta 6 mafi girma a tashoshin samar da wutar lantarki ta ruwa a duniya.

An kammala duk ayyukan wutar lantarki na Babban Madatsar Ruwa kafin lokacin da aka tsara. An girka tare da gwada injina (turbines) guda goma sha biyu, wanda ya ba tashar ƙarfin 2,100 megawatts (MW), ko fiye da ninki biyu na jimillar ƙasa a shekarar 1960. Tare da wannan ƙarfin, tashar Aswan tana iya samar da biliyan 10 kWh na makamashi a kowace shekara. An kammala manyan layuka guda biyu na 500-kilovolt zuwa Alkahira, kuma an magance matsalolin farko na watsa wutar lantarki, waɗanda suka samo asali mafi yawancinsu daga tsofaffin abubuwan kariya (insulators). Har ila yau, barna da dakarun mamaya na Isra'ila suka yi wa babbar tashar canza wutar lantarki a shekarar 1968 an gyara ta, kuma tashar Aswan ta haɗu gaba ɗaya da hanyar sadarwar wutar lantarki a Ƙasasar Masar.[22] A canjin shekarar 1971, samar da wutar lantarki a Aswan ba zai kai fiye da rabin ƙarfin tashar na lissafi ba, saboda ƙarancin ruwa da kuma mabambantan tsarin amfani da ruwa na lokuta daban-daban don ban ruwa da samar da wuta. Bukatar ruwa ta aikin gona a lokacin rani ta wuce adadin da ake buƙata don biyan buƙatar wutar lantarki da ke da ƙasa a lokacin rani. Amfani mai yawa na ban ruwa a lokacin rani, duk da haka, zai bar ruwa maras isasshe ƙarƙashin ikon Masar don ba da damar samar da wutar lantarki a cikakken ƙarfi lokacin hunturu. Binciken fasaha ya nuna cewa matsakaicin amfanin shekara-shekara na biliyan 5 kWh da alama shi ne kaɗai za a iya dorewa saboda sauye-sauye a kwararar kogin Nilu.[23] Ana sa ran samar da wutar lantarki ta Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan zai fuskanci tasiri daga manyan madatsun ruwa na sama yayin tsawaitwar lokutan fari.[24]

Haɗari

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wani bincike da Nicol-André Berdellé ya gudanar a shekarar 2024 ya gano cewa ambaliya da kuma rugujewar Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan zai kasance bala'i ga Masar, domin da alama zai lalata mafi yawan yankunan da aka gina a ƙasar tare da haifar da asarar rayuka na miliyoyin mutane. Saboda girman Tafkin Nasser da kuma saurin faruwar irin wannan taron, zai kasance cikin mafi munanan ambaliyar ruwa a tarihi. Ƙasar da abin ya shafa ba zai yiwu a yi noma a kanta ba bayan haka saboda taurarren laka da zai rufe yawancin ƙasashen gona, wanda hakan zai haifar da yunwa mai yawa a Masar.

Dalilai masu yiwuwa na faruwar irin wannan taron da Berdellé ya ambata sun haɗa da gazawar Babbar Madatsar Ruwa ta Renaissance ta Habasha, harin soja a kan madatsar ruwan, ko kuma ambaliyar ruwan kogin Nilu mai girman gaske na shekara-shekara. Saboda ci gaba da taruwar laka a kasan tafkin Nasser, Berdellé ya ce irin wannan taron zai kasance mafi kusantar faruwa a kowace shekara kuma zai faru nan da shekaru da dama idan ba a ɗauki mataki ba. Berdellé ya ce ana amfani da madatsar ruwan a matakan ruwa marasa aminci kuma ya yi kira ga hukumomin Masar da su takaita matakan ruwa da kuma zurfafa magudanar ruwa ta Toshka.[25][26]

Tsugunarwa da biyan diyya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hoton tsohon garin Wadi Halfa da Tafkin Nasser ya nutsar

Tafkin Nasser ya nutsar da mafi yawan sassan ƙasasar Nubia kuma an tsugunar da mutane 100,000 zuwa 120,000 a Sudan da Masar.[27]

Wani hoto na Sabon Wadi Halfa, mazaunin da aka ƙirƙira a gaɓar Tafkin Nasser don adana wani ɓangare na mutanen da aka tsugunar daga tsohon garin Wadi Halfa

A Sudan, an ƙaura da mutane 50,000 zuwa 70,000 na Nubia na Sudan daga tsohon garin Wadi Halfa da ƙauyukansa na kewaye. Wasu an ƙaura da su zuwa sabon mazaunin da aka ƙirƙira a gaɓar Tafkin Nasser mai suna Sabon Wadi Halfa, wasu kuma an tsugunar da su kusan kilomita 700 kudu zuwa sararin samaniya na Butana kusa da garin Khashm el-Girba a saman Kogin Atbara. Yanayin can yana da lokacin damina na yau da kullun sabanin mazauninsu na hamada na dā inda kusan ba a samun ruwan sama. Gwamnati ta ɓata wani aikin ban ruwa, mai suna Tsarin Haɓaka Noma na Sabon Halfa don noman auduga, hatsi, rake da sauran amfanin gona. An tsugunar da mutanen Nubia a cikin ƙauyuka ashirin da biyar da aka tsara waɗanda suka haɗa da makarantu, wuraren kiwon lafiya, da sauran ayyuka, gami da ruwan famfo da wasu wutar lantarki.

A Masar, yawancin mutanen Nubia 50,000 an ƙaura da su kilomita uku zuwa goma daga kogin Nilu kusa da Edna da Kom Ombo, kilomita 45 a ƙasa da Aswan a cikin abin da ake kira "Sabuwar Nubia".[28] An gina gidaje da wurare don rukunin ƙauyuka 47 waɗanda dangantakar juna ta yi kusa da ta tsohuwar Nubia. An samar da ƙasashen ban ruwa don noman rake mafi yawancinsa.[29][30]

A cikin 2019–20, Masar ta fara biyan diyya ga mutanen Nubia waɗanda suka rasa gidajensu sakamakon taruwar ruwan madatsar.[31]

Wuraren tarihi na dā

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Mutum-mutumin Ramses Mai Girma a Babban Haikali na Abu Simbel an sake haɗa shi bayan an ƙaura da shi a shekarar 1967 don ceton sa daga nutsawa a ruwa.

Abubuwan tarihi guda ashirin da biyu da rukunonin gine-gine da ambaliyar ruwa daga Tafkin Nasser ke barazana gare su, gami da haikali na Abu Simbel, an kiyaye su ta hanyar ƙaura da su zuwa gaɓar tafkin ƙarƙashin Kamfen ɗin Nubia na UNESCO.[32] An kuma ƙaura da Philae, Kalabsha da Amada.[19]

An ba da waɗannan abubuwan tarihi ga ƙasashen da suka taimaka da ayyukan:

  • Haikali na Debod ga Madrid
  • Haikali na Dendur ga Gidan Tarihi na Fasaha na Metropolitan na New York
  • Haikali na Taffeh ga Rijksmuseum van Oudheden na Leiden
  • Haikali na Ellesyia ga Museo Egizio na Turin

An kwashe waɗannan abubuwa zuwa yankin lambu na Gidan Tarihi na Ƙasa na Sudan na Khartoum:[33]

  • Haikali na Ramses II a Aksha, Sudan
  • Haikali na Hatshepsut a Buhen
  • Haikali na Khnum a Kumma
  • Kabarin yariman Nubia Djehuti-hotep a Debeira
  • Haikali na Dedwen da Sesostris III a Semna
  • Shika-shikan granite daga Katolika na Faras
  • Wani ɓangare na zane-zane na Katolika na Faras; ɗayan ɓangaren yana Gidan Tarihi na Ƙasa na Warsaw.

Haikali na Ptah a Gerf Hussein an sake gina sashinsa na waje a Sabuwar Kalabsha, kusa da Haikali na Kalabsha, Beit el-Wali, da Kiosk na Qertassi.

Sauran wuraren tarihi na dā, gami da kariya ta Buhen da makabartar Fadrus, Tafkin Nasser ya nutsar da su.

Rashin laka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tafkin Nasser da ke bayan madatsar ruwan Aswan ya raba mutane fiye da 100,000 da mazaunansu kuma yana tara laka mai yawa.

Kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa, kogin Nilu ya saba ajiye laka na mabanbantan girma – wanda ya ƙunshi rairayi mai kyau, laka da yumbu – a kan gonaki a Kudancin Masar ta hanyar ambaliyarsa ta shekara-shekara, wanda ke taimakawa ga albarkar ƙasa. Sai dai kuma, galibi ana ƙara gishiri ga darajar sinadiran gina jiki na lakar. Kashi 88 cikin 100 na lakar ana kwashe ta zuwa teku kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa. Darajar sinadiran gina jiki da lakar ke ƙarawa ƙasar ta kasance tan 6,000 na potash kawai, tan 7,000 na phosphorus pentoxide da tan 17,000 na nitrogen. Waɗannan adadi ba su da yawa idan aka kwatanta da abin da ake buƙata don kaiwa ga amfanin gona da ake samu a yanzu a ban ruwa na Masar.[34] Har ila yau, bazuwar laka na shekara-shekara saboda ambaliyar kogin Nilu ya kasance yana faruwa ne a tsawon gaɓar kogin Nilu. Yankunan da ke da nisa da

Matsalar taruwar ruwa a ƙasa da haɓakar gishiri

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa, matakan ruwan ƙasa (groundwater) a Kwarin Nilu sun kasance suna canzawa tsakanin mita 8 zuwa 9 a kowace shekara dangane da matakin ruwan kogin Nilu. A lokacin rani lokacin da tirurin ruwa (evaporation) ya fi yawa, matakin ruwan ƙasar yana da zurfi sosai wanda ba ya ba da damar gishirin da ke narke a cikin ruwan ya fito sarari ta hanyar tsiyan ruwa na capillary (capillary action). Bayan bacewar ambaliyar ruwa ta shekara-shekara da kuma fara amfani da ban ruwa mai yawa na tsawon shekara, matakan ruwan ƙasa sun kasance a sama ba tare da wani gagarumin sauyi ba, wanda hakan ya haifar da matsalar taruwar ruwa a ƙasa (waterlogging). Gishirin ƙasa shi ma ya ƙaru saboda tazarar da ke tsakanin saman ƙasa da matakin ruwan ƙasa ta yi ƙanƙanta (mita 1 zuwa 2 dangane da yanayin ƙasa da yanayin zafi) ta yadda tirurin ruwa ke iya tsinci ruwan zuwa sama, wanda hakan ya sa ɗan ƙaramin gishirin da ke cikin ruwan ƙasar ya taru a saman ƙasa a tsawon shekaru. Tun da yake mafi yawan ƙasashen gona ba su da tsarin magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da ya dace don rage matakin ruwan ƙasar, matsalar gishiri ta hankali ta shafi amfanin gona.[20] Kwashe ruwa ta hanyar magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da tashoshi na da matukar muhimmanci don hana lalacewar amfanin gona sakamakon gishirin ƙasa da matsalar taruwar ruwa. Zuwa shekarar 2003, an samar wa fiye da hekta miliyan 2 tsarin magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa tare da kashe kuɗi da suka kai kusan dalar amurka biliyan $3.1 daga shekarar 1973 zuwa 2002.[35]

Lafiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Kurajen fata: alamun cutar schistosomiasis. Alamun da aka fi sani shi ne jini a cikin fitsari.

Sabanin hasashe da dama da aka yi kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan da kuma littattafan da suka biyo baya, na cewa yaduwar cutar fasa-kwari (schistosomiasis ko bilharzia) — wata cuta ta wurare masu zafi da ke yaɗuwa ta hanyar taɓa ruwan sha mai daɗi da ke ɗauke da tsutsotsi masu cutarwa — zai ƙaru, hakan bai faru ba.[36] Wannan zato bai yi la'akari da girman tsarin ban ruwa na dindindin wanda riga ya kasance a sassan Masar shekaru da dama kafin rufe babban madatsar ruwan ba. Zuwa shekarun 1950, ɗan ƙaramin ɓangare ne kawai na Kudancin Masar wanda ba a canza shi daga ban ruwa na ambaliya (mai ƙarancin yaɗuwar cuta) zuwa ban ruwa na dindindin (mai saurin yaɗuwar cuta) ba. Faɗaɗa tsarin ban ruwa na dindindin a Masar bai dogara ga babban madatsar ruwan ba. Hasali ma, cikin shekaru 15 da rufe babban madatsar ruwan, an sami tabbataccen shaida cewa cutar bilharzia tana raguwa a Kudancin Masar. Tun daga lokacin, nau'in cutar na S. haematobium ya bace gaba ɗaya. Dalilan da aka bayyana na hakan sun haɗa da ingantuwar hanyoyin ban ruwa. A yankin Delta na Nilu, cutar schistosomiasis ta daɗe tana da rishin gaske, inda yaɗuwar ta a ƙauyuka ya kai kashi 50% ko fiye da haka na kusan ƙarni guda kafin nan. Wannan ya kasance sakamakon canza yankin Delta da Turawan Ingila suka yi zuwa ban ruwa na dindindin don noman auduga mai dogon zare. Wannan yanayi ya canza. Manyan shirye-shiryen magani a shekarun 1990 ta hanyar amfani da kwayoyin magani na sha na lokaci guda sun ba da gudummawa ƙwarai wajen rage yaɗuwa da tsananin cutar S. mansoni a yankin Delta.

Sauran tasiri

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Lakar da ke taruwa a cikin madatsar ruwan tana rage ƙarfin adana ruwa na Tafkin Nasser. Ƙarfin adana ruwan na madatsar ruwan ya kai mita kubik biliyan 162 (162 km3), haɗi da mita kubik biliyan 31 na ruwan da ba ya fita (dead storage) a kasan tafkin ƙasa da mita 147 sama da matakin teku, mita kubik biliyan 90 na ruwan da ake amfani da shi (live storage), da mita kubik biliyan 41 na madadin adana ruwan ambaliya mai yawa sama da mita 175 sama da matakin teku. Yawan lakar da kogin Nilu ke ɗauko wa a shekara ya kai kusan tan miliyan 134. Wannan yana nufin cewa gurbin "dead storage" zai cike bayan shekaru 300 zuwa 500 idan lakar ta ci gaba da taruwa a daidai wannan mataki a duk faɗin tafkin. Babu shakka, lakar tana saurin taruwa a sassan sama na tafkin, inda taruwar lakar riga ta shafi yankin "live storage".[34]

Kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa, hanyoyin ban ruwa da magudanar ruwa masu tsawon kilomita 50,000 a Masar dole ne a riƙa kwashe laka daga cikinsu akai-akai. Bayan gina madatsar ruwan, ciyavin ruwa sun fara girma da sauri a cikin ruwa mai tsafta, sakamakon taimakon ragowar takin zamani. Jimillar tsawon hanyoyin ruwa da ciyawa suka mamaye ya kai kusan kilomita 27,000 a tsakiyar shekarun 1990. An shawo kan ciyavin a hankali ta hanyar amfani da hannu, injina, da hanyoyin kimiyyar halittu (biological methods).[19]

Kamun kifin sardine a cikin Tekun Bahar Rum kusa da gaɓar Masar ya ragu bayan kammala Madatsar Ruwa ta Aswan, amma ainihin dalilan raguwar har yanzu ana muhawara a kansu.

Kamun kifi na Tekun Bahar Rum da na tafkin ruwan gishiri ya ragu bayan kammala madatsar ruwan saboda sinadiran gina jiki da ke guduwa da kogin Nilu zuwa Bahar Rum sun makale a bayan madatsar ruwan. Misali, kamun kifin sardine a gaɓar teku ta Masar ya ragu daga tan 18,000 a shekarar 1962 zuwa tan 460 kacal a shekarar 1968, amma daga baya ya farfado a hankali zuwa tan 8,590 a shekarar 1992. Wani labarin kimiyya a tsakiyar shekarun 1990 ya lura cewa "rashin daidaituwa tsakanin ƙarancin amfanin farko na halittu da kuma babban matakin samar da kifi a yankin har yanzu yana daure wa masana kimiyya kai."[37]

Wata damuwa kafin gina Babban Madatsar Ruwa ita ce yiwuwar raguwar matakin kasan kogin a ƙasa da Madatsar Ruwan sakamakon zaizayar ƙasa da kwararar ruwa maras laka ke haifarwa. Kiyastawa da masana na ƙasa da na ƙasa da ƙasa daban-daban suka yi sun nuna wannan raguwar za ta kasance tsakanin mita 2 zuwa 10. Sai dai kuma, ainihin raguwar da aka auna ta kasance mita 0.3 zuwa 0.7, wanda ya yi ƙasa sosai fiye da yadda aka zata.[19]

Masana'antar yin jar bulo, wadda ta ƙunshi daruruwan masana'antu da ke amfani da lakar kogin Nilu a tsawon kogin, ita ma ta fuskanci mummunan tasiri. Sakamakon rashin laka, sun fara amfani da tsofaffin ƙasashe masu albarka na noma inda suke lalata har zuwa murabba'in kilomita 120 na ƙasa a kowace shekara, tare da kiyasin murabba'in kilomita 1,000 da aka lalata zuwa shekarar 1984 lokacin da gwamnati ta hana ci gaba da aikin haƙar ƙasar, "kodayake ba a sami cikakken nasara ba."[38] Kamar yadda wata majiya ta nuna, a halin yanzu ana yin bulo ne ta hanyar amfani da sabbin fasahohi da ke amfani da cakudin rairayi da yumbu, kuma an bayyana cewa masana'antar bulo ta laka za ta fuskanci matsala ko da ba a gina madatsar ruwan ba.[39]

Sakamakon raguwar dukaɗar ruwa (turbidity), hasken rana yana shiga da zurfi a cikin ruwan kogin Nilu. Saboda wannan dalili da kuma ƙaruwar sinadiran gina jiki daga takin zamani a cikin ruwan, ƙwayoyin algae masu yawa suna girma a cikin kogin Nilu. Wannan kuma yana ƙara kuɗin tace ruwan sha. A bayyane yake cewa kaɗan ne kawai daga cikin masana suka yi tsammanin cewa ingancin ruwa a kogin Nilu zai ragu a zahiri saboda Babban Madatsar Ruwa.[20]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "INTELLIGENCE MEMORANDUM ECONOMIC IMPRACT OF THE ASWAN HIGH DAM" (PDF). Cia Readingroom.
  2. ↑ MIL-OSI (January 16, 2024). "Legends of Russian science: Nikolai Aleksandrovich Malyshev". foreignaffairs.co.nz.
  3. ↑ Smith, Jean Edward (2012). Eisenhower in War and Peace (in Turanci). Random House Publishing Group. p. 694. ISBN 978-0679644293.
  4. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":0".
  5. ↑ "Osman the Efficient". Archived from the original on 2010-10-30. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  6. ↑ Collins, Robert O. (2002). The Nile. Yale University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-300-09764-6. robert collins the nile.
  7. ↑ "1970: Aswan Dam Completed". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
  8. ↑ "Aswan High Dam | dam, Egypt". Encyclopedia Britannica (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-10-24.
  9. ↑ "The spectacular failures and successes of massive dams". BBC News (in Turanci). 2020-03-11. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
  10. ↑ Impacts of the Irrigation Improvement Projects in Egypt. Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel and International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1999. Download from: Archived 2010-02-07 at the Wayback Machine , under nr. 4, or directly as PDF: Archived 2008-02-28 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ↑ Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt’s Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources
  12. ↑ Egyptian Drainage Research Institute, DRI, yearbook 1995/1996
  13. ↑ M.S.Abdel-Dayem, 1987. "Development of land drainage in Egypt." In: J.Vos (Ed.) Proceedings, Symposium 25th International Course on Land Drainage. ILRI publ. 42. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands
  14. ↑ Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, Drainage Research Institute, 2006: The National Drainage and Drainage Water Reuse Programs, Egypt, Local Actions at the 4th World Water Forum, 2 March 2007, accessed 28 April 2010
  15. ↑ Abul-Ata, Abdel Azim, "Egypt and the Nile after the Construction of the High Aswan Dam", Ministry of Irrigation and Land Reclamation, Cairo, 1978, quoted by Asit Biswas and Cecilia Tortajada, 2004
  16. ↑ Biswas, Asit K. (November–December 2002). "Aswan Dam Revisited: The Benefits of a Much-Maligned Dam". Development and Cooperation (6): 25–27. Archived from the original on 2011-06-15. Retrieved 2018-12-02.
  17. ↑ Professor Fouad Ibrahim, an Egyptian geoscientist teaching in Germany in a 1982 article quoted by Peter Wald: "25 Years Later:The Aswan High Dam Has Proven its Worth", Development and Cooperation 2/96, pp. 20–21
  18. ↑ Florman, Samuel C. (1994). The existential pleasures of engineering. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 20.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 M.A. Abu-Zeid & F. Z. El-Shibini: "Egypt's High Aswan Dam "Kwafin ajiya" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2026-06-13.", Water Resources Development, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 209–217, 1997
  20. 1 2 3 Schamp, Heinz (1983). "Sadd el-Ali, der Hochdamm von Assuan (Sadd el-Ali, the High Dam of Aswan)". Geowissenschaften in unserer Zeit (in Jamusanci). 1 (2): 51–85.
  21. ↑ M.A. Mosalam Shaltout, T. El Housry:Estimating the evaporation over Nasser Lake in the Upper Egypt from Meteosat observations, Advances in Space Research, 19 (3) (1997), pp. 515–518
  22. ↑ "Power plant profile: Aswan High dam, Egypt". 24 November 2021.
  23. ↑ "INTELLIGENCE MEMORANDUM ECONOMIC IMPRACT OF THE ASWAN HIGH DAM" (PDF).
  24. ↑ Heggy, Essam; Abotalib, Abotalib Z.; You, Jongeun; Hanert, Emmanuel; Ramah, Mohamed (9 December 2024). "Heggy, E. et al. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam can generate sustainable hydropower while minimizing downstream water deficit during prolonged droughts. Commun Earth Environ 5, 757 (2024)". Communications Earth & Environment. 5 (1): 757. doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01821-w. hdl:2078.1/294594.
  25. ↑ "Nicol-André Berdellé (2024) Breach of Aswan Dam - a realistic worst case scenario"
  26. ↑ "Nicol-André Berdellé (2025) Breach of Aswan Dam - brief follow-up report"
  27. ↑ Scudder, Thayer; Gay, John (2005), "A comparative survey of dam-induced resettlement in 50 cases" (PDF), in Scudder, Thayer (ed.), The Future of Large Dams: Dealing with Social, Environmental, Institutional and Political Costs, Earthscan, ISBN 1-84407-155-3
  28. ↑ Amer, Mourad (2019). "Rebuilding Cultural Identity: Nubian Rehabilitation along the Shore of Lake Nasser". Environmental Science and Sustainable Development: 19. doi:10.21625/essd.v3iss1.279.
  29. ↑ Scudder, Thayer (2003), The Aswan High Dam Case (PDF), pp. 11–12, archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-05, retrieved 2011-01-02
  30. ↑ Stock, Jill Kamil; photographs by Michael (1993). Aswan and Abu Simbel: history and guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 141–142. ISBN 977-424-321-8.
  31. ↑ "Egypt's PM witnesses compensation of Nubians displaced by dam construction". Egypt Today. 20 January 2020.
  32. ↑ The Rescue of Nubian Monuments and Sites Archived 2016-12-22 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO project site about Nubia Campaign.
  33. ↑ Reis, Michael (1999), Who is who in Ancient Egypt, p. 48 ISBN 0-415-15448-0
  34. 1 2 Abu Zeid, M.A. (September 1989). "Environmental impacts of the High Dam". Water Resources Development. 5 (3): 156.
  35. ↑ Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, Drainage Research Institute, 2006: The National Drainage and Drainage Water Reuse Programs, Egypt, Local Actions at the 4th World Water Forum, March 2, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
  36. ↑ Miller. F. DeWolfe et al. Schistosomiasis in Rural Egypt. 1978. United States Environment Protection Agency. EPA – 600/1-78-070.
  37. ↑ El-Sayed, Sayed; van Dijken, Gert L. (1995), The southeastern Mediterranean ecosystem revisited: Thirty years after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, archived from the original on 2011-01-04, retrieved 2011-01-02
  38. ↑ Scudder, Thayer (2003), The Aswan High Dam Case (PDF), p. 11, archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-05, retrieved 2011-01-02
  39. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Biswas and Tortajada".
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