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Bayar da Bayani na Yaƙin Duniya na II

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Bayar da Bayani na Yaƙin Duniya na II
war reparations (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Bangare na aftermath of World War II (en) Fassara
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Bayan yakin duniya na biyu, jamhuriyar tarayya da jamhuriyar dimokaradiyyar Jamus sun zama wajibi su biya diyya ga gwamnatocin kasashen kawance, a cewar taron Potsdam. An wajabta wa sauran ƙasashen Axis biyan diyya na yaƙi bisa ga yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya ta Paris, 1947. Ba a saka Ostiriya cikin ɗayan waɗannan yarjejeniyoyin ba.

Biyan kuɗi

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A cewar Taron Yalta, ba za a biya bashin ga ƙasashen Allied da kuɗi ba (ko da yake ba a bi wannan doka a cikin yarjejeniyoyi na baya ba). Maimakon haka, yawancin darajar da aka canja sun kunshi kadarorin masana'antu na Jamus da kuma tilasta aiki ga Allies.[1] An kara bayyana bukatun Allied a lokacin taron Potsdam. Za a biya diyya kai tsaye ga masu cin nasara guda huɗu (Faransa, Ingila, Amurka, da Tarayyar Soviet); ga ƙasashen da ke cikin tasirin Soviet, Tarayyar Soviétique za ta ƙayyade rarraba ta. Don daidaita rarraba biyan kuɗi tsakanin ikon masu nasara, an kafa Majalisar Kula da Allied.

A ƙarshe, Allies sun amince da biyan kuɗin Jamus a cikin siffofi masu zuwa:

  • Rushe masana'antar Jamus
  • Canja wurin duk kayan aikin masana'antu, injina da kayan aikin injin zuwa ga Allies
  • Canja wurin duk motocin titin jirgin ƙasa, locomotives da jiragen ruwa zuwa Allies
  • Kwace duk wani jarin Jamus da aka yi a ketare
  • Duk zinariya, azurfa da platinum a cikin bullion ko tsabar kudin da kowane mutum/ma'aikata ke riƙe a Jamus
  • Duk kudin waje
  • Duk takardun haƙƙin mallaka da bayanan bincike masu dacewa da aikace-aikacen soja da matakai
  • Bukatar samar da masana'antu na Jamus a halin yanzu da hakar albarkatu
  • Aikin tilastawa da jama'ar Jamus ke bayarwa

Don sa ido a kan hakar da rarraba kudaden Jamusawa a yankin da suke kula da su, Ƙungiyoyin Yammacin Turai sun kafa Hukumar Kula da Haɗin Kai (IARA). Za a raba rabon diyya daga Jamus ta wani kaso da aka riga aka ƙayyade wanda masu nasara suka amince da shi. Matsalolin Jamusanci za a kasasu kashi biyu: A (dukkan nau'ikan ramawar Jamus ban da waɗanda ke cikin rukuni na B) da B (kayan masana'antu da babban kamfani, jiragen ruwa na kasuwanci, da jigilar ruwa na cikin ƙasa).[2]

Kasashe masu zuwa sun sami fansa a matsayin wani ɓangare na ayyukan IARA:

Rarrabawar gyaran Jamus ta Yammacin Turai[2][3]
Kasar % na Category A gyare-gyare % na biyan kuɗi na rukuni na B
 Albania 0.05 0.35
 Australia 0.70 0.95
 Belgium 2.70 4.50
 Czechoslovakia 3.00 4.30
 Canada 3.50 1.50
 Denmark 0.25 0.35
Misira 0.05 0.20
 France 16.00 22.80
 Greece 2.70 3.35
Indiya 2.00 2.90
 Luxembourg 0.15 0.40
 Norway 1.30 1.90
 New Zealand 0.40 0.60
 Netherlands 3.90 5.60
Samfuri:Country data Union of South Africa 0.70 0.10
 United Kingdom 28.00 27.80
 United States of America 28.00 11.80
 Yugoslavia 6.60 9.60

Za a cire daga ayyukan IARA ta hanyar buƙata daga Tarayyar Soviet. Abokan hulɗa sun amince a matsayin wani ɓangare na Yarjejeniyar Potsdam, cewa Tarayyar Soviet ta tattara kuma ta rarraba rabon Poland na biyan kuɗi. Bugu da ƙari, Tarayyar Soviet za ta cire rabonta na biyan kuɗi galibi daga yankin da ke cikin yankin zama. Gwamnatin Poland ta wucin gadi ta kammala Yarjejeniyar Maido da Poland da Soviet a ranar 16 ga watan Agusta 1945. Yarjejeniyar ta ware rabon Poland na kayan aikin Jamus, kayayyaki da albarkatun kasa. Bugu da ƙari Poland ta sami kashi 15% na jiragen ruwa na Jamus da Tarayyar Soviet ta samu. Kwamitin hadin gwiwa na Poland da Soviet ne ke kula da isar da shi har zuwa 1953. Poland

Canje-canje na yanki

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A lokacin Taron Tehran a watan Nuwamba na shekara ta 1943, Big Three sun amince da ka'idar yin amfani da Curzon Line lokacin da suke ƙayyade iyakar gabashin Poland, yayin da a mayar da Poland ta cancanci iyakar yamma tare da Oder.

Tarayyar Soviet ta mamaye yankunan Jamus gabas da Oder-Neisse, wanda ya kai ga korar Jamusawa miliyan 12 (daga Gabashin Prussia, Pomerania da Silesia). An shigar da waɗannan yankuna cikin Poland na gurguzu da Tarayyar Soviet bi da bi kuma aka sake tsugunar da mutanen waɗannan ƙasashe, yayin da ake jiran taron sulhu na ƙarshe da Jamus. Tun da ba a taɓa yin taron zaman lafiya ba, Jamus ta yi watsi da yankunan yadda ya kamata. A game da Poland, yankin da aka samu ya kasance diyya ga Yankin Gabas Poland (Kresy), wanda Tarayyar Soviet ta haɗa.

Faransa ta mamaye yankin na Saar daga 1947 zuwa 1956, da nufin yin amfani da kwal da karafa da take hakowa don bunkasa tattalin arzikin Faransa a matsayin diyya ga yakin. Faransa ta nemi a ƙarshe ta haɗa Saar da kuma yankin Ruhr gabaɗaya zuwa Faransa daidai, amma sauran ƙawayen sun ƙi hakan. Bayan sakamakon wani taron jama'a, Faransa ta yi murabus daga ikonta na yankin Saar a ranar 1 ga Janairun 1957.

Netherlands ta nemi haɗa manyan sassan Yammacin Jamus a matsayin diyya ga WWII. Wadannan ƙoƙarce-ƙoƙarce galibi ƙasashen Yammacin Turai ne suka dakile kuma a ƙarshe kusan murabba'in kilomita 69 (27 sq mi) na ƙasar Jamus an haɗa su a cikin 1949. Kusan duk waɗannan yankuna an mayar da su zuwa Tarayyar Jamus a cikin 1957. A ƙarƙashin yarjejeniyar Holland da Jamus da aka yi a Hague a ranar 8 ga Afrilu 1960 Jamus ta amince da kuɗin Jamus na 8 ga Jamus. a cikin diyyar dawowar.[4][5]

Belgium da Luxembourg sun kuma nemi mamaye yankin Jamus a matsayin fansa ga WWII. Koyaya, ƙananan yankuna ne kawai aka mamaye sannan aka dawo da su bayan biyan diyya na Jamus.[4][5]

Rushe masana'antu

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At the beginning of the occupation, the Allies dismantled the remnants of German industries. Plants and machinery were dismantled, the railroad system deconstructed and everything was transported to the Allies. The German merchant fleet and all other ships were handed over. Foreign stocks of about 2.5 billion dollars were confiscated. The remaining German industries had to give up a share of their production to the Allies. Large shipments of steel, coal, but also other industrial products were seized and transported out of the country.[6] Daga baya Yammacin Allies sun sauƙaƙa matsayinsu don goyon bayan Shirin Marshall, yayin da Gabashin Jamus ya ci gaba da isar da kayan masana'antu da albarkatun kasa ga Tarayyar Soviet har zuwa 1953.[6]

Rushe kayan aikin jirgin kasa

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A cikin Yankin Soviet na Kasuwanci (daga baya Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Jamus) kusan dukkanin layin dogo guda biyu an rage su zuwa hanya ɗaya tare da kayan da ake kaiwa Tarayyar Soviet.[7][8][9] Hakazalika an kuma rushe wutar lantarki ta jirgin kasa (mai iyakancewa) tare da sanannen ban da mafi yawan Berlin S-Bahn wanda ya riƙe kayan aikin Jirgin ƙasa na uku ga mafi yawanci.

Hakazalika, a cikin Yankin Kasuwancin Faransa, an rushe mahimman layin dogo zuwa hanya ɗaya.[10]

Dukiyar hankali

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Abokan hulɗa sun kwace takardun shaida na Jamus, haƙƙin mallaka da alamun kasuwanci da suka kai kimanin dala biliyan 10 (1948). [6]

Aikin tilasta

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An matsa wa miliyoyin Jamusawa aiki na tilas na shekaru da yawa don yin aiki ga Allies a sansanoni, hakar ma'adinai, girbi ko masana'antu.

Kudin zama

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Bayan yakin duniya na biyu, manyan kasashe hudu na kawance - Birtaniya, Amurka, Faransa, da Tarayyar Soviet - sun mamaye Jamus tare, tare da mulkin mallaka a hukumance a cikin 1950s. A wannan lokacin, Jamus ta ɗauki alhakin kashe kuɗaɗen aikin mamaya, wanda ya haura dala biliyan da yawa.[11]

Wadanda Holocaust suka shafa

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Jamus ta kulla yarjejeniyoyi iri-iri da kasashen yammaci da gabashi da kuma taron da'awar yahudawa da majalisar dokokin yahudawa ta duniya domin biyan diyya ga wadanda harin Holocaust ya rutsa da su. Har zuwa 2005 an biya kusan Yuro biliyan 63 (daidai da kusan Euro biliyan 87.9 a cikin 2022) ga daidaikun mutane. An biya ƙarin biyan kuɗi daga kamfanonin Jamus waɗanda suka yi amfani da ma'aikatan tilastawa.[12]

Masu karɓa

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Poland

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A ranar 23 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1953, Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Poland, a karkashin matsin lamba daga Tarayyar Soviet wacce ke son 'yantar da Gabashin Jamus daga duk wani nauyi, [13] ta sanar da cewa za ta watsar da haƙƙinta na ci gaba da biyan diyya daga Gabashin Jamus a ranar 1 ga watan Janairun shekara ta 1954.[14][15] A cikin bayanin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, mai kwanan wata 24 ga Nuwamba 1969, gwamnatin kwaminisanci ta Poland ta bukaci a dauki mataki daga kungiyar ba kawai don azabtar da masu aikata laifuka na yaki da wadanda suka aikata laifukan bil'adama ba har ma da kafa hanyoyin da rarraba diyya ga laifukan yaki da lalacewar da Jamus ta aikata a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu.[16] A cikin 1970, Mataimakin Ministan Harkokin Waje na Poland Józef Winiewicz ya tabbatar da watsi da haƙƙin biyan kuɗi a shekara ta 1953 yayin tattaunawar da ta kai ga Yarjejeniyar daidaitawa ta Nuwamba 1970, wanda Jamus ta Yamma ta amince da Oder-Neisse a matsayin iyakar ƙarshe tsakanin Poland da Gabashin Jamus. [14] [17][18]

A ranar 10 ga watan Satumbar shekara ta 2004, majalisar dokokin Poland (Sejm) ta zartar da wani kuduri da ke nuna cewa: "Sejm na Jamhuriyar Poland, da ke sane da rawar da gaskiyar tarihi da adalci na farko ke takawa a dangantakar Poland da Jamus ta yi ikirarin cewa Poland ba ta riga ta sami isasshen diyya da biyan kuɗi ba saboda mummunar lalacewa da asarar da ta haifar da mamayar Jamus, mamayar da kisan kare dangi. [19] Bayan haka, a ranar 19 ga watan Oktoba shekara ta Amurka ta sake bayyana cewa Yarjejeniyar Tarayyar Tarayyen Jamus ta 23 ga Yarjejeniyar Poland ta Tarayyar Poland ta amincewa, Yarjejeniyar, Yarjejeniya ta Tarayyen Tarayyar, Yarima, Yarjejeniwar Tarayyar ta Taray ta Tarayya, Yarjejeniyan Turai, Yarjejeniyarsa ta Tarayye, Yarjejeniyaa, Yarjejeniy, Yarjejeniyoyin Tarayyar Rasha, Yarjejeni ta Tarayyaki, Yarjejeniye, Yarima ta Tarayyarsa ta Tarayya ta Taraywar Tarayya ta Tarayya, Yarjejeniyaswar Taray ta Yarjejeniyar ta Tar. Länder-Analysen (<i id=\"mwBAI\">Country Analytical Digests</i>) (in German). <b id=\"mwBAM\">227</b> (227): 5. The Polish government clarified in a statement on 19 October 2004: \"The Declaration of 23 August 1953 was adopted in accordance with the constitutional order of the time, in compliance with international law established in the UN Charter\", a position that was confirmed in a written statement in August 2017 by then Deputy Foreign Minister Marek Magierowski in response to a parliamentary inquiry from the Sejm.</nowiki></q></cite><link about=\"#mwt129\" href=\"./Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)\" id=\"mwBA0\" rel=\"mw:PageProp/Category\" data-ve-ignore=\"true\">"}}" id="cite_ref-garsztecki_33-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref">[./World_War_II_reparations#cite_note-garsztecki-33 [2]][15][20][21] Gwamnatin Jamus tana ɗaukar wannan matsayi.

In the meantime, Poland and Germany concluded several treaties and agreements to compensate Polish persons who were victims of German aggression. In 1972, West Germany paid compensation to Poles that had survived pseudo-medical experiments during their imprisonment in various Nazi camps during the Second World War.[22] In 1975, the Gierek-Schmidt agreement was signed in Warsaw. It stipulated that 1.3 billion DM was to be paid to Poles who, during Nazi occupation, had paid into the German social security system but received no pension. In 1992, the Foundation for Polish-German Reconciliation was founded by the Polish and German governments, and as a result, Germany paid Polish sufferers approximately zl 4.7 billion (equivalent to zl 37.8 billion or US$7.97 billion in 2022[ana buƙatar hujja]). Between 1992 and 2006, Germany and Austria jointly paid compensation to surviving Polish, non-Jewish victims of slave labour in Nazi Germany and also to Polish orphans and children who had been subject to forced labour.[23] The Swiss Fund for the Victims of the Holocaust (which had obtained settlement money from banks in Switzerland) used some of its funds to pay compensation between 1998 and 2002 to Polish Jews and Romani who were victims of Nazi Germany.[23]

Batun biyan diyya ya sake tashi a ƙarshen 2017 tare da maganganun da jami'an gwamnatin Poland suka yi daga Dokar da Adalci mai mulki. Tun daga wannan lokacin, gwamnatin Poland ta dauki matsayin cewa ƙin Poland na 1953 ba shi da iyaka saboda ƙasar tana ƙarƙashin rinjayar Tarayyar Soviet.[15] Przemysław Sobolewski, shugaban Ofishin Bincike na Sejm, ya ce Majalisar Ministoci Poland ce ta yanke shawarar siyasa ta 1953, duk da cewa a karkashin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Poland, wanda ya fara aiki a 1952, Majalisar Gwamnatin Poland ce, wacce ke da ikon yin irin wannan yanke shawara.[24] A cewar Józef Menes daga Majalisar Cibiyar Rashin Yakin Poland, ba a gabatar da wata sanarwa ta diflomasiyya ga gwamnatin Jamus ta Gabas ba kuma cewa "Wataƙila taron Majalisar Ministoci na 23 ga Agusta 1953 bai faru ba" - yana ambaton dangantakar Kazimierz Mijal (shugaban ofishin Majalisar Ministocin daga 21 ga Nuwamba 1952 zuwa 1 ga Fabrairu 1956). [25]

A ranar cika shekaru 83 da barkewar yakin duniya na biyu, a ranar 1 ga Satumba 2022, an gabatar da rahoton gwamnatin Poland game da asarar yaki da lalacewar Poland tsakanin 1939 da 1945 a Royal Castle a Warsaw . [26]Rahoton juzu'i uku ya kuma shafi batutuwan shari'a game da 1953 renunciation na ramuwa da Poland, kuma bisa ga rahoton binciken: "Sanarwar unilateral na Majalisar Ministoci na 23 Agusta 1953 game da renunciation na yaki ramuwa da Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Poland ya saba wa kundin tsarin mulki na 22 Yuli 1952 a cikin kundin tsarin mulki na 22 Yuli 1952 a cikin karfi da yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa. cancantar Majalisar Jiha, ba Majalisar Ministoci ba”. Har ila yau, rahoton ya yi nuni da cewa, bisa bayanan da majalisar ministocin ta yi a ranar 19 ga watan Agustan shekarar 1953, janyewar ta shafi Jamhuriyar Dimokaradiyyar Jamus ne kawai ba jamhuriyar Tarayya ba, kuma ba a taba aikewa da wata takardar diflomasiyya ba ga gwamnatin Jamus ta Gabas da ke sanar da ita matakin da Poland ta dauka a hukumance.[27] A ranar 14 ga Satumba 2022 Sejm ta zartar da (418 for, 4 against, 15 abstentions) wani kuduri da ke cewa: "Jam'iyyar Poland ba ta taɓa yin watsi da ikirarin ta a kan jihar Jamus ba; Sejm na Jamhuriyar Poland ta yi kira ga gwamnatin Jamus da ta ɗauki alhakin siyasa, tarihi, shari'a, da kudi ga duk tasirin da ya haifar da yakin duniya na biyu".[28]

A ranar 2 ga Oktoba 2022, Ministan Harkokin Waje na Poland Zbigniew Rau ya sanya hannu kan wata sanarwa ta diflomasiyya inda ya nemi gwamnatin Jamus ta gudanar da tsarin tattaunawa tsakanin Poland da Jamus, kuma a ranar 3 ga Oktoba ya gabatar da bayanin diflomasiyyar ga Ministan Harashen Waje na Jamus mai ziyara Annalena Baerbock . [29][30] A cewar gwamnatin Jamus, babu wata hujja ta doka don ƙarin biyan diyya.[31] A ranar 4 ga watan Janairun 2023 mataimakin ministan harkokin waje na Poland Arkadiusz Mularczyk ya bayyana cewa "Ba mu amince da wannan matsayin Jamus ba, mun ƙi shi gaba ɗaya a matsayin cikakkiyar rashin tushe da kuskure. " kuma "jihar Jamus ba za ta iya rufe shari'ar da ba a taɓa buɗewa ba".[32]

Girka

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Daga Akte R 27320, shafi na 114 (dandalin siyasa na Ofishin Harkokin Waje na Tarayyar Jamus)

As a result of the Nazi German occupation, much of Greece was subjected to enormous destruction of its industry (80% of which was destroyed), infrastructure (28% destroyed), ports, roads, railways and bridges (90%), forests and other natural resources (25%)[33]  and loss of civilian life (7.02–11.17% of its citizens).[34] Other sources put the total number of deaths resulting from the Axis occupation at 273,000 to 747,000 Greeks, or 3.7-10.2% of the prewar population.[ana buƙatar hujja] The occupying Nazi regime forced Greece to pay the cost of the occupation in the country and requisite raw materials and food for the occupation forces, creating the conditions for the Great Famine. Furthermore, in 1942, the Greek Central Bank was forced by the occupying Nazi regime to lend 476 million Reichsmarks at 0% interest to Nazi Germany.

Bayan yakin, Girka ta samu kaso daga cikin diyya da Jamus ta biya wa kasashen kawance a zaman wani bangare na tsare-tsare na yerjejeniya ta Paris na shekarar 1946 wadda hukumar kula da ramuwa ta kasashen kawancen ta aiwatar. Dalar Amurka biliyan 7.181 aka shirya wa Girka. Wannan adadin ya tashi matuka saboda karuwar kudaden diyya da kasashen kawance da Girka suka kwace daga karshe sun samu diyya ta kudi da kayayyakin masana'antu da kimanin dala miliyan 25.[35]

Girka ta sami ƙarin kaso na ramuwa daga sauran ikon Axis sakamakon yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya ta Paris daga 1947.

Greece was a signatory of the London Agreement on German External Debts in 1953. The signatories agreed to postpone additional German debts until a final peace treaty with Germany would be made.[35] In 1960, Germany concluded a treaty with the Greek government to compensate Greek victims of Nazi German terror which amounted to 115 Million German mark.[36] These payments were explicitly marked as payments to the victims and were not supposed to be a general reparation treaty.[ana buƙatar hujja] Later Greek governments insist that this was only a down payment and further payments need to be made.[35][37]

In 1990, West Germany and East Germany signed the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany ('Two Plus Four Agreement') with the former Allied countries of the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. This treaty was supposed to close all open questions regarding Germany and the aftermath of WWII and paved the way for German reunification. Germany considers this treaty as the final regulation which concludes the question of open reparations which had been made in previous treaties such as the London Debt Agreement.[35] Greece rejects this notion and on 8 February 2015, the then-Greek Prime Minister, Alexis Tsipras demanded that Germany pay the "complete" reparations to Greece. In April 2015, Greece evaluated the war reparations to be the equivalent of 278.7 billion euros (equivalent to 389 billion euros in 2022).[38][36] While more German politicians and members of the Bundestag are calling on the federal government to compensate Greece financially for the effects of the Nazi occupation,[39][40] the German government replied that the stipulations of the Two Plus Four treaty still stand and the issue was resolved in 1990.[41]

Isra'ila

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West Germany paid reparations to Israel for confiscated Jewish property under Nuremberg laws, forced labour and persecution. Payments to Israel until 1987 amounted to about 14 billion dollars,[6] equivalent to $36.5 billion in 2022.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Netherlands

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  Nan da nan bayan karshen yakin, Netherlands ta bukaci Guilders biliyan 25 a matsayin diyya a tsakanin sauran abubuwan yunwar hunturu na Dutch na 1944-1945. Amma ba da dadewa ba aka bi manufar sake fasalin kan iyakar Holland da Jamus da ke da dadewa da kuma mika wani babban yanki na Jamus ga 'yan Holand a matsayin ramuwar gayya. A cikin mafi girman tsarinsa, wannan shirin ya haɗa da haɗa garuruwa da kewayen Cologne, Aachen, Münster da Osnabrück. Bayan haka, gwamnatin Holland ta kwace tare da mamaye yanki mai fadin murabba'in kilomita 69 (27 sq mi) na yankin kan iyaka daga Jamus mai kawance da ta mamaye a cikin 1949, kusan dukkansu an mayar da su Jamus ta Yamma a 1963 don musayar Deutschmark miliyan 280 da gwamnatin Jamus ta Tarayyar Jamus ta biya ga Dutch.

Yugoslavia

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Pavel Polian-Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR Central European University Press 2003 ISBN 963-9241-68-7 P.244-249
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Agreement on reparation from Germany, on the establishment of an Inter-Allied Reparation Agency and on the restitution of monetary gold" (PDF). treaties.un.org. United Nations Treaty Series. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  3. ↑ "State Department and Foreign Affairs Records - RG 84: U.S. Delegation to the Inter-Allied Reparations Agency (IARA)". archives.gov. National Archives and Records Administration. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hopf, Simon (2003). "Alltag zwischen Mark und Gulden - der Selfkant unter niederländischer Auftragsverwaltung 1949 bis 1963" [Between Mark and Gulden - Selfkant under Dutch administration 1949 - 1963] (PDF). Geschichte Im Westen (in Jamusanci). Rheinland-Verlag GmbH. 18: 136–154.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Woelk, Wolfgang (1995). "Das Grenzland von Nordrhein-Westfalen, die Traktatländereien und die niederländischen Grenzkorrekturen 1949 bis 1963" [The border area of North Rhine-Westphalia, the Tract Lands and Dutch border corrections] (PDF). Jahrbuch / Zentrum für Niederlande-Studien (in Jamusanci). University of Muenster. 5/6: 85–103. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-03-18. Retrieved 2025-07-29.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Wehler 1987.
  7. ↑ "Vor 75 Jahren: Aufbau der Bahn nach Kriegsende | MDR.DE".
  8. ↑ "Die Stunde Null in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone (SBZ)". 28 January 2015.
  9. ↑ "Wirtschaftsentwicklung von 1945 bis 1949 | BPB". 13 July 2005.
  10. ↑ "Gäubahn: wechselvolle Historie, ungewisse Zukunft".
  11. ↑ Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (2008-07-18). "Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52". 2001-2009.state.gov (in Turanci). Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  12. ↑ "Die Entschädigungszahlungen an jüdische Opfer des Nationalsozialismus" [Compensation payments to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust] (PDF). bundestag.de (in Jamusanci). Wissenschaftliche Dienste des Deutschen Bundestages. 2007. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
  13. ↑ Plucinska, Joanna (26 April 2019). "Germany owes Poland over $850 billion in WW2 reparations: senior lawmaker". Reuters. Retrieved 16 February 2023. In 1953 Poland’s then-communist rulers relinquished all claims to war reparations under pressure from the Soviet Union, which wanted to free East Germany, also a Soviet satellite, from any liabilities.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Hailbronner, Kay. "Legal Aspects of the Unification of the Two German States". European Journal of International Law. Oxford University Press. 2 (1): 32. When the Warsaw Treaty was signed, Poland and the Soviet Union had waived all claims for reparations against Germany as a whole by a declaration of 23 August 1953. This waiver was based upon the agreement at the Potsdam Conference that Polish claims for reparations were to be satisfied by the Soviet share for reparation payments. The declaration by the Polish Government stated that Germany had already paid substantial reparations and that the Polish Government therefore renounced all claims, in order to contribute to a peaceful solution of the German question. The waiver was explicitly confirmed in the negotiations between the two states on the Warsaw Treaty.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Krzysztof Ruchniewicz (26 October 2017). "Die verspätete Rechnung. Zur polnischen Diskussion über Reparationszahlungen aus Deutschland". Zeitgeschichte online. Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. On 19 October 2004, the Polish Council of Ministers issued a statement clarifying: "The Government of the Republic of Poland recognises as obligatory the declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of Poland on 19 October to abandon Polish reparations payments (...). The Declaration of 23 August 1953 was adopted in accordance with the constitutional order of the time, in compliance with international law laid down in the UN Charter.
  16. ↑ "Nieznany dokument ONZ z 1969 r. "Wynika z niego wprost, że Polska nie zrzekła się reparacji"". Wprost. 30 September 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  17. ↑ Mateusz Piątkowski (9 September 2022). "The legal questions behind Poland's claim for war reparations from Germany". notesfrompoland.com. In 1970, Poland and West Germany normalised their relationship in the Treaty of Warsaw. The Polish government confirmed the renouncement of reparations, while West Germany confirmed the Polish western border.
  18. ↑ Sławomir Sierakowski (21 September 2022). "What's Behind Poland's Reparation Debate?". dgap.org. German Council on Foreign Relations. Then, in December 1970, Poland reaffirmed its renunciation of reparations claims under a new agreement with West Germany, which recognized the Polish border on the Oder and Neisse Rivers – in what had been pre-war Germany.
  19. ↑ "Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 10 września 2004 r. w sprawie praw Polski do niemieckich reparacji wojennych oraz w sprawie bezprawnych roszczeń wobec Polski i obywateli polskich wysuwanych w Niemczech". sejm.gov.pl. 10 September 2004. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  20. ↑ Krzysztof Ruchniewicz (26 October 2017). "Die verspätete Rechnung. Zur polnischen Diskussion über Reparationszahlungen aus Deutschland". Zeitgeschichte online. Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. (...) the 1953 Declaration constitutes a binding, unilateral legal act of the Polish state - a subject of international law.
  21. ↑ "Odpowiedź na zapytanie nr 3812 w sprawie strat poniesionych podczas II wojny światowej". sejm.gov.pl. 8 August 2017. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017.
  22. ↑ "On Behalf of Victims of Pseudo-Medical Experiments Red Cross Action". International Review of the Red Cross. 13 (142): 3–21. 1973. doi:10.1017/S0020860400015576.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Fundacja Polsko-Niemieckie Pojednanie | Stiftung Polnisch-Deutsche Aussöhnung". www.fpnp.pl. Archived from the original on 2008-10-10.
  24. ↑ "Szef Biura Analiz Sejmowych: Polska i Niemcy nigdy po II wojnie światowej nie zawarły umowy ws. reparacji". Polska Times. 9 September 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022. The Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland of 1952 reserved issues concerning the conclusion and ratification of international agreements for the Council of State (a collegiate body performing the functions of the head of state), and not for the Council of Ministers.
  25. ↑ "Członek Rady ISW: zrzeczenie się reparacji w 1953 r. — wątpliwe prawnie". Polska Agencia Prasowa. 2 September 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2022. there is no diplomatic note to the government of the GDR, [and] there is no return note
  26. ↑ "Sprawozdanie w przedmiocie strat i szkód wojennych Polski w latach 1939-1945" (PDF). sejm.gov.pl. 1 September 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  27. ↑ "Mularczyk: Nie ma dokumentu spełniającego formalne wymogi uchwały rządu z 1953 r. o zrzeczeniu się reparacji". Bankier.pl. 3 September 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2022. "The report states that 'the alleged unilateral statement of the Council of Ministers of 23 August 1953 on the renunciation of war reparations by the People's Republic of Poland violated the constitution of 22 July 1952 in force at that time, because the matters of ratification and termination of international agreements belonged to the competence of the Council of State, not the Council of Ministers.'" and "In addition, the report notes that this statement was forced on the government of the Polish People's Republic by the USSR; moreover, according to the minutes of the Council of Ministers of 19 August 1953, the renunciation concerned only the German Democratic Republic."
  28. ↑ "Uchwała Sejmu ws. dochodzenia przez Polskę zadośćuczynienia za szkody spowodowane przez Niemcy w czasie II wojny światowej". sejm.gov.pl. 14 September 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  29. ↑ "Poland demands $1.3 trillion in World War II reparations from Germany". PBS NewsHour. 3 October 2022. Retrieved 17 October 2022.
  30. ↑ "Szef MSZ podpisał notę w sprawie reparacji". Dziennik.pl. 3 September 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022. "The diplomatic note that I have just initialled will be forwarded to the Foreign Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany," Rau said. - It expresses the conviction of the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs that the parties should take immediate action aimed at a permanent, comprehensive and final, legal and material settlement of the issue of the consequences of the Aggression and German Occupation during the years 1939-1945."
  31. ↑ "Leaders of Poland, Germany call for 'swift' solution to Warsaw's rule of law row with EU". Politico (in Turanci). 13 December 2021.
  32. ↑ "Mularczyk: Odrzucamy stanowisko Niemiec".
  33. ↑ Vallianatos, Evaggelos. "The Math of Mass Starvation and Murder: Germany in Greece During World War II". Truthout (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2017-12-10. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
  34. ↑ "Council for Reparations from Germany, Black Book of the Occupation(In Greek and German) Athens 2006 p. 1018-1019" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 "Die "Deutsche Restschuld" gegenüber Griechenland" [The German (remaining) debt towards Greece] (PDF). Deutscher Bundestag (in Jamusanci). 2015. Retrieved 2021-07-23.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ulf Brunnbauer (1 July 2015). "Aufrechnungen von Frustrationen. Griechische Reparationsforderungen an Deutschland vor dem Hintergrund der Schuldenkrise". Zeitgeschichte online (in Jamusanci). Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung.
  37. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  38. ↑ "Spiegel: Τα 278 δισεκ. των αποζημιώσεων που ζητούν οι Έλληνες ίσως τελικά να είναι λίγα" [Spiegel: The 278 billion in compensation that the Greeks are asking for may not be enough after all]. Lifo. 9 April 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
  39. ↑ "Greece gains allies in Bundestag over WWII reparations dispute". EurActiv. 18 March 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
  40. ↑ "Greece's claims for war reparations should be resolved by int'l court: Bundestag". Xinhua. 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  41. ↑ "Greece Nazi occupation: Athens asks Germany for 279bn euros". BBC News. 7 April 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
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