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Cinikin bayi na Sahara

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Cinikin bayi na Sahara
slave trade (en) Fassara
Zane-zane na ƙarni na 19 wanda ke nuna ayarin bayin Larabawa da ke jigilar bayi na Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara zuwa Arewacin Afirka.

  Cinikin bayi da ke ƙetare sahara, wanda kuma aka fi sani da cinikin bayi na Larabawa, [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] cinikin bayi ne da ake safarar bayi a cikin sahara . Yawancin an kwashe su daga yankin kudu da hamadar sahara zuwa Arewacin Afrika domin a sayar da su ga wayewar Rum da Gabas ta Tsakiya; karamin kaso ya tafi wata hanya.

Kiyasin adadin bayi na bakaken fata da suka tashi daga yankin kudu da hamadar sahara zuwa kasashen larabawa ya kai miliyan 6 zuwa 10, kuma hanyoyin cinikayyar dake bi ta sahara sun kai adadi mai yawa na wannan jimillar, inda aka kiyasta kimanin bayi miliyan 7.2 da suka tsallaka sahara daga tsakiyar karni na 7 har zuwa karni na 20 da aka soke ta. [6] Larabawa sun gudanar da gudanar da cinikin bayi na trans-Sahara, ko da yake Berbers ma suna da hannu sosai.

Tare da 'yan Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara, Turkawa, Iraniyawa, Turawa da Berbers na daga cikin mutanen da Larabawa suka yi ciniki, tare da yin cinikin a duk fadin kasashen Larabawa, musamman a Yammacin Asiya, Arewacin Afirka, Gabashin Afirka, da Turai. [7]

Farkon cinikin bayi daga sahara

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Bayanai na cinikin bayi da safarar bayi a cikin Sahara tun daga karni na 3 kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (AS) a zamanin Sarkin Masar Sneferu wanda ya tsallaka cataract na hudu na kogin Nilu zuwa kasar Sudan ta zamani don kama bayi ya tura su arewa. Waɗannan hare-hare na fursunonin yaƙi, waɗanda daga baya suka zama bayi, sun kasance abin aukuwa akai-akai a tsohuwar kwarin Nilu da Afirka. A lokacin cin nasara da kuma bayan cin nasara a yaƙe-yaƙe, Masarawa na dā sun ɗauki tsohuwar Nubians a matsayin bayi.

Garamantes sun dogara kacokan akan aikin bayi daga yankin kudu da hamadar sahara. [8] Sun yi amfani da bayi a cikin al'ummominsu don ginawa da kuma kula da tsarin ban ruwa na karkashin kasa da Berbers suka sani da foggara . Masanin tarihin Girka na d ¯ a Herodotus ya rubuta a cikin karni na 5 BC cewa Garamantes sun bautar da Habashawa mazauna kogo, wanda aka sani da Troglodytae, suna bin su da karusai.

A cikin Daular Roma ta farko, birnin Lepcis ya kafa kasuwar bayi don saye da sayar da bayi daga cikin Bantu na Afirka. A karni na 5 AD, Roman Carthage yana ciniki da bakaken bayi da aka kawo a cikin Sahara. Masarautar ta sanya harajin kwastam akan cinikin bayi. [9] [10] Baƙaƙen bayi kamar ana ɗaukansu a matsayin bayin gida saboda ƙaƙƙarfan kamanninsu. [10] Wasu masana tarihi sun yi iƙirarin cewa girman cinikin bayi a wannan lokacin na iya zama sama da na zamanin da saboda yawan bukatar bayi a daular Roma. [10] Sai dai kuma cinikin bayi ta cikin sahara a zamanin da na iya zama karami kuma ba kasafai ba domin cinikin Sahara bai kai ga girma ba har sai da Larabawa da Berbers suka shigar da rakuma masu yawa a cikin hamada. [11]

Hanyar cinikin ayari ta tsohuwar Garamantian dake tsakanin gabar tekun Tripolitania ta haye hamadar sahara zuwa tafkin Chadi ta yi jigilar dabbobin dawaki, zinari, cabochon da danyen kayan sarrafa abinci da sarrafa turare, amma har da bayi; cinikin bayi na Afirka duk da haka yana iya iyakancewa kafin lokacin Musulunci, kuma bayin Afirka sun kasance kaɗan ne a cikin Daular Rum, inda ake kallon su a matsayin bayi na alfarma.

Cinikin bayi da ke tsakanin sahara a tsakiyar zamanai

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Babban hanyoyin bayi a Afirka ta Tsakiya

Paul Lovejoy ya yi kiyasin cewa an yi jigilar bakake bayi miliyan shida a cikin Sahara tsakanin shekarun 650 AD zuwa 1500 AD. Kasuwancin bayi na trans-Sahara, wanda aka kafa a zamanin da, ya ci gaba a lokacin tsakiyar zamanai . Bayan cin nasarar karni na 8 na Arewacin Afirka, Larabawa, Berbers, da sauran kabilu sun fara shiga yankin kudu da hamadar sahara da farko tare da kwarin Nilu zuwa Nubia, da kuma ketare sahara zuwa yammacin Afirka. Sun kasance masu sha'awar kasuwanci a cikin Sahara, musamman a cikin bayi, saboda akwai bukatar bayi a cikin kasashen Larabawa na gabas da Konstantinoful . [11] Masu fataucin bayi musulmi sun bambanta kansu da al'ummomin da ke hayin hamadar sahara, suna nufin wadannan al'ummomin Afirka da Zanj ko Sudan ma'ana "bakar fata".

Larabawa kan yi amfani da bayi ta hanyar kai hari, sannan su kama su kuma su aika da su a cikin balaguron balaguron balaguro zuwa hamadar sahara zuwa kasuwannin bayi inda za a mayar da su tamkar kadarori da za a iya saye da sayarwa. [12] A Arewacin Afirka, manyan kasuwannin bayi sun kasance a Maroko, Algiers, Tripoli da Alkahira . An gudanar da tallace-tallace a wuraren jama'a irin su souks . A lokacin Halifancin Fatimid (909-1171), yawancin bayi Turawa ne aka kai su bakin tekun Turai a lokacin rikici. [7]

Baya ga kai hari, ana kuma iya samun bayi ta hanyar siyan su daga hannun sarakunan bakaken fata na gida. Masanin tarihin Balarabe na karni na 9 Ya'qubi yana cewa:

The people of Lemlem are perpetually being invaded by their neighbors, who take them as slaves... and carry them off to their own lands to sell them by the dozens to the merchants. Every year great numbers of them are sent off to the Western Maghreb.[13]

Hakika, sarakunan Afirka kaɗan ne za su ƙi cinikin bayi, yayin da shugabanni da yawa za su zama ‘yan tsaka-tsaki a cikin fataucin, suna tara mutanen ƙauyuka da ke kusa don a sayar wa ’yan kasuwa masu ziyara. Masanin tarihin Larabawa na karni na 12 al-Idrisi ya lura cewa 'yan Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara suma za su shiga cikin harin bayi yana mai cewa:

Al-Idrisi ya kuma bayyana irin hanyoyin da ‘yan kasuwa musulmi suke amfani da su wajen bautar da bakaken fata, inda ya rubuta cewa wasu za su “sace ‘ya’yan Zanj ta hanyar amfani da dabino ...su kama su da dabino su jagorance su daga wani wuri zuwa wani wuri, har sai sun kama su, su fitar da su daga kasar su kai su kasashensu”. A cikin 1353, ɗan binciken Berber Ibn Battuta zai rubuta rakiyar ayarin fatauci zuwa Maroko wanda ke ɗauke da bayi mata baƙi 600 waɗanda za a yi amfani da su a matsayin bayin gida da ƙwaraƙwara . [14] [11] A lokacin da Battuta ya ziyarci tsohuwar daular Afirka ta Mali, ya ba da labarin cewa mazauna yankin sun yi gwagwarmaya da juna a cikin adadin bayi da bayi da suke da su, kuma an ba shi wani bawa a matsayin "kyauta ta baƙi."

Hanyoyin da ayarin bayi ke safarar bayi ya dogara ne da inda suka nufa. Za a kai bayin da za su je Masar ta jirgin ruwa a cikin Kogin Nilu kuma a aika da bayi zuwa Arabiya zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa a Bahar Maliya kamar Suakin da Assab . [11] Bayin da za su tafi Arewacin Afirka dole ne su bi hanyoyin kasuwanci na Sahara waɗanda aka yi amfani da su tun kusan 1000 BC. Waɗannan sun haɗa da hanyoyi irin na Tripoli - Ghadames - Ghat - Hoggar - Gao mai haɗa Libya ta zamani zuwa Najeriya, hanyar Tripoli - Fezzan - Bornu, haɗa Libya zuwa yankunan da suke a yau Chadi, Nijar, Kamaru, da kuma hanyar gabas - yamma da ta haɗa Masar zuwa Ghana, Mali, da Songhai . [11] Kanem–Bornu– Zawila wata hanya ce ta zuwa Arewacin Afirka yayin da Daular Kanem–Bornu da ke gabacin Nijar ta kasance wani bangare na fataucin bayi da ke ƙetare hamadar sahara, kuma cinikin ya zama tushen ci gaban daular. [11]

Manyan hanyoyi da garuruwan cinikin bayi da ke wuce sahara

Wucewa ta hamadar sahara na bukatar ƙwararrun ƙabilun da salon rayuwa ya dace da rayuwa ta musamman don rayuwa a cikin yanayi mai zafi da bushewa, wato ƙabilun Berber na gida da Badawiyyawa daga Larabawa . Misali, Abzinawa da sauran ƴan asalin ƙasar Libiya sun sauƙaƙe, da biyan haraji da kuma shirya kasuwanci daga kudanci ta hanyoyin kasuwanci da ke ƙetare sahara . Makiyaya daban-daban sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a matsayin masu gadi, jagorori, da direbobin raƙuma. Sakamakon haka, gwamnatocin Arewacin Afirka sun ba su 'yancin cin gashin kai tare da kula da su a matsayin abokan kawance. [15] Tafiya ta kasance hanya mai mahimmanci ga ayari da kuma irin su Awjila, Ghadames, da Kufra a Libya sun ba da izinin tafiya arewa-kudu da gabas-yamma. [6] Ko da tare da taimakon ƙwararrun hanyar na iya zama mai mutuwa ga 'yan kasuwa da bayi. [6] Wani lokaci ayarin dubban mutane na iya ɓacewa ba tare da wata alama ba. [6]

Kayayyakin da aka yi musayarsu a cinikin bayi da ke ƙetare sahara sun bambanta. A karni na 10, malamin musulmi Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi ya bayyana ciniki tsakanin kasashen musulmi da Afirka da cewa ya kunshi abinci da tufafi da ake shigowa da su Afirka yayin da ake fitar da bayi da zinare da kwakwa daga kasashen Afirka. Daga baya, marubuci dan Andalus na karni na 16 Leo Africanus ya rubuta cewa 'yan kasuwa daga Maroko za su kawo dawakai, tufafin Turawa, tufafi, sukari, littattafai, da tasoshin tagulla zuwa Sudan don musanya su da bayi, farar fata da zinariya. [11] A cewar Africanus, Sarkin Bornu zai karbi kudin bayi ne kawai a cikin dawakai, tare da musayar bayi har ashirin da doki daya. [11]

Ayyukan da ake baiwa bayi sun bambanta kuma sun haɗa da aikin bautar da ake amfani da su don " ban ruwa, makiyaya, hakar ma'adinai, sufuri, ayyukan jama'a, masana'antu, da gine-gine ." [12] [6] Gabaɗaya an yi amfani da bayi baƙar fata a matsayin ma'aikata, bayi da kuma eunuchs . [16] Wasu bayi mata za a iya amfani da su don naƙuda, amma yawancin za a yi amfani da su don ayyukan gida da ƙwaraƙwara. Za a iya amfani da eunuchs, waɗanda ke kusan ninki bakwai tsada fiye da mazan da ba a jefar da su ba a matsayin masu gadi, masu gudanarwa, koyawa, sakatarori, wakilan kasuwanci, har ma da ƙwaraƙwarai. [6] Saboda tsangwama a cikin shari'ar Musulunci, ba a saba jefa bayi a cikin yankin musulmi ba, don haka za a jefar da su kafin a tura su zuwa hamadar sahara. Wani lokaci ana jefa bayi bayan an saya a kasuwannin bayi na Arewacin Afirka. [6] Halin da ake ciki a masana'antar hakar ma'adinai ya kasance mai tsauri musamman ma'adinan gishiri na Basra inda dubun dubatar bayi bakar fata ke aiki a cikin mawuyacin hali na rayuwa da rashin isasshen abinci. [16] Wannan mummunar mu'amala ta haifar da Tawayen Zanj ko "bakar juyin juya hali". [16] Ya'qubi ya rubuta cewa bayi maza da mata suna aiki a cikin ma'adinan tagulla na Upper Egypt . [16] An ce Jamhuriyar Qarmatiya da ke gabashin Arabiya ta dauki bayi 30,000 bakaken fata aiki domin yin duk wata wahala. [16] Wasu bakaken bayi sun yi aiki a sojojin soja na Arewacin Afirka. [17] [18] Misali, daular Zirid ta yi amfani da bakaken bayi da aka shigo da su daga Sudan ta hanyar Zawila. [11]

A wasu lokuta, Kiristoci a Afirka za su yarda da buƙatun Musulmi na a ba su bayi. A shekara ta 641 miladiyya a lokacin da aka rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar da aka fi sani da Baqt, inda aka kulla yarjejeniya tsakanin jihar Makuria ta kiristoci ta Nubian da sabbin sarakunan musulmin kasar Masar, inda Nubian suka amince da baiwa musulmi ‘yan kasuwa alfarmar alfarmar kasuwanci baya ga aika bayi 442 duk shekara zuwa birnin Alkahira a matsayin haraji. [11] Wannan yarjejeniya ta ci gaba da kasancewa har tsawon shekaru 600 duk yayin da cinikin bayi a cikin Nubia ya ci gaba ba tare da tsangwama ba. [11]

A cikin al'adun musulmi na zamanai na tsakiya, baƙar fata ya zama sananne tare da bauta. [16] Wannan ya sami barata ta hanyar roko ga takamaiman fassarar labarin Littafi Mai Tsarki na La'anar Ham wanda ya nuna cewa Nuhu ya la'anta Ham ta hanyoyi biyu, na farko, juya fatarsa baƙar fata, na biyu, cewa zuriyarsa za a halaka su bauta. [16] Musulmi masu fataucin bayi za su yi amfani da wannan a matsayin hujja don bautar da baƙar fata, ciki har da baƙar fata musulmi. [16] A karshen karni na 14, wani bakar fata sarkin Bornu ya rubutawa sarkin kasar Masar wasika yana korafin hare-haren bayi da ‘yan kabilar larabawa ke ci gaba da yi, wanda ya yi sanadiyyar barnatar da kasarsa tare da yi wa al’ummar musulmi bakar fata bauta a yankin. [16] A cikin Al-Andalus, yankin Iberia na zamanin da a ƙarƙashin ikon Islama, ana iya riƙe baƙar fata musulmi a matsayin bayi a cikin Al-Andalus bisa doka. Wannan duk ya faru ne duk da matsayin malaman fikihu na addinin Musulunci na cewa babu wani musulmi ko kabila, ba zai iya bautar da shi ba. [16] Ko a karshen karni na 19, da yawa daga cikin talakawan al'ummar musulmi har yanzu sun yi imanin cewa bautar da aka dogara da launin fata maimakon addini, dokokin addinin Musulunci sun amince da su. [16]

A cikin 1416, al-Maqrizi ya ba da labarin yadda mahajjata da suka zo daga Takrur (kusa da Kogin Senegal ) suka kawo bayi 1,700 zuwa Makka . A karshen karni na 16, an katse hanyoyin shiga bayi a yankunan tsohuwar daular Songhai da ke yammacin Afirka saboda rashin zaman lafiya a yankin da sojojin Morocco suka mamaye Songhai karkashin jagorancin al-Mansur . [11] Wannan ya sa a maye gurbin tsohuwar hanyar Songhai da hanyar Benghazi – Wadai da sauran ta Sudan. [11] Bayan da Turawa suka zauna a Tekun Ginea, cinikin bayi da ke ƙetare sahara ya zama ƙasa da mahimmanci.

A wasu lokuta an mayar da Larabawa bayi a cinikin bayi da ke ƙetare sahara. A Makka, an sayar da matan Larabawa a matsayin bayi a cewar Ibn Butlan, kuma wasu masu mulki a Afirka ta Yamma suna da ’yan mata kuyangin Larabawa. [12] A cewar al-Maqrizi, an sayar da kuyangi masu launin fata ga mutanen yammacin Afirka a aikin hajji . Ibn Battuta ya hadu da wata kuyanga Balarabiya kusa da Timbuktu a kasar Mali a shekara ta 1353. Battuta ya rubuta cewa kuyangar ta ƙware cikin Larabci, daga Damascus, kuma sunan maigidanta Farbá Sulaymán. Banda kuyangarsa Damascus kuma sakatariya ƙwararriyar Larabci, Larabci kuma Farbá ya fahimci kansa. Haka kuma kasashen yammacin Afirka sun shigo da sojojin bayi da aka horar da su sosai.

Karkashin daular Saadi, masana'antar sukari ta Maroko ta dogara da aikin bayi na Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara. A cewar Paul Berthier, buƙatar aikin bayi a kan gonakin sukari na Moroccan shine babban dalili na mamayewar Sadiya na ƙarni na 16 na Daular Songhai . [19]

Taswirar harshen Faransanci na manyan hanyoyin kasuwanci na trans-Sahara mai tarihi (1889)
Kasuwar bayi a Alkahira. Zane daga David Roberts, kusan 1848.

Late trans-Sahara cinikin bayi

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Bature William George Browne ya hau da ayarin Darb Al Arbain a cikin 1790s; ya kai “Bayi, namiji da mace” zuwa Masar. [20]

A Afirka ta Tsakiya a cikin ƙarni na 16 da 17, masu cinikin bayi sun ci gaba da kai farmaki a yankin a matsayin wani ɓangare na faɗaɗa hanyoyin bayi na Sahara da Kogin Nilu. An kiyasta cewa, a cikin ƙarni na 17th da 18th, an tilasta wa bayi 1.4 miliyan yin tafiya ta cikin Sahara [6] An bautar da fursunoni kuma an tura su zuwa ga tekun Bahar Rum, Turai, Larabawa, Yammacin Yammacin Turai, ko zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa da masana'antu a yammacin yamma da Arewacin Afirka ko Kudu tare da Ubanqui da kogin Kongo.

Rushewa

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Kasuwar bayi na Marrakesh kamar yadda aka nuna akan murfin Le Petit Parisien na Yuni 2, 1907. [21]

Bayan da aka kafa kungiyar yaki da bautar kasar Burtaniya da na kasashen waje a shekara ta 1839 don yaki da fataucin bayi a tekun Mediterrenean, Ahmad I ibn Mustafa Bey na Tunis, ya amince ya haramta fitar da bayi, shigo da kayayyaki da sayar da bayi a shekara ta 1842, kuma ya haramta bautar a shekara ta 1846. A 1848, Faransa ta haramta bauta a Aljeriya . [22]

Duk da Turawan Ingila sun haramta cinikin bayi a 1833, sojojin Turco-Masar na Muhammad Ali na Masar sun ci gaba da fitar da bayi kusan 20,000 duk shekara daga Sudan. Sarakunan 'yan kasuwa irin su Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur, sun nada khedive a 1873, suna sarrafa kasuwanci a Bahr el Ghazal da hanyoyin zuwa Kordofan da Darfur . [1]

A cikin 1929, an nuna cibiyar Sanusi ta Kufra a cikin Sahara a matsayin cibiyar cinikin bayi (Trans-Saharan).

Italiyawa sun ba da rahoto ga Kwamitin Ba da Shawarwari na Kwararru kan Bauta a cikin 1930s cewa duk tsoffin bayi a Tripolitania Italiya - bautar da aka yi a Libya tun da dadewa an soke su - suna da 'yanci su bar tsoffin masu mallakar Larabawa idan sun ga dama, amma sun zauna saboda sun kasance cikin damuwa na zamantakewa; da kuma cewa a yankunan Cyrenaica da na cikin garin Sanusiya, an kawar da cinikin bayi a yankin Sahara kamar yadda Italiya ta mamaye, inda aka 'yantar da bayi 900 a kasuwar bayi ta Kufra.

A cikin 1936, rahoton da aka bai wa kwamitin ba da shawara na masana kan bauta daga Faransa, Ingila da Italiya ya bayyana cewa, duk sun binciki maɓuɓɓugar ruwa da ke kan hanyoyin ayari a cikin sahara don yaƙar cinikin bayi daga sahara daga Najeriya zuwa arewacin Afirka. [23] A cikin 1937, rahoton ga Kwamitin Ba da Shawarwari na Kwararru akan Bautar, duka Faransa da Spain sun tabbatar da cewa sun yi yaƙi da hare-haren bayi daga masu cinikin bayi na Trans-Saharan, kuma a cikin 1938, Faransanci sun yi iƙirarin cewa sun sami iko akan yankunan kan iyaka tare da Maroko da Aljeriya kuma yadda ya kamata ya hana cinikin bayi na sahara a wannan yanki. Ba a kawar da bauta a Mauritania ba sai 1981.

A cikin shekarun 1980, lokacin yakin basasar Sudan na biyu, an sake samun bullar cinikin bayi a Sudan karkashin kungiyar Islamic Front da kungiyoyi irin su Baqqara da Rizeigat .


Bautar da aka yi a Libya bayan Gaddafi

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Tun farkon yakin basasar Libya a shekara ta 2011, wanda ya yi sanadiyar hambarar da gwamnatin Muammar Gaddafi daga hannun dakarun NATO da ke goyon bayan Gaddafi, Libya ta yi fama da rashin kwanciyar hankali da 'yan ciranin da ba su da kudade kadan kuma babu takarda da suka zama masu rauni. Libya dai ita ce babbar hanyar fita ga bakin haure 'yan Afirka da ke zuwa Turai. Hukumar kula da ‘yan gudun hijira ta duniya (IOM) ta wallafa wani rahoto a watan Afrilun 2017 da ke nuna cewa yawancin bakin haure daga yammacin Afirka da ke zuwa Turai ana sayar da su a matsayin bayi bayan da masu fasa-kwaurin mutane ko kungiyoyin ‘yan bindiga suka tsare su. Kasashen Afirka da ke kudancin Libya an yi wa fataucin bayi ne aka kai su kasuwannin bayi na Libya a maimakon haka. A cewar wadanda abin ya shafa, farashin ya yi yawa ga bakin haure masu fasaha kamar fenti da tile. Sau da yawa ana fansar bayi ga iyalansu kuma kafin nan har sai an azabtar da fansa, a tilasta musu yin aiki, wani lokaci a kashe su kuma a kashe su ko kuma a bar su don yunwa idan ba za su iya biya na dogon lokaci ba. Sau da yawa ana yi wa mata fyade da amfani da su a matsayin bayi na lalata da kuma sayar da su ga gidajen karuwai da abokan cinikin Libya masu zaman kansu. [24] [25] [26] [27] Hakazalika yawancin yaran bakin haure na fama da cin zarafi da yiwa yara fyade a Libya. [28]

Hanyoyi

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A cewar Farfesa Ibrahima Baba Kaké, akwai manyan hanyoyin bauta guda huɗu zuwa Arewacin Afirka, daga gabas zuwa yammacin Afirka, daga Maghreb zuwa Sudan, daga Tripolitania zuwa tsakiyar Sudan da kuma daga Masar zuwa Gabas ta Tsakiya. Hanyoyi na Caravan, wanda aka kafa a cikin karni na 9, sun wuce iyakar Sahara; tafiya ta kasance mai wahala da rashin jin daɗi. Tun zamanin Romawa, dogayen ayari suna jigilar bayi.

Manazarta

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  1. 1 2 Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn (1990). "Islamization in Sudan: A Critical Assessment". Middle East Journal. 44 (4): 610–623. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4328193.
  2. ↑ Johnson, Willard R. (1980). "Africans and Arabs: Collaboration without Co-Operation, Change without Challenge". International Journal. 35 (4): 766–793. doi:10.2307/40201914. ISSN 0020-7020. JSTOR 40201914.
  3. ↑ Shepperson, George (2006). "Islam in Central Africa: a historiographical document". The Society of Malawi Journal. 59 (2): 1–5. ISSN 0037-993X. JSTOR 29779209.
  4. ↑ Mazrui, Ali A. (1975). "Black Africa and the Arabs". Foreign Affairs. 53 (4): 725–742. doi:10.2307/20039542. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20039542.
  5. ↑ Hasan, Yusuf Fadl (1977). "SOME ASPECTS OF THE ARAB SLAVE TRADE FROM THE SUDAN 7th — 19th CENTURY". Sudan Notes and Records. 58: 85–106. ISSN 0375-2984. JSTOR 44947358.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Segal 2001.
  7. 1 2 Akinbode, Ayomide (20 December 2021). "The Forgotten Arab Slave Trade of East Africa". The History Ville. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  8. ↑ "Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation". the Guardian (in Turanci). 2011-11-05. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Bradley2017
  10. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Wilson
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Gordon 1989.
  12. 1 2 3 Clarence-Smith 2006.
  13. ↑ Gordon 1989, p. 122.
  14. ↑ "Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Twelve – Journey to West Africa (1351-1353)". Archived from the original on 9 June 2010.
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Segal-2001
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Lewis 1992.
  17. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Ralph A. Austen-2010
  18. ↑ "The impact of the slave trade on Africa". April 1998.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cornwell-2018
  20. ↑ "DARB EL ARBA'IN. THE FORTY DAYS' ROAD | W. B. K. Shaw | download". ur.booksc.me. Retrieved 2022-09-28.
  21. ↑ "Le Petit Parisien. Supplément littéraire illustré". Gallica (in Turanci). 1907-06-02. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named El Hamel-2012
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Miers
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named BBC
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Guardian
  26. ↑ "African migrants sold as 'slaves' in Libya". 3 July 2020.
  27. ↑ "West African migrants are kidnapped and sold in Libyan slave markets / Boing Boing". boingboing.net. 11 April 2017.
  28. ↑ "Immigrant Women, Children Raped, killed and Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef". 28 February 2017. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2020.
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