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Cinikin guda ukku

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Cinikin guda ukku
triad (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na trade (en) Fassara
Fuskar African slave trade (en) Fassara

Ciniki triangular na bayi, sukari, da rum, tare da New England maimakon Turai a matsayin kusurwa na uku Cinikin triangular ko cinikin alwatika kasuwanci ne tsakanin tashoshi ko yankuna uku. Kasuwancin kuɗaɗen triangular yawanci yana tasowa ne lokacin da yanki ke da kayan da ake fitarwa zuwa waje waɗanda ba a buƙata a yankin da manyan abubuwan da suke shigo da su ke zuwa. An yi amfani da shi don magance rashin daidaituwar ciniki tsakanin yankuna daban-daban. ,[1] Misalin da aka fi kawo misali na ciniki mai kusurwa uku shine cinikin bayi na Atlantic, amma akwai wasu misalai. Waɗannan sun haɗa da jigilar kayayyaki da aka ƙera na ƙarni na goma sha bakwai daga Ingila zuwa New England da Newfoundland, sannan busassun cod daga Newfoundland da New England zuwa Bahar Rum da Iberian tsibirin, biye da kayan zinare, azurfa, man zaitun, taba, busassun 'ya'yan itace, da "buhuna" na giya a koma Ingila. Masu jigilar ruwa suna kiran wannan kasuwancin Atlantic a matsayin "cinikin buhu." Wani misali shi ne jigilar kayayyaki na gaba ɗaya daga Biritaniya zuwa Ostiraliya, Kwal ta Australiya zuwa China, sannan shayi da siliki na komawa Biritaniya.

Cinikin bayin Atlantika ya yi amfani da tsarin mu’amalar mu’amala ta Atlantika ta hanyoyi uku – wanda aka sani a tarihi a matsayin ciniki mai triangular – wanda ya gudana tsakanin Turai, Afirka, da Amurka daga karni na 16 zuwa 19. Ma’aikatan Turawa sun yi wa jiragen ruwan bayi kaya, kuma suna jigilar kayayyaki na Turai mallakar kamfanonin kasuwanci zuwa Afirka ta Yamma don samun bayi, da suke jigilar su zuwa Amurka, musamman Brazil da tsibirin Caribbean. Na farko, a Afirka ta Yamma, ’yan kasuwa suna sayar da ko sayar da kayayyakin da Turawa ke ƙerawa ga bayin cikin gida a maimakon bayi. Daga nan sai ma’aikatan jirgin suka yi jigilar bayi, da sauran kayayyakin da Turawa ke kerawa, zuwa Amurka inda ‘yan kasuwan jiragen ruwa ke sayar da bayi da kayayyakin da Turawa ke kerawa ga masu shukar. Daga nan sai ‘yan kasuwa suka sayi sukari da molasses daga masu shukar kuma ma’aikatan jirgin suka tura su zuwa yankunan Arewacin Amurka (daga baya Amurka), inda ’yan kasuwan suka sayar da sauran kayayyakin da ake kerawa na Turawa da bayi, da sukari da molasses daga gonaki zuwa masu saye na gida, sannan suka sayi kayayyakin Arewacin Amurka don sayarwa a Turai, gami da taba, sukari, dabba, auduga, rum, shinkafa, rum.

Wannan ciniki, a cikin girman ciniki, ya kasance da farko tare da Kudancin Amurka, inda aka sayar da yawancin bayi, amma misali na yau da kullun da aka koyar a cikin karatun karni na 20 shine kasuwancin molasses na mulkin mallaka, wanda ya haɗa da cinikin bayi, sukari (sau da yawa a cikin nau'in ruwa, kamar molasses), da rum a tsakanin Yammacin Afirka, Indiya ta Yamma da yankunan arewacin Burtaniya na Arewacin Amurka a cikin ƙarni na 17 da 18 [2] A cikin wannan fatauci mai nau'i-nau'i uku, bayi suna girma da sukarin da ake amfani da su don yin rum, wanda kuma ana sayar da shi don ƙarin bayi. A cikin wannan da'irar hanyar teku ta yamma daga Afirka zuwa Yammacin Indiya (da kuma daga baya, kuma zuwa Brazil) ana kiranta Tsakiyar Tsakiya; kayanta sun kunshi mutanen Afirka da aka sace ko kuma aka saya a baya-bayan nan.

A lokacin Zamanin Sail, takamaiman hanyoyin kuma an tsara su ta hanyar tasirin iskoki da igiyoyi. Misali, daga manyan kasashen da ke kasuwanci a yammacin Turai, ya fi sauki a tashi zuwa yamma bayan da aka fara zuwa kudu da latitude 30° N kuma a kai ga abin da ake kira “iskar ciniki”, don haka ya isa yankin Caribbean maimakon tafiya kai tsaye yamma zuwa yankin Arewacin Amurka. Dawowa daga Arewacin Amirka, ya kasance mafi sauƙi don bin kogin Gulf a cikin yankin arewa maso gabas ta hanyar amfani da yammacin yamma. (Ko da kafin tafiye-tafiye na Christopher Columbus, Portuguese sun kasance suna amfani da irin wannan triangle don tafiya zuwa tsibirin Canary da Azores, sannan aka fadada shi a waje.)

Ƙasashen da suka mallaki kasuwar bayi na transatlantic har zuwa karni na 18 dangane da adadin bayin da aka tura su ne Burtaniya, Portugal, da Faransa.

Kasuwancin buhu na Atlantic

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Daga 1620 zuwa 1709, jiragen ruwa da ƙarin jiragen ruwa sun tashi daga Newfoundland da New England a cikin "cinikin buhu." [3] ma aikatan jirgin ruwa daga yankunan biyu sun dauki lambar gishiri zuwa kudancin Turai, musamman daga Boston da Ferryland zuwa cikin Rumunan da Iberian tashar jiragen ruwa. Katolika Katolika na Sipaniya da Portuguese sun yi maraba da waɗannan 'yan kasuwa saboda dalilai da yawa, gami da keɓancewar Ikilisiya daga azumi da kamewa da aka wajabta don Lent, Zuwa, da kuma ɗimbin abubuwan tunawa da tsarkaka. Jiragen ruwan Newfoundland da New England sannan suka ɗauki “buhuna” giyan Iberian, man zaitun, busassun 'ya'yan itace, taba, da ɗimbin nau'ikan nau'ikan Iberian, waɗanda ƴan asalin ƙasar da aka kama a Cerro Rico da Cerro de Pasco suka haƙa zuwa Ingila. Bayan shekara ta 1661, majalisar ta dage haramcin cinikin New England code don kayan kayan Iberian, da kuma takardar kudi. Man fetur, 'ya'yan itace, taba, Zinariya na Sabuwar Duniya da azurfa, "buhuna" na ruwan inabi, al'adun kayan gargajiya na Iberian, sa'an nan kuma an canza wannan takardar takarda don samfurori da aka ƙera a Ingila.[4] A lokacin wasan karshe, dillalan mulkin mallaka sun yi jigilar kayayyaki na Birtaniyya, da duk wani "buhu" na giyar giyar, a ƙetaren Tekun Atlantika kuma su koma cikin tashoshinsu na gida.[5]

"Cinikin buhu" ya narke bayan 1709 saboda canje-canje a cikin hanyoyin magance cod da buƙatun lardi na sukari da kuma molasses. Bukatar busasshen cod Atlantika ya ingiza New England da Newfoundland ƙofofin cancantar ƙoƙarce-ƙoƙarce don karkata zuwa kasuwancin transatlantic da musayar tattalin arziƙi. Wadannan ra'ayoyi masu canzawa, da iyakokin iyawar lardi sun haifar da schooners na New England da Newfoundland suna neman karin wuraren kamun kifi tare da bankunan arewa maso gabas. Masunta sun kasance a bakin teku na wani lokaci mai tsawo yayin da jiragen ruwansu ke laluben ruwan Arewacin Amurka.[6] Cinikin bayi na Atlantic triangular Sashe na jerin kan[7]

Aikin dole da bauta

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Na zamani Na tarihi Ta ƙasa ko yanki Addini Adawa da tsayin daka Masu alaƙa vte[8] Duba kuma: Kasuwancin bayi na Atlantika da bakin tekun bayi na Afirka ta Yamma Mafi mahimmancin ciniki mai kusurwa uku a tarihi shine cinikin bayi na transatlantic wanda ya gudana tsakanin Turai, Afirka, da Amurka daga ƙarni na 16 zuwa 19. Jiragen bayi za su bar tasoshin jiragen ruwa na Turai (kamar Bristol da Nantes) kuma su tashi zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa na Afirka masu lodin kayayyaki da aka kera a Turai. A can, ’yan kasuwar bayi za su sayi ’yan Afirka da suke bauta ta hanyar musayar kaya, sannan su tashi zuwa Amurka ta Tsakiyar Tsakiyar don sayar da kayan da suke bauta a ƙasashen Turai. A cikin abin da ake kira "triangle na zinari", jirgin bawa zai koma Turai don sake zagayowar.[9] An sayo ’yan Afirka da aka bautar da su da farko don yin aiki a kan gonaki don yin aikin samar da kayan amfanin gona mai mahimmanci (kamar sukari, auduga, da taba) waɗanda ke da matuƙar buƙata a Turai.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] masu fataucin bayi daga turawan mulkin mallaka kan yi balaguro lokaci-lokaci zuwa Afirka da kansu, tare da kawar da yankin Turai na balaguron.[15] [16] [17] [18] Adadin da suka hau zuwa Amurka daga 1450 zuwa 1800 ta ƙasa[an buƙatu] Misali na yau da kullun shine kasuwancin molasses na mulkin mallaka. 'Yan kasuwa sun sayi danyen sukari (sau da yawa a cikin nau'in ruwa, molasses) daga gonaki a cikin Caribbean kuma suka tura shi zuwa New England da Turai, inda aka sayar da shi ga kamfanonin distillery waɗanda ke samar da rum. 'Yan jari-hujja sun yi amfani da tsabar kuɗi daga siyar da sukari don siyan rum, furs, da katako a New England waɗanda ma'aikatansu suka yi jigilar su zuwa Turai.,[19]

Ƙafar farko na triangle daga tashar jiragen ruwa na Turai zuwa ɗaya a yammacin Afirka (wanda aka fi sani da "Slave Coast"), inda jiragen ruwa ke ɗaukar kayayyaki na sayarwa da cinikayya, kamar tagulla, zane, kayan ado, beads na bayi, bindigogi da harsasai.[20] Sa’ad da jirgin ya isa, za a sayar da kayansa ko kuma a sayar da shi ga bayi. Tashoshin ruwan da suka fitar da wadannan bayi daga Afirka sun hada da Ouidah, Legas, Aneho (Little Popo), Grand-Popo, Agoué, Jakin, Porto-Novo, da Badagry.[21] Waɗannan tashoshin jiragen ruwa na cinikin bayi waɗanda aka ba su daga al'ummomin Afirka, kabilu da masarautu, gami da Alladah da Ouidah, waɗanda masarautar Dahomey ta karɓe su daga baya.[[22]

A mataki na biyu, jiragen ruwa sun yi tafiya ta Tsakiyar Tsakiya daga Afirka zuwa Sabuwar Duniya. Bayi da yawa sun mutu saboda cututtuka a cikin cunkoson jiragen ruwa na bayi. Da zarar jirgin ya isa [23] Sabuwar Duniya, an sayar da bayin da suka tsira a cikin Caribbean ko yankunan Amurka. Daga nan aka shirya jiragen ruwa domin a tsaftace su sosai, a kwashe su, da lodin kayayyakin da za a fitar da su zuwa balaguron komawa, wato kafa ta uku, zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa na gidansu, daga yammacin Indiya manyan kayan da ake fitarwa su ne sukari, rum, da molasses; daga Virginia, taba da hemp. Daga nan sai jirgin ya koma Turai don kammala triangle.

Hanyar triangle ba gaba ɗaya jiragen ruwa ɗaya ke bi ba. An gina jiragen bayi don ɗaukar mutane da yawa, maimakon kaya, kuma bambancin tsawon lokacin tsallakawar Tekun Atlantika yana nufin cewa sau da yawa sun isa Amurka ba tare da kaka ba. Ta haka ne jiragen bayi sukan koma tashar jiragen ruwa na gida suna ɗauke da duk wani kaya da ake samu a cikin Amurka amma tare da babban sashi ko duk ƙarfinsu tare da ballast.[24]] A[25]an yi jigilar kayan amfanin gona musamman ta wani jirgin ruwa daban wanda kawai ke tashi daga Turai zuwa Amurka da dawowa.[[26]

Sabuwar England

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Adadin bayin da aka shigo da su daga Afirka daga 1501 zuwa 1866 Har ila yau, New England ta yi jita-jita daga sukari na Caribbean da molasses, wanda aka aika zuwa Afirka da kuma cikin Sabuwar Duniya.[[27] Duk da haka, "cinikin triangle" kamar yadda aka yi la'akari da shi dangane da New England aiki ne na ɗan guntu. Babu wani ɗan kasuwa na New England da aka sani da ya kammala jerin da'irar cikakken triangle, wanda ya ɗauki shekara ta kalanda a matsakaici, a cewar ɗan tarihi Clifford Shipton.[28] An fara ba da shawarar manufar kasuwancin Triangular na New England, ba tare da kayyade ba, a cikin wani littafi na 1866 na George H. Moore, masanin tarihi George C. Mason ya ɗauko shi a cikin 1872, kuma ya kai ga cikakken la'akari daga wata lacca a 1887 na ɗan kasuwa na Amurka kuma masanin tarihi William B. Weeden.[[29]

A cikin mahallin aikin da ba a haɗa shi ba a cikin Tsarin Atlantic na Biyu mai yawa, babban filin jirgin ruwa na gabas "Farms" yana da, da gaske bayan 1690, ba wai kawai ya ci gaba da mallakar kudancin New England ba, bankunan ƙasa, da kuɗi, amma har ma da juyin halitta na yankin Caribbean. Wannan ɗaukar nauyin ciniki ya ba da gudummawa ga faɗaɗa yankunan gandun daji na Arewacin Amurka guda ɗaya don noman rake zuwa cikin wani yanki mai faɗin yammacin Indies da hadadden shukar Kudancin Caribbean. A cikin karni na goma sha bakwai, sharuɗɗan mulkin mallaka da kwamishinonin sarauta sun hana ƙoƙarin kafa sabuwar Ingila da ke ɗauke da kasuwanci zuwa, misali, Kamfanin Kasuwancin Atherton da John Hull. Amma shawarwari na Peleg Sanford sun ba da tsarin aiwatarwa na "Farms" na ƙarni na goma sha takwas. Masanin tarihi Sean Kelley yayi nazari akan "Bawan Amurka" na karni na goma sha tara saboda "kasuwancin bayi na Arewacin Amurka kafin 1776, a zahiri, wani reshe ne na kasuwanci."[[30] [@,[31] [32] 1,775 / 5,000[33] Gwaje-gwaje na lokaci-lokaci da kisa na mashahuran ƴan fasa-kwauri sun rage takunkumin da aka sanya wa sarautar lokacin zaman lafiya, musamman saboda ɗaukar haramtacciyar doka da kuma amincewa da Babban Taron Aquidneck a matsayin mafakar 'yan fashi. Wadannan 'yan fashin sun fara watse daga Newport tsakanin yakin Sarauniya Anne da kisan gilla na 1723, inda suka kafa tashar jiragen ruwa a matsayin babban tashar jiragen ruwa, tare da Providence yana zuwa a cikin dakika mai nisa. Masu jigilar kaya na Biritaniya sun ci gaba da samar da gonaki a wajen iyakokin daular.,[34]][35] [36]

Takunkumin yaƙe-yaƙe wanda ya rage

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kasuwancin ketare ya haifar da hasashe, da kuma tallace-tallacen filaye da wuraren ajiyar kabilanci na Narragansett, a ƙarƙashin ikon majalisa (jama'a), ta amintattun masu zaman kansu, takamaiman nau'in alaƙar aminci don tallafawa asusun kashe kuɗi, biyan kuɗi na yau da kullun, ko duka biyun. Masu yin takara a wurin taron sun kasance cikin "haɗin gwiwa" [37] yeomen da masunta, [38] waɗanda (a cewar wasu masana tarihi) sun yi kuskure [39] na kudaden shiga da aka samu daga cinikin kasuwanci a matsayin "ƙwarewa." Masu ba da rancen sun haɗa da dillalai masu fa'ida a tashoshin jiragen ruwa na biyu kamar Providence kuma.[40] Duk da haɓakar noman masana'antu "Babban Arewa maso Gabas", [41] kudancin New England "Gonana" da jigilar kaya[42] a cikin sukari na Caribbean, molasses, shinkafa, kofi, indigo, mahogany, da pre-1740 "bayi masu karewa", [43] ya fara bazuwa ta hanyar Zaɓen na 18 na War. shekara ta 1812.[44] [45] Newport da Bristol, Rhode Island, sun kasance manyan tashar jiragen ruwa da ke da hannu a cinikin bayi na mulkin mallaka.[46] yawancin manyan 'yan kasuwa na Newport da 'yan kasuwa sun shiga cikin cinikin, suna aiki tare da 'yan kasuwa da 'yan kasuwa a cikin Caribbean da Charleston, South Carolina.[47]

Wasu tradular kasuwanci

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Kalmar "Trans ciniki" tana nufin yawancin kasuwancin ". [48] Transmasashen Trangular ne ya faru a tsakanin Girka ta gabas (kuma wataƙila Attica), Kommos, da Misira. [[49] Sabuwar "Sugar Triangle" da aka ci gaba a cikin 1820s da 1830s da 1830s a cikin jirgin ruwan Baltic (Daular Rasha da Sweden da hemp da hemp na baya ga New England. [50] Jirgin ruwa daga Burtaniya zuwa Australia a cikin na uku na karni na 19 na karni na Cargoes ya koma Burtaniya. Don haka suka dauki sabon Kudu Wales a kasar Sin sannan suka sauke shayi da siliki don daukar Biritaniya. Thermopylae yana daga cikin jiragen ruwa da suka tashi wannan hanyar triangular. A lokacin da steraps ya zama mai inganci don rufe nisan da ya shafi Australia a cikin wata shekara, ɗayan yana iya tafiya China. Wannan ya yi gasa tare da taron kasar Sin da Japan, kwantena na masu atisanta wanda ya kare cinikinsu kuma ya ci jerin shari'o'in kotu domin yin hakan. [51]

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Merritt, J. E. (1960). "The Triangular Trade". Business History. 3 (1). Informa UK Limited: 1–7. doi:10.1080/00076796000000012. ISSN 0007-6791. S2CID 153930643.
  2. ↑ .Emert, Phyllis (1995). Colonial triangular trade: an economy based on human misery. Carlisle, Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises Ltd. ISBN 978-1-878668-48-6. OCLC 32840704
  3. ↑ Pope, Peter (January 1996). "Adventures in the Sack Trade: London Merchants in the Canada and Newfoundland Trades, 1627-1648". The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du Nord. 6 (1): 1–19. doi:10.25071/2561-5467.693.
  4. ↑ Magra, Christopher P. (2009). The Fisherman's Cause: Atlantic Commerce and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–126. ISBN 9780521518383.
  5. ↑ Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth Century. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 303–406. ISBN 0807829102
  6. ↑ Pope, Peter E. (2004). Fish into Wine: The Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth Century. Chapel Hill: The University of
  7. ↑ Magra, Christopher P. (2009). The Fisherman's Cause: Atlantic Commerce and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–126. ISBN 9780521518383.
  8. ↑ "The Gun-Slave Hypothesis and the 18th Century British Slave Trade"
  9. ↑ United States V. Amistad: Slave Ship Mutiny
  10. ↑ "La traite négrière nantaise de 1763 à 1793"
  11. ↑ Vindt, Gérard; Consil, Jean-Michel (June 2013). "Nantes, Bordeaux et l'économie esclavagiste – Au XVIIIe siècle, les villes de Nantes et de Bordeaux profitent toutes deux de la "traite négrière" et de l'économie esclavagiste". Alternatives économiques. 325: 17–21.
  12. ↑ Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America
  13. ↑ Kowaleski-Wallace, A.P.o.E.E., Elizabeth (2006). The British slave trade and public memory. New York: Columbia
  14. ↑ Liverpool and the Slave Trade
  15. ↑ About.com: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
  16. ↑ National Maritime Museum
  17. ↑ lein, Herbert S. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press
  18. ↑ bayin
  19. ↑ Curtis, Wayne (2006–2007). And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 117-119 ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4.
  20. ↑ Curtis, Wayne (2006–2007). And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 117-119 ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4.
  21. ↑ Lawsons of Little Popo/Aneho (Togo), 1841-1938". The English Historical Review. CXXII (499): 1438–1439. doi:10.1093/ehr/cem350. ISSN 0013-
  22. ↑ Lombard, J (2018). "The Kingdom of Dahomey". West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century. Routledge. pp. 70–92. doi:10.4324/9780429491641-3. ISBN 978-0-429-49164-1. S2CID 204268220.
  23. ↑ Middleton, Tobacco
  24. ↑ ]["Revealing the Relationship Between Ship Crowding and Slave Mortality"
  25. ↑ nWolfe, Brendan (1 February 2021). "Slave Ships and the Middle Passage". In Miller, Patti (ed.). Encyclopedia Virginia. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Humanities – Library of Virginia. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  26. ↑ 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation.
  27. ↑ "Slavery in Rhode Island"
  28. ↑ Curtis, Wayne (2006–2007). And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 117-119 ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4.
  29. ↑ Curtis, Wayne (2006–2007). And a Bottle of Rum. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 117-119 ISBN 978-0-307-33862-4.
  30. ↑ Kelley, Sean M. (30 May 2023). American Slavers: Merchants, Mariners, and the Transatlantic Commerce in Captives, 1644-
  31. ↑ "Ships Going Out"
  32. ↑ Schwartz, Stuart B. (2016). Sea of Storms: A History of Hurricanes in the Greater Caribbean from Columbus to Katrina. Princeton University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-691-17360
  33. ↑ "Graves Of Connecticut Sea Captains Discovered In South America"
  34. ↑ Burgess, Douglas R. (2012). "A Crisis of Charter and Right: Piracy and Colonial Resistance in Seventeenth-Century Rhode Island". Journal of Social History. 45 (3): 605–622. doi:10.1093/jsh/shr136. ISSN 0022-
  35. ↑ Hanna, Mark G. (22 October 2015). Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British Empire, 1570-1740. UNC Press Books. pp. 365–392. ISBN 978
  36. ↑ Bushman, Richard Lyman (1998). "Markets and Composite Farms in Early America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 55 (3): 351–374. doi:10.2307/2674528. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2674528.
  37. ↑ Bushman, Richard Lyman (1998). "Markets and Composite Farms in Early America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 55 (3): 351–374. doi:10.2307/2674528. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2674528.
  38. ↑ Kulik, Gary (1985). "Dams, Fishes, and Farmers: Defense of Public Rights in Eighteenth-Century Rhode Island". The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America.
  39. ↑ Kulikoff, Allan (1 February 2014). From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers. Chapel Hill: Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 104 and 207. ISBN 978-0-8078-6078
  40. ↑ Vickers, Daniel (1990). "Competency and Competition: Economic Culture in Early America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 47 (1): 3–29. doi:10.2307/2938039. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2938039
  41. ↑ Grassroots Leviathan: Agricultural Reform and the Rural North in the Slaveholding Republic
  42. ↑ Dark Work: The Business of Slavery in Rhode Island
  43. ↑ Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British America, 1619-1807
  44. ↑ The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies
  45. ↑ Dark Work: The Business of Slavery in Rhode Island
  46. ↑ Deutsch, Sarah (1982). "The Elusive Guineamen: Newport Slavers, 1735–1774". The New England Quarterly. 55 (2): 229–253. doi:10.2307/365360. JSTOR 365360
  47. ↑ Deutsch, Sarah (1982). "The Elusive Guineamen: Newport Slavers, 1735–1774". The New England Quarterly. 55 (2): 229–253. doi:10.2307/365360. JSTOR 36536
  48. ↑ Slave Voyages
  49. ↑ Jones, Donald W.; Archaeological Institute of America; University of Pennsylvania. University Museum (2000). "Crete's External Relations in the Early Iron Age". External relations of early Iron Age Crete, 1100–600 B.C. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 97. ISBN 9780924171802
  50. ↑ Chris Evans and Göran Rydén, Baltic Iron in the Atlantic World in the Eighteenth
  51. ↑ King, Peter (2017). The Aberdeen Line : George Thompson Jnr's incomparable shipping enterprise. Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509
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