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Cutar da ke faruwa a cikin ruwa

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Cutar da ke faruwa a cikin ruwa
Description (en) Fassara
Iri infectious disease (en) Fassara
Field of study (en) Fassara Cututtukan cututtuka (ƙwarewar kiwon lafiya)
Sanadi Gurɓacewar Ruwa, microorganism (en) Fassara
virus
Symptoms and signs (en) Fassara diarrhea
Identifier (en) Fassara
MeSH D000069578

Cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su a ruwa cututtuka ne da ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta ke haifarwa, kamar ƙwayoyin cuta, ƙwayoyin cuta, protozoa, da tsutsotsi masu kama da najasa, waɗanda ake yaɗawa ta hanyar gurɓataccen ruwa . Yawancin waɗannan ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta ƙwayoyin cuta ne na hanji, suna mamaye kyallen takarda ko tsarin zagayawa ta bangon hanyar narkewar abinci . Sauran cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su a ruwa ƙwayoyin cuta ne ke haifar da su. Sauran muhimman nau'ikan cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su a ruwa ƙwayoyin cuta ne ke haifar da su. Misalan da aka saba gani sun haɗa da wasu ƙwayoyin cuta na metazoan, ko "tsutsotsi masu zagaye," waɗanda ka iya haifar da cututtuka kamar Dracunculiasis ko ma cutar tsutsotsi . Ƙarin nau'ikan ƙwayoyin cuta na metazoan da ake kamuwa da su a ruwa sun haɗa da Schistosmatidae, dangin ƙwayoyin cuta na jini. Baya ga ƙwayoyin cuta, gurɓatar ruwa na iya faruwa ta hanyar gurɓatattun sinadarai kamar mahaɗan halitta masu canzawa (VOCs). Wannan ya haɗa da benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, da xylenes, waɗanda za su iya shiga layukan ruwa ta hanyar zubar da masana'antu, ɓullar bututun mai, zubewar mai, ko bututun filastik da zafi ya lalata.

Waɗannan cututtukan na iya yaɗuwa ta hanyar wanka, wanke-wanke, shan ruwa, ko kuma cin abincin da aka fallasa ga gurɓataccen ruwa, musamman ma a ƙasashe masu tasowa waɗanda ba su da tsaftataccen ruwa, tsafta, da tsafta ( WASH ). Duk da cewa gudawa da amai su ne alamun cututtukan da aka fi samu a ruwa, wasu alamomin na iya haɗawa da tashin zuciya, ciwon ciki, zazzaɓi, da matsalolin fata, kunne, numfashi, ko ido. An danganta fallasa ga ruwan da ya gurɓata ta hanyar VOC da ciwon kai, tashin zuciya, samuwar ƙari, da kuma ƙaruwar haɗarin kamuwa da cutar kansa, gami da cutar sankarar bargo .

Saboda haka, ingantaccen samun ruwan sha mai tsafta da tsaftar muhalli shine babbar hanyar hana cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su ta ruwa. Wannan ya haɗa da inganta tsarin tsaftar muhalli, amfani da sinadarin chlorine, allurar rigakafi, da fasahohi masu dorewa, kamar amfani da ruwan gishiri mai amfani da hasken rana. Inganta kayayyakin more rayuwa, kamar maye gurbin bututun filastik da suka lalace da madadin ƙarfe a yankunan da gobarar daji ke shafar, na iya rage haɗarin gurɓatawa. Biliyoyin mutane a duk duniya ba su da damar samun ruwa mai tsafta, wanda hakan ke sa ya zama da mahimmanci ga rigakafi. Cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su ta ruwa suna ba da gudummawa sosai ga mace-mace da nakasa, musamman a yankuna masu tasowa . Kowane sakamako yana sanya matsin tattalin arziki ga al'ummomin da abin ya shafa. Sakamakon sauyin yanayi kuma yana ƙara haɗari saboda ƙaruwar yiwuwar fari da ambaliyar ruwa, waɗanda za su iya yaɗuwa da gurɓatawa kuma suna shafar al'ummomin da ke cikin mawuyacin hali. Tsarin sa ido, kamar waɗanda ake kiyayewa a Amurka, suna taimakawa wajen sa ido da hana barkewar cututtuka . A tarihi, ci gaba a fannin tsaftar muhalli, tacewa, chlorine, da ƙwayoyin cuta na iya taimakawa wajen fahimtar da kuma sarrafa waɗannan cututtuka.

Kalmomi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Kwayoyin jinin ja na wani abu da ya kamu da cutar malaria, cuta da ake kamuwa da ita ta hanyar ruwa

Kalmar cutar da ake samu a ruwa an keɓe ta ne musamman ga cututtukan da galibi ake kamuwa da su ta hanyar hulɗa da ko shan ruwan da aka gurbata da ƙwayoyin cuta. Yawancin cututtuka na iya yaɗuwa ta hanyar ƙwayoyin cuta ko ƙwayoyin cuta waɗanda suka shiga cikin ruwa ba da gangan ba, wataƙila sakamakon yanayi na musamman, ba lallai ba ne ya nuna cewa yana da amfani a rarraba cutar da ke haifar da ita a matsayin "ta ruwa." Cututtuka kamar zazzabin cizon sauro galibi ana kuskuren fassara su a matsayin "ta ruwa" saboda sauro, waɗanda ke aiki a matsayin masu yaɗuwa, suna da matakan ruwa a cikin rayuwarsu. Sarrafa ko magance ruwan da ba shi da tsafta na iya rage yawan sauro, yana nuna ra'ayin cewa cutar tana yaɗuwa ta ruwa ba ta cizon sauro ba.

Kalmar da ke da alaƙa da ita ita ce "cutar da ke da alaƙa da ruwa" wadda aka bayyana a matsayin "duk wani mummunan tasiri ko yaɗuwa ga lafiyar ɗan adam, kamar mutuwa, nakasa, rashin lafiya ko rashin lafiya, wanda yanayin ya haifar kai tsaye ko a kaikaice, ko canje-canje a cikin adadi ko ingancin kowace ruwa". [1] :47An rarraba cututtukan da suka shafi ruwa bisa ga tsarin yaduwar su: ruwa mai ɗauke da shi, tsaftar ruwa, ruwa mai ɗauke da shi, da kuma ruwa mai ɗauke da shi. [1] :47Babban hanyar yaduwar cututtuka a cikin ruwa shine shan ruwa mai gurbatacce. [2]

Dalilai

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Rashin isasshen tsaftataccen ruwa, tsaftar muhalli, da riga-kafin tsafta (WASH) sune manyan dalilan da ke haifar da yaduwar cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa a cikin al'umma. Hanyar fitar bayan gida ta baki (fecal–oral route) ita ce hanyar da cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa ke bi wajen yaduwa.[3] Talauci shi ma yana ƙara haɗarin afkuwar cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa a cikin al'ummomi. Misali, matsayin tattalin arziki na al'umma yana tasiri sosai ga ikonsu na samun damar amfani da tsaftataccen ruwa.[4] Ƙasashe marasa ci gaba na iya fuskantar babban haɗari na ɓarnar cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa, amma yankuna masu ci gaba su ma ba su tsira ba daga wannan haɗari.[5] Bugu da ƙari, mutum 1 cikin 4, ko kuma mutane biliyan 2.1 a duniya, har yanzu ba su da damar samun amintaccen ruwan sha. [6]

Abubuwan da suka shafi zamantakewa da tattalin arziki

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Karancin ilimi a yankuna masu fama da talauci shine babban jigo ga matsalar cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa. Idan al'umma tana da ilimi sosai a kan wata matsala, za ta iya ɗaukar mataki tare da magance matsalar a cikin gida maimakon dogaro da agajin ƙasashen waje. Ƙasashe da yawa a Gabas ta Tsakiya, Kudancin Gabashin Asiya, da Kudancin Hamada ta Sahara suna fuskantar waɗannan matsaloli saboda rashin ingantaccen ilimi.[7] Misali, ƙasar Morocco tana da ƙarancin ma'aikata sosai don samar da abinci da sauran ayyuka waɗanda za ta iya amfana da su sosai. A matsayin martani, Amurka da Morocco tare da sauran hukumomi da yawa sun yi aiki tare don ƙaddamar da shirin H2O Maghreb. Wannan shirin yana aiki ne don ilimantar da mutanen Morocco kan tsaftataccen ruwa da tsaftar muhalli ta hanyar amfani da na'urorin kwaikwayo na sarrafa ruwa. Ba wai kawai fasahar kwaikwayo ta gaskiya (virtual reality) ke sake samar da lokutan gaggawa da ba safai ake fuskanta ba don yin atisayen magance su, har ma suna samar da ayyukan yi ga ƙasashe matasauta don taimakawa tattalin arzikinsu.[7]

Rikicin siyasa da yaƙi suna ƙarfafa yaɗuwar cututtuka masu alaka da ruwa ban da rashin ilimi. Ƙasashe a Yankin Gabashin Mediterranean na Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya suna fama da wannan matsala musamman.[8] Bankin Duniya ya sanya ƙasar Yemen, tare da wasu ƙasashe da dama a Yankin Gabashin Mediterranean, a matsayin "ƙasashe masu rauni da rikici ya shafa." Ƙasashen Syria da Lebanon [9] ba su ga wata ɓarnar cutar kwalara ba kusan shekaru sodas biyu da suka gabata, amma sun fuskanci hakan a shekarar 2022. Yaƙi yana lalata abubuwan more rayuwa da ake buƙata don samar da tsaftataccen ruwa da tsarin tsaftar muhalli: wata hanya ce mai sauƙi ta yaɗuwar cututtuka. Shekaru biyu da suka gabata, hukumar lafiya ta duniya ta canza matsayin cutar kwalara zuwa Matsayi na 3 (Grade 3) na gaggawa na lafiyar al'umma na duniya. Tsakanin shekarun 2016 da 2022, ƙasar Yemen ta fuskanci mutane miliyan 2.5 da suka kamu da cutar kwalara.[10] Waɗannan ɓarnace-ɓarnace suna da alaƙa ta kusa da rikice-rikicen da ke yankin. Yaƙi kuma yana lalata asibitoci da gine-ginen lafiya da ake buƙata don kula da marasa lafiya da suka kamu da cututtukan da ake samu ta ruwa. A Yankin Gabashin Mediterranean, ƙasashe ba sa fafutuka da annoba ta duniya (pandemic) kuma, a maimakon haka suna fama da annoba ta cikin gida (endemic).[8]

Sauran yankuna da yaƙi ya daidaita kamar Gaza dole ne su sarrafa rikitattun tsarin ruwa waɗanda ke kawo babban haɗari ga ingancin ruwa da kuma damar samun cututtuka na ruwa. Gaza tando samun mafi yawancin ruwanta ne daga ƙarƙashin ƙasa amma kuma tana samun kaɗan daga Israel; suna da madatsun ruwa na cire gishiri (desalination plants) da yawa a fadin yankin.[11] Ma'aikata suna ci gaba da aiki don gyara tsarin bututun ruwa da manyan makaman yaƙi suka lalata amma wani lokacin ana kashe su yayin gudanar da aikin.[11] Don kwatanta yawan amfani da ruwa na amintacciyar ƙasa da ƙasar da ke cikin yaƙi, Amurkawa suna amfani da kusan lita 300 a kowace rana yayin da a Gaza mutum ɗaya ke amfani da kusan lita 80 a kowace rana. Sakamakon lalacewar kowane sashi na tsarin ruwa a Gaza ta kowace hanya zuwa shekarar 2024, jimillar mutanen da ke kamuwa da cututtukan ruwa ta fashe jim kaɗan bayan haka tare da fuskantar matsalolin gudawa mai tsanani (acute diarrhea) guda 600,000 har ma da jariri ɗaya ɗan watanni 10 da ya kamu da cutar shan inna (polio).[11]

Bugu da ƙari, wani bincike da aka gudanar a shekarar 2022 wanda aka buga a Nature Communications ya auna alaƙar da ke tsakanin al'ummomin jinsi da na ƙabila da kuma yawan gurbatattun abubuwa a cikin ruwan sha daga shekarar 2000 zuwa 2011 a Amurka. Ƙasashe da ke da babban rukunin mazauna na Hispanic da na asalin Amurka (American Indian) sun ƙunshi mafi girman adadin sinadaran arsenic da uranium a cikin ruwan sha. Sai dai mazauna fararen fata marasa asalin Hispanic suna da ƙananan adadin waɗannan sinadarai. Marubuta binciken sun kammala da cewa bambance-bambance a ingancin ruwan sha sun bambanta ta yankuna da kuma tsarin al'umma, wanda ke nuna rashin daidaito wajen fuskantar ruwan sha da ake sarrafawa a Amurka. [12]

Cututtuka ta hanyar nau'ikan kwayoyin cuta

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Protozoa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa[13][14] Kwayar cuta (Microbial agent) Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya
Acanthamoeba keratitis (wanke madubin ido [contact lenses] da gurbataccen ruwa) Acanthamoeba spp. (A. castellanii da A. polyphaga) tartsatsin amoebae masu zaman kansu da ake samu a muhallin ruwa daban-daban, hada da ruwan sama, ruwan famfo, wuraren ninkaya, da ruwan wanke madubin ido Ciwon ido, jan ido, dusashewar gani, rashin jure haske, jin kamar akwai wani abu a ido, da yawan fitar hawaye
Amoebiasis (taba baki da gurbataccen hannu) Protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica) (Mai siffar rami/kullu) Ruwan kashi (sewage), ruwan sha da ba a tace ba, kudaje a madatsar ruwa, yaduwar miya (idan daya mutumin yana da cutar) Rashin jin dadi a ciki, kasala, rage kiba, zawo, kumburin ciki, zazzabi
Cryptosporidiosis (ta baki) Protozoan (Cryptosporidium parvum) Yana taruwa a matatun ruwa da membranes din da ba za a iya kashe kwayoyin cutar ba, takin dabba, gudanar ruwa na lokaci-lokaci. Alamomi irin na mura, zawo mai ruwa-ruwa, rashin sha'awar abinci, raguwar kiba sosai, kumburin ciki, yawan iska a ciki (fusa), amai da gudawa
Cyclosporiasis Protozoan parasite (Cyclospora cayetanensis) Ruwan kashi (sewage), ruwan sha da ba a tace ba Murdewar ciki, amai da gudawa, amai, ciwon jiki, zazzabi, da kasala
Giardiasis (daga kashi zuwa baki) (taba baki da gurbataccen hannu) Protozoan (Giardia lamblia) Mafi yawan kwayar cutar hanji Ruwan da ba a tace ba, karancin tsaftace ruwa, fashewar famfo, danyen diga, gurbacewar ruwan karkashin kasa, wuraren sansani inda mutane da namun daji ke amfani da dabi'ar ruwa daya. Berayen ruwa (beavers da muskrats) suna gina kududdufai wadanda ke zama mazaunin Giardia. Zawo, rashin jin dadi a ciki, kumburin ciki, da hura ciki (flatulence)
Microsporidiosis Protozoan phylum (Microsporidia), amma yana da alaka ta kusa da fungi An gano Encephalitozoon intestinalis a cikin ruwan karkashin kasa, asalin ruwan sha[15] Zawo da ramewa ga mutanen da ke da raunin garkuwar jiki.
Naegleriasis (primary amebic meningoencephalitis [PAM]) (ta hanci) Protozoan (Naegleria fowleri) (Mai siffar rami/kullu) Wasannin ruwa, ruwan da ba shi da sinadarin chlorine Ciwon kai, amai, rikicewa, rashin daidaiton jiki, rashin jure haske, gani-gari (hallucinations), kasala, rage kiba, zazzabi, da suma (coma)
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Kwayoyin cuta na iya shiga ta rauni da ke bude daga gurbataccen ruwa. Na iya shiga tsarin abinci ta hanyar amfani da gurbataccen ruwan sha ko kuma (mafi akasari) abinci Bushewar baki, dusashewar gani da/ko ganin abu biyu-biyu (diplopia), wahalar hadiye abu, raunin tsoka, wahalar numfashi, guntun magana, amai kuma wani lokacin da zawo. Mutuwa yawanci tana faruwa ne sakamakon gazawar numfashi.
Campylobacteriosis Mafi akasari yana faruwa ne ta hanyar Campylobacter jejuni Ruwan sha da ya gurbata da kashi Yana haifar da alamomi irin na zawayi mai jini (dysentery) tare da babban zazzabi. Yawanci yana daukar kwanaki 2–10.
Kwalara (Cholera) Yana yaduwa ta hanyar kwayar cutar Vibrio cholerae Ruwan sha da ya gurbata da kwayar cutar A cikin sigarsa mai tsanani, an san shi a matsayin daya daga cikin cututtuka mafi saurin kazaqar da rayuwa. Alamomin sun hada da zawo mai ruwa-ruwa sosai, amai da gudawa, murdewar ciki, zubar hanci, saurin bugun jini, amai, da jiri saboda karancin jini (hypovolemic shock) a lokuta masu tsanani, inda mutuwa zata iya faruwa a cikin sa'o'i 12–18.
Ciwon E. coli Wasu nau'ikan Escherichia coli (wanda aka fi sani da E. coli) Ruwan da ya gurbata da kwayoyin cuta Mafi akasari zawo. Na iya haifar da mutuwa ga mutanen da ke da raunin garkuwar jiki, kananan yara, da tsofaffi saboda bushewar jiki (dehydration) daga tsawon lokacin rashin lafi.
Ciwon M. marinum Mycobacterium marinum Yana faruwa ne ta dabi'a a cikin ruwa, mafi yawan lokuta daga shiga wuraren ninkaya ko kuma akwatin kifi (aquariums); rashin lafiya mai wuya tun da yake mafi yawanci yana shafar mutane masu raunin garkuwar jiki ne Alamomin sun hada da kuraje (lesions) yawanci a gwiwar hannu, gwiwar kafa, da kafa (daga wuraren ninkaya) ko kuraje a hannu (daga akwatin kifi). Kurajen na iya kasancewa masu ciwo ko maras ciwo.
Zawo mai jini (Dysentery) Yana faruwa ne ta hanyar nau'ikan halittu a cikin jinsin Shigella da Salmonella inda mafi akasari shine Shigella dysenteriae Ruwan da ya gurbata da kwayar cutar Yawan fitar kashi mai dauke da jini da/ko majina sannan a wasu lokutan amai da jini.
Legionellosis (siffofi biyu mabanbanta: Ciwon Legionnaires da zazzabin Pontiac) Yana faruwa ne ta hanyar kwayoyin cuta na jinsin Legionella (kashi 90% na shari'o'i na faruwa ne ta hanyar Legionella pneumophila) Legionella kwayar halitta ce ta kowa da kowa wacce ke yaduwa da yawa a cikin ruwa mai dumi;[16] amma tana haifar da gagarumar cuta ne kawai idan aka fesa ta a iska (aerosolized).[17] Zazzabin Pontiac yana haifar da alamomi masu sauki irin na mura (influenza) ba tare da ciwon huhu (pneumonia) ba. Ciwon Legionnaires yana da alamomi masu tsanani kamar zazzabi, sanyi, ciwon huhu (tare da tari wanda wani lokacin ke fito da kakari), matsalar daidaiton jiki (ataxia), rashin sha'awar abinci, ciwon tsoka, rashin jin dadi a jiki da wani lokacin zawo da amai.
Leptospirosis Yana faruwa ne ta hanyar kwayar cutar jinsin Leptospira Ruwan da ya gurbata da fitsarin dabba mai dauke da kwayoyin cuta Yana farawa da alamomi irin na mura sannan ya warke. Daga nan sai mataki na biyu ya faru wanda ya hada da sankarau (meningitis), lalacewar hanta (wanda ke haifar da shawara/jaundice), da gazawar koda
Otitis Externa (ciwon kunnen masu ninkaya) Yana faruwa ne ta hanyar nau'ikan kwayoyin cuta (bacteria) da fungi. Ninkaya a cikin ruwan da ya gurbata da kwayoyin cutar da ke da alhakin hakan Mashigar kunne tana kumbura, tana haifar da ciwo da taushi idan aka taba
Salmonellosis Yana faruwa ne ta hanyar kwayoyin cuta da yawa na jinsin Salmonella Ruwan sha da ya gurbata da kwayoyin cuta. Ya fi zama ruwan dare a matsayin cuta mai yaduwa ta abinci. Alamomin sun hada da zawo, zazzabi, amai, da murdewar ciki
Zazzabin Taifot (Typhoid fever) Salmonella typhi Shan ruwan da ya gurbata da kashin mutumin da ke dauke da cutar Yana bayyana ta hanyar zazzabi mai dorewa har zuwa 40 °C (104 °F), yawan gumi; zawo, ciwon tsoka, kasala, da taurin bayan gari na iya faruwa. Alamomin na iya ci gaba zuwa hauka/rikicewar hankali (delirium), sannan saifa da hanta na iya kumbura idan ba a yi magani ba. A wannan yanayin, yana iya daukar tsawon mako hudu kuma ya haifar da mutuwa. Wasu mutane da ke da taifot suna fitar da kuraje masu launin ja a ciki da kirji.
Ciwon Vibrio Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio alginolyticus, da Vibrio parahaemolyticus Na iya shiga ta raunuka daga gurbataccen ruwa. Haka kuma ana samunsa ta hanyar shan gurbataccen ruwa ko cin dabbar teku (oysters) da ba ta dahu sosai ba. Alamomin sun hada da taushin ciki, fargaba, kashi mai jini, sanyi, rikicewa, wahalar mayar da hankali, hauka, canjin yanayi, gani-gari, zubar hanci, tsananin kasala, jin kasala da jiri, rauni.

Bacteria

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Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa[18][19] Kwayar cuta (Microbial agent) Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya

Viruses

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Hepatitis A is one of waterborne diseases and its symptoms are only acute. Symptoms include fatigue, fever, etc.
Kwayar cutar Hepatitis A Hepatitis A yana daya daga cikin cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa kuma alamominsa na faruwa ne kawai a take (acute). Alamomin sun hada da kasala, zazzabi, da sauransu.
Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa[15][20][13][21][22] Kwayar cutar virus Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus (HAV) Na iya bayyana kansa a cikin ruwa (da abinci) Alamomin na faruwa ne kawai a take/akan lokaci (babu mataki mai dorewa na cutar) kuma sun hada da kasala, zazzabi, rashin jin dadi a jiki, ciwon ciki, amai da gudawa, zawo, rage kiba, kaikayi, shawara (jaundice), da damuwa (depression).
Hepatitis E (daga kashi zuwa baki) Hepatitis E virus (HEV) Yana shiga ruwa ta hanyar kashin mutanen da ke dauke da cutar Alamomin cutar hanta ta take (acute hepatitis), hada da zazzabi, kasala, rashin sha'awar abinci, amai da gudawa, amai, ciwon ciki, shawara, fitsari mai duhu, kashi mai launin yaka, da ciwon gwiwa
Cutar ciki da hanji ta take [AGI] (daga kashi zuwa baki; yana yaduwa ta abinci, ruwa, mutum zuwa mutum, da kayayyaki) Norovirus Yana shiga ruwa ta hanyar kashin mutanen da ke dauke da cutar Zawo, amai, amai da gudawa, ciwon ciki
Shan Inna (Poliomyelitis / Polio) Poliovirus Yana shiga ruwa ta hanyar kashin mutanen da ke dauke da cutar Kashi 90–95% na marasa lafiya ba sa nuna alamomi, kashi 4–8% suna da kananan alamomi (idan aka kwatanta) tare da hauka, ciwon kai, zazzabi, da wani lokacin farfadiya, da shanyewar jiki ta tsoka, kashi 1% suna da alamomin sankarau maras lahani (aseptic meningitis). Sauran suna da alamomi masu tsanani da ke haifar da shanyewar jiki ko mutuwa
Ciwon Polyomavirus Nau'ikan Polyomavirus guda biyu: JC virus da BK virus Yadu sosai, yana iya bayyana kansa a cikin ruwa, kusan kashi 80% na mutane suna da garkuwar jiki (antibodies) ga Polyomavirus BK virus yana haifar da saukin ciwon numfashi kuma yana iya cutar da kodar marasa lafiya da aka yi wa dashen sashen jiki (transplant) wadanda ke da raunin garkuwar jiki. JC virus yana cutar da tsarin numfashi, koda ko kuma yana iya haifar da progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy a kwakwalwa (wanda ke kazaqar da mutuwa).

Algae

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Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa[23] Kwayar cuta Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya
Ciwon Desmodesmus Desmodesmus armatus Yana faruwa ne ta dabi'a a cikin ruwa. Na iya shiga ta raunukan da ke bude. Yi kama da ciwon fungus (fungal infection).

Tsutsotsi Masu Zaune A Jiki (Parasitic worms)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa[24][13] Kwayar tsutsa Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya
Kurkunu /齊kurkunu [Guinea worm disease] (shan gurbataccen ruwa.) Dracunculus medinensis Tamatacen tsutsa tana fitowa daga fatar mai dauke da ita sannan ta saki 'ya'yanta (larvae) a cikin ruwa. Dan zazzabi, kurajen kaikayi, amai da gudawa, amai, zawo, jiri, sannan sai fitowar faufau mai radadi (yawanci a sassan jiki na kasa)
Schistosomiasis [ciwon da ake samu daga tsutsar Schistosoma](sha ko ninkaya a gurbataccen ruwa.) [25] Schistosoma Tsutsar tana shiga jikin ku ta hanyar fata sannan ta yadu a cikin jikin ku ta hanyar magudanar jini. [25] Kuraje, kaikayi, alamomi irin na mura, ciwon ciki, ciwon tsoka, rashin sha'awar abinci, amai da jini (hematemesis), da alamomin da suka shafi jijiyoyin hankali (neurological symptoms). [25]

Mahaɗan Iska Masu Tashi (Volatile Organic Compounds - VOC)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cututtuka da hanyoyin yaduwa VOC Hanyoyin samun kwayar cutar a ruwa Alamomi na gaba daya
Kansar Jini (Leukemia) Kowane irin mahadi mai tashi kamar su benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, da xylenes. [26] Ruwan da aka yi amfani da shi azaman wurin zubar da VOCs, yana haifar da gurbacewa; fashewar bututun mai; danyen digar man jirgi. [27] Ciwon kai, zazzabi, amai da gudawa, samuwar kumburi (tumors). [26]

Rigakafi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Amintacciyar hanya ta samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha wanda ba ya da gurbacewa da kuma ingantaccen tsarin tsaftace muhalli sune manyan hanyoyin kariya daga cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa. Yin rigakafi (vaccination) wata hanya ce ta daban don kare jiki daga kamuwa da cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa[28]. Manufar ita ce a katse hanyar yaduwar cuta daga kashi zuwa baki.[28]

Hasken rana (Solar energy) ya zama madaidaiciya kuma ingantacciyar hanya wadda a yanzu za a iya amfani da ita wajen tace ruwa ta hanyar tururi (distilled) da kuma cire gishiri daga ruwa (desalinated). Wannan hanya tana da aminci ga muhalli saboda ba ta fitar da gagarumin adadin iskar carbon dioxide da zai iya lalata duniya ba. A gaskiya ma, fitar da iskar carbon dioxide kusan sifili ne idan aka yi amfani da makamashin hasken rana don tace ruwa ko cire gishiri.[29]

Cire gishiri (Desalination) shine tsarin da ake bi wajen cire gishiri daga ruwa domin mayar da shi mai kyau don sha. Domin ruwa abu ne mai karanci (scarce resource), ma'ana akwai iyakantaccen adadin sa ne kawai da dukkan bil'adama zasu raba, bincike kan hanyoyin dorewa domin kara adadin ruwan sha mai kyau yana da matukar muhimmanci.[30] Tare da dumbin ruwan gishiri da ke akwai a rukunin duniya, dabarar cire gishiri ta hanyar hasken rana (solar desalination) sabuwar dabbar ci gaba ce kuma tana da babban amfani. Tana aiki ne ta hanyar amfani da faranti na daukar hasken rana (solar panels) wadanda ke kama makamashi daga rana, wanda daga nan ake amfani da shi wajen cire gishiri daga ruwa ta hanyar wani tsari da ake kira reverse osmosis. Ana canza makamashin hasken rana zuwa wutar lantarki ta hanyar faranti. Daga nan ana amfani da wannan wutar lantarki wajen tura ruwan a karkashin matsin lamba mai karfi ta tsakanin matatun da ke tare gishiri daga wucewa amma suna barin ruwan ya wuce.[31] Wannan hanyar cire gishiri tana da fa'ida ga al'umma saboda ana iya amfani da ita a yankuna masu nisa sosai. Ba ta bukatar alaka da babban tsarin rarraba bututun ruwa da aka saba amfani da shi na dā wanda shi ma ke fitar da adadi mai yawa na iskar carbon dioxide. Musamman ma, wannan hanya ta fi yin amfani a wuraren da ke da saukin samun ruwan gishiri, yalwar hasken rana, da kuma karancin danyen ruwa mai dadi na sha.[31]

Haka kuma za a iya daukar wasu manufofi da matakan tsaro domin hana yaduwar cututtuka ta hanyar gurbataccen ruwa. Alal misali, ana iya zuba adadin sinadarin chlorine da ya dace a cikin bututun ruwan sha domin kashe kwayoyin cutar virus. Matakan tsaro na yau da kullum a gidaje gami da amfani da kyallen goge-goge na kashe kwayoyin cuta (disinfection wipes) da sprays na tsaftacewa su ma suna da muhimmanci a yi amfani da su a kusa da wuraren da amfani da tsaftataccen ruwa ke da matukar muhimmanci kamar a cikin banɗaki da kicin.[32] Bugu da kari, an lura cewa bututun roba (plastic pipes) na iya sakin sinadarin benzene da sauran VOCs zuwa cikin ruwan sha lokacin da lalacewar zafi ta faru sakamakon gobarar daji. Sanya bututun karfe a wuraren da ke cikin babban hadari na iya rage barazanar gurbacewa a nan gaba.[33]

Kimiyyar yaduwar cututtuka (Epidemiology)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cewar Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (World Health Organization), cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa suna daidai da kashi 3.6% na jimillar DALY (shekarun rayuwa da aka rasa saboda nakasa) na nauyin cututtuka a duniya, kuma suna haifar da mutuwar mutane kusan miliyan 1.5 a kowace shekara. Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya ta kiyasta cewa kashi 58% na wannan nauyin, ko kuma mutuwar mutane 842,000 a kowace shekara, na faruwa ne saboda rashin ingantaccen tsarin samar da ruwan sha mai kyau, tsaftar muhalli, da tsaftar jiki (wanda aka takaita a matsayin WASH).[28]

Amurka (United States)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsarin Kula da Rahoton Cututtuka da Bullar Cututtuka ta Ruwa (Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System - WBDOSS) shine babban rumbun bayanai da ake amfani da shi wajen gano kwayoyin cuta da ke haddasa matsala, gazawa, tsarin ruwa, da kuma hanyoyin da ke da alaka da cututtuka da bullar cututtuka ta ruwa a Amurka.[34] Tun daga shekarar 1971, Cibiyoyin Kula da Rigakafin Cututtuka (CDC), Majalisar Masana Kimiyyar Yaduwar Cututtuka ta Jihohi da Yankuna (CSTE), da Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA) suka kula da wannan tsarin sa ido domin tattarawa da bayar da rahoton bayanai kan "cututtuka da bullar cututtuka ta ruwa da ke da alaka da ruwan ninkaya/shakatawa, ruwan sha, muhalli, da kuma fallasar ruwa da ba a tantance ba."[34][35] "Bayani daga WBDOSS sun taimaka wa kokarin EPA na bunkasa dokokin ruwan sha kuma sun ba da jagoranci ga ayyukan CDC na ruwan ninkaya da shakatawa."[34][35]

WBDOSS ya dogara ne a kan cikakkun bayanai na gaskiya daga ma'aikatun lafiyar jama'a na jihohi daban-daban, yankuna, da sauran hukumomin ikon Amurka game da cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa da ayyukan bullar cututtuka.[34] A shekarar 2009, bayar da rahoto ga WBDOSS ya canza daga takarda zuwa tsarin lantarki na Tsarin Rahoton Bullar Cututtuka na Kasa (National Outbreak Reporting System - NORS).[34] Rahoton sa ido na shekara-shekara ko na shekaru biyu na bayanan da WBDOSS ta tattara an wallafa su a cikin rahotannin CDC daga 1971 zuwa 1984; tun daga 1985, an wallafa bayanan sa ido a cikin Rahoton Makon mace-mace da Rashin Lafiya (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report - MMWR).[34]

WBDOSS da al'ummar lafiyar jama'a suna aiki tare domin bincikar musabbabin gurbataccen ruwa da ke kaiwa ga bullar cututtuka ta ruwa da kuma shawo kan wadancan bullar cututtukan.[34] Suna yin hakan ne ta hanyar sanya al'ummar lafiyar jama'a bincikar bullar cututtukan, yayin da WBDOSS kuma ke karbar rahotannin.[34]

Al'umma da al'adu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasiri ga zamantakewa da tattalin arziki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa na iya samun gagarumin tasiri ga tattalin arziki. Yawancin lokaci, mutanen da suka kamu da cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa suna fuskantar matsalolin kudaden jiyya da ke da alaka da hakan. Wannan lamari ya fi faruwa ne musamman a kasashe masu tasowa. A matsakaita, kowane iyali yana kashe kusan kashi 10% na kudin shigarsa na kowane wata a kan kowane mutum guda da ya kamu da cutar.[36]

Tasiri ga zamantakewa da tattalin arziki yana nufin sakamakon da cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa ke haifarwa ga al'umma, kamar ingancin rayuwa, kulawar lafiya, tattalin arziki, da kuma dorewar ilimi.[37] Manufar Ci Gaba Mai Dorewa ta 6 (Sustainable Development Goal 6), wato samun tsaftataccen ruwa da tsaftar muhalli ga kowa nan da shekarar 2030, tana daya daga cikin rassan da suka samar da sauran Manufofin Ci Gaba Mai Dorewa da suka shafi al'umma da tattalin arziki.[38] Masana'antun aikin gona ne musamman suka fi fuskantar mummunan tasiri, kuma karuwar matsin lambar tana fitowa ne daga yawan jama'a da ke karuwa a birane wadanda ke kwashe ruwan da ake amfani da shi wajen yin noma. Bukatar tsaftataccen ruwa da tsaftar muhalli tana da matukar muhimmanci saboda ba tare da tsaftataccen ruwa ba, babu yadda za a yi a samu kafatacciyar hanyar samar da abinci. Tsaftataccen ruwa ya zama dole domin samar da shuke-shuke masu koshin lafiya da mutane zasu ci. Idan ruwan da ake amfani da shi wajen ban-ruwa ga amfanin gona ya gurbata, amfanin gonar zai iya kawo mummunar cuta ga mutanen da suka ci shi.

Kusan kashi daya bisa uku na dukkan biranen duniya sun dogara ne a kan danyen ruwa mai dadi (freshwater) wanda masana'antun aikin gona ke bukata. Akwai wannan takaddama ta yau da kullum a kan samar da danyen ruwa mai dadi saboda yayin da yawan jama'a ke karuwa a yankunan birane, suna neman karin ruwa akai-akai. An kiyasta cewa wannan bukatar danyen ruwa mai dadi za ta karu da kashi 80% a cikin shekaru 25 masu zuwa, wanda hakan ke kara janyo matsalar karancin ruwa (water stress) saboda aikin gona yana amfani da kusan kashi 72% na danyen ruwa mai dadi da biranen ke bukata.[39] Misali guda na yadda masana'antu ke bayar da tasu gudunmawar domin cimma Manufar Ci Gaba Mai Dorewa ta 6 shine Shirin Adopt-a-River (Daukar Nauyin Kogi) a birnin Nairobi na kasar Kenya. Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (United Nations Environment Programme) ta yi aiki tare da wasu kungiyoyi da dama a kan wannan shiri, wanda ya kunshi kafa tarkuna a tsawon Kogin Athi domin kamo manyan datti masu tauri. Haka kuma za a gina tashoshin sake sarrafa datti (recycling stations), sannan masana'antun da ke zubar da gurbataccen ruwansu (effluent) zuwa cikin hanyoyin ruwa su ma za su shiga cikin wannan kokari. Wannan wani mataki ne na kwashe karin datti daga ruwa domin rage damar gurbacewar ruwan da a karshe za a yi amfani da shi wajen ban-ruwa ga amfanin gona.[39]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa a da ana danganta su da ka'idar miasma, wato ka'idar da ta ce iska mara kyau tana haddasa yaduwar cututtuka.[40][41] Duk da haka, mutane sun fara gano alaƙa tsakanin ingancin ruwa da cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa, wanda ya haifar da hanyoyin tsarkake ruwa daban-daban, kamar tacewa da kuma sanya sinadarin chlorine a ruwan sha. Masu kafa ilimin hangen ƙwayoyin cuta, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek da Robert Hooke, sun yi amfani da sabon na'urar hangen ƙwayoyin cuta (microscope) domin ganin karamin tarkace da ke cikin ruwa a karon farko, wanda ya zama tubalin fahimtar ƙwayoyin cuta da ke yaduwa ta ruwa da kuma cututtukan da suke haifarwa.[42]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
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  2. ↑ "Waterborne illness and disease | Life Sciences | Research Starters | EBSCO Research". EBSCO (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-02-27.
  3. ↑ "The United Nations World Water Development Report 2023: partnerships and cooperation for water; facts, figures and action examples". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2025-10-02.
  4. ↑ Adelodun B, Ajibade FO, Ighalo JO, Odey G, Ibrahim RG, Kareem KY, et al. (October 2020). "Assessment of socioeconomic inequality based on virus-contaminated water usage in developing countries: A review". Environmental Research. 192. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110309. PMC 7546968. PMID 33045227. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Smith A, Reacher M, Smerdon W, Adak GK, Nichols G, Chalmers RM (December 2006). "Outbreaks of waterborne infectious intestinal disease in England and Wales, 1992-2003". Epidemiology and Infection. 134 (6): 1141–9. doi:10.1017/S0950268806006406. PMC 2870523. PMID 16690002.
  6. ↑ "1 in 4 people globally still lack access to safe drinking water – WHO, UNICEF". www.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-02-27.
  7. 1 2 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2023. United Nations. 2023-03-22. doi:10.18356/9789210026208. ISBN 978-92-1-002620-8.
  8. 1 2 Balkhy, Hanan H. (2025-08-04). "Mitigating the increasing threat of cholera in Yemen and other conflict-affected countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 31 (7): 423–425. doi:10.26719/2025.31.7.423. ISSN 1020-3397. PMID 40832862 Check |pmid= value (help).
  9. ↑ emhj. "WHO EMRO - Resurgence of cholera in Lebanon". www.emro.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-12-09.
  10. ↑ ABDEL HAY, Ihab Fouad. "WHO EMRO - Mitigating the increasing threat of cholera in Yemen and other conflict-affected countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region". www.emro.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-12-09.
  11. 1 2 3 Ebeid, Claudine (2025-03-13). "Water Is Not Political". The Atlantic (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-12-09.
  12. ↑ Martinez-Morata, Irene; Bostick, Benjamin C.; Conroy-Ben, Otakuye; Duncan, Dustin T.; Jones, Miranda R.; Spaur, Maya; Patterson, Kevin P.; Prins, Seth J.; Navas-Acien, Ana; Nigra, Anne E. (2022-12-03). "Nationwide geospatial analysis of county racial and ethnic composition and public drinking water arsenic and uranium". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 13 (1): 7461. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-35185-6. ISSN 2041-1723.
  13. 1 2 3 Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization (Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum ed.). Geneva. 2017. ISBN 978-92-4-154995-0. OCLC 975491910.CS1 maint: others (link)
  14. ↑ Baldursson S, Karanis P (December 2011). "Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks - an update 2004-2010". Water Research. 45 (20): 6603–14. Bibcode:2011WatRe..45.6603B. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.10.013. PMID 22048017.
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  16. ↑ "Legionnaires' Disease eTool: Facts and FAQs". www.osha.gov. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
  17. ↑ "Legionella - Causes and Transmission - Legionnaires - CDC". www.cdc.gov. 8 December 2017. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
  18. ↑ Dziuban EJ, Liang JL, Craun GF, Hill V, Yu PA, Painter J, et al. (December 2006). "Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water--United States, 2003-2004". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries. 55 (12): 1–30. PMID 17183230. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017.
  19. ↑ Petrini B (October 2006). "Mycobacterium marinum: ubiquitous agent of waterborne granulomatous skin infections". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 25 (10): 609–13. doi:10.1007/s10096-006-0201-4. PMID 17047903. S2CID 7485002.
  20. ↑ Nwachuku N, Gerba CP, Oswald A, Mashadi FD (September 2005). "Comparative inactivation of adenovirus serotypes by UV light disinfection" (PDF). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (9): 5633–6. Bibcode:2005ApEnM..71.5633N. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5633-5636.2005. PMC 1214670. PMID 16151167. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-09-26.
  21. ↑ Gall AM, Mariñas BJ, Lu Y, Shisler JL (June 2015). "Waterborne Viruses: A Barrier to Safe Drinking Water". PLOS Pathogens. 11 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1004867. PMC 4482390. PMID 26110535. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ "Hepatitis A". www.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  23. ↑ Westblade LF, Ranganath S, Dunne WM, Burnham CA, Fader R, Ford BA (March 2015). "Infection with a chlorophyllic eukaryote after a traumatic freshwater injury". The New England Journal of Medicine. 372 (10): 982–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1401816. PMID 25738686.
  24. ↑ Janovy J, Schmidt GD, Roberts LS (1996). Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of parasitology. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown. ISBN 978-0-697-26071-0.
  25. 1 2 3 Cleveland Clinic. "Schistosomiasis".
  26. 1 2 "AJPH". American Journal of Public Health (in Turanci). doi:10.2105/AJPH.80.10.1209. Retrieved 2026-02-26.
  27. ↑ Crane-Murdoch, Sierra (2014-04-05). "Looking for Answers in a Town Known for Leukemia". The Atlantic (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-02-26.
  28. 1 2 3 "Burden of disease and cost-effectiveness estimates". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on February 13, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
  29. ↑ Manimaran, Renganathan. "A comprehensive review of solar-assisted technologies in India for clean water and clean energy".
  30. ↑ Patel, Suresh G.; Bhatnagar, Shilpi; Vardia, Jitendra; Ameta, Suresh C. (2006-03-01). "Use of photocatalysts in solar desalination". Desalination. Selected paper from the 10th Aachen Membrane Colloquium. 189 (1): 287–291. Bibcode:2006Desal.189..287P. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.07.010. ISSN 0011-9164.
  31. 1 2 "How does solar desalination work?". Elemental Water Makers (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-12-09.
  32. ↑ Adelodun, Bashir; Ajibade, Fidelis Odedishemi; Ighalo, Joshua O.; Odey, Golden; Ibrahim, Rahmat Gbemisola; Kareem, Kola Yusuff; Bakare, Hashim Olalekan; Tiamiyu, AbdulGafar Olatunji; Ajibade, Temitope F.; Abdulkadir, Taofeeq Sholagberu; Adeniran, Kamoru Akanni; Choi, Kyung Sook (January 2021). "Assessment of socioeconomic inequality based on virus-contaminated water usage in developing countries: A review". Environmental Research. 192. Bibcode:2021ER....19210309A. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110309. ISSN 1096-0953. PMC 7546968. PMID 33045227. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  33. ↑ Shah, Amisha; Whelton, Andrew J.; Isaacson, Kristofer P. (2020-12-14). "Plastic pipes are polluting drinking water systems after wildfires – it's a risk in urban fires, too". The Conversation (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-02-26.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Waterborne Disease & Outbreak Surveillance Reporting | Water-related Topics | Healthy Water | CDC". www.cdc.gov (in Turanci). 2017-10-16. Retrieved 2018-12-07. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  35. 1 2 Craun GF (2004). Methods for the investigation and prevention of waterborne disease outbreaks; EPA/600/1-90/005A. Health Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. OCLC 41657130.
  36. ↑ Schnabel B (30 March 2009). "Drastic consequences of diarrhoeal disease". Archived from the original on 2015-09-23.
  37. ↑ Adelodun, Bashir; Ajibade, Fidelis Odedishemi; Ighalo, Joshua O.; Odey, Golden; Ibrahim, Rahmat Gbemisola; Kareem, Kola Yusuff; Bakare, Hashim Olalekan; Tiamiyu, AbdulGafar Olatunji; Ajibade, Temitope F.; Abdulkadir, Taofeeq Sholagberu; Adeniran, Kamoru Akanni; Choi, Kyung Sook (January 2021). "Assessment of socioeconomic inequality based on virus-contaminated water usage in developing countries: A review". Environmental Research. 192. Bibcode:2021ER....19210309A. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110309. ISSN 1096-0953. PMC 7546968. PMID 33045227. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Tortajada, Cecilia (2020-04-30). "Contributions of recycled wastewater to clean water and sanitation Sustainable Development Goals". npj Clean Water (in Turanci). 3 (1). Bibcode:2020npjCW...3...22T. doi:10.1038/s41545-020-0069-3. ISSN 2059-7037. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  39. 1 2 "The United Nations World Water Development Report 2023". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2025-10-12.
  40. ↑ Juuti PS, Katko T, Vuorinen H (2007-02-01). Environmental History of Water (in Turanci). IWA Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84339-110-4.
  41. ↑ "ESSAI | College Publications | College of DuPage". dc.cod.edu. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  42. ↑ "The Use of the Microscope in Water Filter History". Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cutar_da_ke_faruwa_a_cikin_ruwa&oldid=853025"