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Gona, Habasha

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Gona, Habasha
General information
Labarin ƙasa
Map
Tsarin Daidaiton Labarin Kasa 11°06′N 40°32′E / 11.1°N 40.53°E / 11.1; 40.53
Kasa Habasha
Territory Yankin Afar

Gona yanki ne na bincike na paleanthropological a yankin Afar na Habasha . Gona an fi saninta da wuraren binciken archaeological da kuma binciken burbushin hominin daga Late Miocene, Early Pliocene da Early Pleistocene.[1][2][3][4] An gano burbushin Ardipithecus da Homo erectus a can.[2][4][3] Biyu daga cikin manyan abubuwan da aka gano sune kwarangwal na Ardipithecus ramidus da kuma cikakkiyar Homo erectus pelvis.[5] A tarihi, Gona tana da tsoffin kayan tarihi na Oldowan da aka rubuta.[1] Masu binciken tarihi sun sami tsofaffin misalai na Oldowan a wasu shafuka.[6][7] Duk da haka, tarin Oldowan na Gona sun kasance masu mahimmanci ga fahimtar archaeological na Oldowan. [8] [9][10] Gona's Acheulean archaeological sites sun taimaka mana mu fahimci farkon Acheuleen Industry.[3]

Tarihi

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Sha'awar Paleoanthropological a cikin yankin da zai zama Gona Paleoantropological Research Project ya fara ne bayan wani masanin ilimin ƙasa na Faransa, Maurice Taieb, ya gudanar da binciken binciken ilimin ƙasa na Afar Rift a ƙarshen shekarun 1960. Wannan binciken farko ya haifar da binciken archaeological na yankin da ke kusa da Kogin Kada Gona . [8] A lokacin binciken, masu bincike sun sami ajiyar kayan tarihi.[8] Binciken farko ya faru ne a Yammacin yankin Gona Project a cikin 1976; tun daga wannan shafin an kira shi WG1. [8] A farkon shekarun 1980s, gwamnatin Habasha ta ba da izini ga aikin binciken archaeological.[8] A shekara ta 1987, sabuwar Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Jama'ar Habasha da aka kafa ta ba da izinin ci gaba da aikin binciken archaeological.[8] Wannan yanke shawara ya ba Selshi Semaw damar gudanar da bincikensa na farko na wuraren binciken archaeological na Gona.[8] Ba da daɗewa ba bayan wannan binciken na farko, Semaw ya fara aikin Binciken Gona Paleoanthropological . [8]

Binciken farko na tsarin Gona da Semaw da abokan aikinsa suka yi tsakanin 1992 da 1994.[11] Shafuka biyu da suka tono a wannan lokacin, Gabashin Gona 10 (EG-10) da Gabashin Gone 12 (EG-12), sun samar da kayan tarihi da yawa da aka danganta ga masana'antar kayan aikin dutse na Oldowan.[11] Abubuwan tarihi daga waɗannan shafuka an ƙaddamar da su zuwa 2.6 Ma (shekaru miliyoyin da suka gabata) ta amfani da kwanan wata na radiometric da Magnetostratigraphy.[1]

Bayan 'yan shekaru bayan da aka fara buga shafukan Gabashin Gona, Semaw da abokan aiki sun bayyana sabbin shafuka biyu a yankin Ounda Gona ta Kudu, Ounda Gena ta Kudu 6 (OGS-6) da Ounda Gone ta Kudu 7 (OGS-7) wanda aka rubuta zuwa 2.6 Ma.[12] OGS-6 da OGS-7 muhimman shafuka ne don fahimtar Oldowan na farko saboda kayan aikin dutse suna da alaƙa da ƙasusuwan dabbobi masu burbushin halittu tare da alamun yanka a saman su.[12] Har zuwa wannan lokacin a farkon 2000s, akwai ƙananan shaidar archaeological don tabbatar da ka'idar masu binciken tarihi da yawa cewa hominins sun yi amfani da kayan aikin dutse na Oldowan na farko don sarrafa gawawwakin dabbobi don samun nama.[13]

Gona an san shi sosai shekaru da yawa a matsayin shafin da ke da tsoffin kayan tarihi na Oldowan. Koyaya, a cikin 2019 an buga sakamakon daga tonowa a shafin Bokol-Dora 1 a yankin Ledi-Geraru Research Project a cikin kwarin Lower Awash na Habasha.[6] Binciken da aka yi a Bokol-Dora 1 ya gano kayan tarihi na Oldowan da ke tsakanin 2.61 da 2.58 Ma. [6] Masu binciken tarihi da suka buga a wannan shafin sun ba da shawarar cewa kayan tarihi sun fi kusa da 2.58 Ma.[6] Koyaya, akwai wasu jayayya game da wannan kwanan wata.[14] Sa'an nan, a cikin 2023, wani rahoto daga wani tono a Nyayanga, Kenya, a kan Homa Peninsula ya sami kayan tarihi na Oldowan a cikin laka mai kwanan wata 3.032 zuwa 2.581 Ma.[7] Tare da tarurruka biyu tare da kwanakin da suka gabata don kayan tarihi na Oldowan, masu binciken tarihi ba sa tunanin tarurrukan Gona Oldowan sune mafi tsufa da aka rubuta na Oldow. Kodayake kayan tarihi na Oldowan daga Gona ba su da tsufa, har yanzu suna da mahimmanci saboda suna taimaka wa masu bincike su fahimci halayyar hominin.[10][9]

Yanayin ƙasa

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Gona Paleoanthropological Research Project yanki ne mai kilomita 500 (190 sq na wuraren da ba su da kyau a cikin yammacin tsakiyar Yankin Afar na Habasha. Yankin kudancin yankin aikin shine Kogin Asbole. Hanya mafi arewa ita ce hanyar Bati-Mille . Yankin Gabas shine yankin Binciken Hadar. Yankin Yammacin Habasha ya zama mafi yammacin yankin aikin. Akwai manyan koguna biyar na Kogin Awash a cikin Gona Research Project daga arewacin zuwa kudu: Kada Gona, Ounda Gona, Dana Aoule, Kogin Busidima, da Kogin Asbole. Yawancin shafukan Gona suna kusa da waɗannan koguna biyar, don haka yawancin shafuka a cikin yankin aikin suna da suna bisa ga mai ba da gudummawa da suka fi kusa da kuma jagorancin shafin da ke da alaƙa da kogi. Misali, shafukan da ke kudu da Ounda Gona ana kiransu Ounda Gena ta Kudu (OGS), sannan lambar shafin.

Ilimin ɗan adam na dā

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An yi amfani da burbushin hominin daga Gona ta hanyar masana kimiyyar halittu da ke nazarin juyin halitta na ɗan adam a cikin Late Miocene, Early Pliocene da Early Pleistocene. [5] [3][2]

Ardipithecus

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Masu bincike sun tattara burbushin halittu da yawa da aka danganta da Ardipithecus kadabba a wurare biyu daban-daban: Escarpment da Asbole Dora . [2] An tsara burbushin ta amfani da wurin da suke ciki a cikin Tsarin Adu-Asa, wanda ya kasance a cikin Miocene.[15] Abubuwan burbushin daga Escarpment suna da kimanin shekaru miliyan 5.4, kuma waɗanda ke Asbole Dora suna da kusan miliyan 6.3. [2] Shekarar waɗannan hakora sun sanya su a cikin lokacin ƙwayoyin chimpanzee da zuriyar ɗan adam.[2] Lokacin da masu bincike suka bincika waɗannan hakora, suna da siffofi da ke da alaƙa da tsarin a cikin hakora na hominin daga baya.[2] Wadannan abubuwan lura suna taimakawa wajen sake gina wani lokaci mai mahimmanci a cikin juyin halitta na hominin wanda akwai ƙananan shaidu.[2]

An tattara burbushin Ardipithecus ramidus daga farkon Pliocene a wurare da yawa a yankin Gona Western Margin.[4][16] Wadannan yankuna suna da alaƙa da As Duma.[4] An tsara burbushin ta amfani da tsarin da aka kafa don yankin aikin, kwanan wata na argon-argon, da ƙarin burbushin da ba na mutum ba daga wannan lokacin.[16] Ranar kwanan wata ga waɗannan burbushin yana tsakanin shekaru miliyan 4.8 da 4.32 da suka gabata.[16] Yawancin burbushin burbushin ne waɗanda ba su da alaƙa da mutum ɗaya.[4] Wadannan burbushin sun kunshi hakora, sassa na maxilla, mandible, da ƙasusuwa na bayan kwakwalwa daga hannaye, ƙafa, da ƙananan kafa.[4][16] Gona Western Margin 67 yanki ne na musamman saboda masu bincike suna tunanin burbushin da aka samu daga mutum ɗaya ne.[16] Sun yi imanin cewa sun fito ne daga mutum ɗaya saboda babu wani daga cikin ƙasusuwa da ke da kwafi, kuma girman abubuwa da matakin adanawa sun dace.[16] Yawancin abubuwan da aka tattara daga kwarangwal sun fito ne daga ƙafafu da kafafu.[16] Ɗaya daga cikin manyan tambayoyin da masana kimiyyar paleoanthropologists ke so su fahimta shine yadda bipedalism ya samo asali. Ar. ramidus yana da daidaitawa don tafiya a kan kafafu biyu amma yana riƙe da daidaitawa da yawa don arboreality.[16] Mutumin Gona Western Margin 67 ya taimaka wa masu bincike su fahimci yadda Ar. ramidus ya yi tafiya a kan kafafu biyu.[16] Musamman yadda bambancin jikin mutum ya shafi hanyar da suke tafiya.[16]

Homo erectus

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Masana sun kuma gano kayan gawan Homo erectus a yankin aikin Gona. A Busidima North 49 (BSN49), masana nazarin tsoffin halittu sun gano kashin baya na mace babba da kusan cikakken kwarangwal na ƙugu.[5] Wannan wuri da ke cikin yankin aikin Gona yana daga cikin tsarin ƙasa na Busidima.[5] Masanan ƙasa sun yi amfani da tarin ƙasa don ƙayyade lokacin da aka kafa tsarin ƙasar.[5] Ana tsammanin wannan kayan gawan ya fito ne tsakanin shekaru miliyan 1.4 da 0.9 da suka wuce.[5] Wannan kayan gawan yana da matuƙar muhimmanci a fagen nazarin tsoffin mutane saboda ƙarancin kayan gawan ƙugu na H. erectus, kuma wannan yana ɗaya daga cikin cikakku.[5] Akwai wata tambayar bincike ta musamman dangane da juyin halittar ɗan Adam wadda ake kira "obstetric dilemma", inda ƙugun mace ya ɗauki sabbin canje-canje don dacewa da girman kan jarirai saboda faɗaɗar kwakwalwa a lokacin juyin halitta.[5] Kafin a tattara da bayyana wannan kayan gawan, masana sun yi tunanin cewa H. erectus ba su da wani sauyi a ƙugu da zai tallafa wa girman kwakwalwar jarirai.[5] Sai dai wannan ra’ayi ya samo asali ne daga nazarin siffar hanyar haihuwa ta H. erectus daga kayan gawan yaron Turkana saboda babu wani abin kwatanta da shi a lokacin.[5] Simpson da abokan aikinsa sun iya bayyana canje-canjen musamman da ke cikin ƙugun Gona dangane da yadda siffar hanyar haihuwa ta sauya a cikin ɗan Adam na zamani, wanda hakan ya tabbatar da cewa H. erectus suna da daidaitattun sauye-sauye a ƙugunsu domin haihuwar jarirai masu girman kwakwalwa.[5]

Sauran kayan gawan H. erectus guda biyu sassa ne na ƙwalwar kai da aka gano a wurare daban-daban na bincike.[3] Wurin farko, Dana Aoule North 5 (DAN5), yana da shekaru tsakanin 1.6 da 1.5 Miliyan da suka wuce.[3] Busidima North 12 (BSN12) ya fi shi ƙuruciya, ana kiyasta yana da shekaru 1.26 Miliyan da suka wuce.[3] Kwalwar DAN5 ta H. erectus ta kasance ƙarama kuma mai rauni.[3] A gefe guda kuma, ƙwalwar BSN12 ta fi ƙarfi da girma.[3] A farko, masana sun yi zaton cewa banbancin siffar kwalwar kai biyu ya samo asali ne daga bambancin jinsi (sexual dimorphism), inda suka ɗauka ƙaramar ƙwalwar na mace ce.[3] Amma binciken ƙarin bayani bai goyi bayan wannan zargi ba.[17] Wadannan masana sun yi amannar cewa banbancin girma da siffar kwalwar biyu ya danganta ne da faɗaɗar kwakwalwar H. erectus a tsawon lokaci, ba bambancin jinsi ba.[17]

Yanayin Duwatsu

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Tsarin Duwatsu

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Aikin Binciken Tarihin Halittar Dan Adam na Gona yana cikin Kwarin Afar, wani rami ne da tsarin rarrabuwa na Gabashin Afirka ya haifar. [15] Wurin yana da fasalin kwari na gargajiya wanda aka kirkira ta hanyar rarrabuwa da fashewar dutsen wuta. [15] Kuskuren As Duma babban fasalin duwatsu ne a yankin aikin, wanda ke samar da rabin yammacin Awash half-graben. [15] Tsarin duwatsu na Adu-asa yana da mafi yawan ayyukan dutsen wuta, kuma duwatsun wuta sun fi yawa a cikin yashin da ke cikinsa. [15] Tsarin Sangatole da Hadar sun nuna raguwa a ayyukan dutsen wuta da karuwar tara yashi. [15] Tsarin Busidima yana nuna raguwa a tara yashi, shaida na tsarin kwarara ruwa, da kuma babban kogi. [15][18] Tara yashi ya tsaya bayan shekara miliyan 0.16, lokacin da Kogin Awash ya yanke yankin. [15] Wannan yankan kogin Awash ya haifar da yankunan tuddai masu launin kasa (badlands) da ke bayyana wurin aikin a yau. [15]

Lokutan Tarihi na Duwatsu

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Lokutan Tarihi na Gona [15]
Tsarin Duwatsu Shekara (Ma)
Tsarin Busidima 2.7 - < 0.15
Tsarin Hadar 3.9 - 2.9
Tsarin Sagantole < 5.2 - 3.9
Tsarin Adu-asa > 6.4 - 5.2

Tsarin duwatsun Gona yana wakiltar shekaru miliyan 6.4 da suka gabata. [15] Ranar wuraren bincike da gawawwakin da aka samo daga Gona sun dogara ne da tsarin tsarin zamani da kuma tsarin duwatsu na wurin. [15] Masana duwatsu sun yi amfani da tephrostratigraphy, bayanan maganadisu na dā, da kuma gwajin argon-argon wajen tsara jadawalin lokaci na Gona. [15]

Nazarin Kayayyakin Tarihi (Archaeology)

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Dabi'un Fasaha na Oldowan

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Tarurrukan Oldowan daga Gona suna taka muhimmiyar rawa a binciken da ke neman fahimtar dabi'un fasaha na masu kera kayan aikin Oldowan. Dabi'un fasaha suna bayyana ayyuka masu alaƙa da samarwa da amfani da wata fasaha ta musamman, kamar kayayyakin Oldowan.[19] Ragewar dutse tana bin ka'idodin injiniyar karyewar conchoidal.[19] Dole ne a kusanci fashewar dutse ta wata hanya ta musamman don cimma burin mai kera kayan aikin.[20] Sakamakon da ake so na kayan aikin dutse na Oldowan shine ƙirƙirar gefe mai kaifi.[20] Mai kera kayan aikin zai yi jerin zaɓuɓɓukan fasaha don yin gefe mai kaifi yayin masana'anta.[21] Suna buƙatar zaɓar kayan albarkatu masu dacewa da tsarin da ya dace da karyewar conchoidal.[21] Da sun zaɓi wata fasaha ta musamman ta daddatsa dutse, wacce a mafi yawan lokuta za ta kasance bugun guduma mai ƙarfi.[21] Za su yi amfani da wata dabara ta ragewa ta musamman, wacce ita ce tsarin yadda suka rage dutsen don ƙirƙirar tarkace.[21] Masana kayayyakin tarihi suna sha'awar waɗannan zaɓuɓɓukan saboda duba bambance-bambance a cikin waɗannan zaɓuɓɓukan yana ba masu bincike damar samar da bayanai game da dalilin da ya sa wannan bambancin ke faruwa.[21][22] Waɗannan bayanai suna sanar da burin wannan nau'in binciken kayayyakin tarihi, wanda shine fahimtar dangantaka tsakanin amfani da kayan aiki da juyin halittar halittun mutum.[19]

Amfani da zaɓuɓɓukan masana'anta na hominins don ƙoƙarin fahimtar tambayoyi masu zurfi game da juyin halittar ɗan adam yana buƙatar cancantar zaɓuɓɓukan a matsayin halayen da aka yi da niyya. Masana kayayyakin tarihi a wannan fanni sun yarda gaba ɗaya cewa Oldowan hominins sun zaɓi takamaiman kayan albarkatu.[23] Shafukan kayayyakin tarihi na Pliocene na Gona suna ba da misali na wannan zaɓi.[10] Shafukan kayayyakin tarihi na Oldowan a Gona duk suna da alaƙa ta kusa da paleo-Awash, wanda ke nuna cewa hominins ba su bazu a wajen ambaliyar paleo-Awash ba, aƙalla don ayyukan da ke barin alamar kayayyakin tarihi.[10] Lokacin da Stout da abokan aikinsa suka kwatanta duwatsun kogi a wuraren kayayyakin tarihi da tarurrukan daga waɗancan wurare, sun gano cewa masu kera kayan aikin Oldowan na farko sun fi son duwatsun da ke da halaye waɗanda suka sa su zama cikakke don samar da tarkace.[10] Stout da abokan aikinsa sun yi amfani da wannan gaskiyar don jayayya cewa hominins a Oldowan sun ƙware wajen shiga cikin halayen fasaha da halaye a cikin dutse waɗanda za su zama dole don ƙirƙirar sakamakon da ake so.[10] Stout da abokan aikinsa sun ci gaba da ba da shawarar cewa zaɓin kayan ya kasance tun ma a wasu daga cikin misalan farko na Oldowan.[10]

Tarurrukan Gona sun kuma kasance cikin muhawara da yawa game da dalilin da ke tattare da bambance-bambance a cikin tarurrukan Oldowan.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Bambanci ta Lokaci

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Kafin Oldowan
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Bayanan kayayyakin tarihi daga farkon lokutan da aka rubuta na Oldowan kusan shekaru miliyan 2.6 da suka gabata zuwa kusan shekaru miliyan 2 da suka gabata (Ma) suna da rarrabuwa sosai.[8] Rashin farkon wuraren Oldowan ya kasance gaskiya musamman a tsakiyar shekarun 1990 lokacin da Semaw ya fara tono a Gona.[24] Hangen halin rarrabuwa na bayanan a wannan lokacin ya sa wasu masana kayayyakin tarihi a cikin shekarun 1990 da farkon 2000s suka ba da shawarar rarrabe kayayyakin Oldowan daga kafin 2.0 Ma da waɗanda suka biyo bayan 2.0 Ma.[23] Waɗannan masu bincike sun sanya waɗancan wuraren kafin 2.0 Ma suna pre-Oldowan.[23] Masanin kayayyakin tarihi Mzalendo Kibunjia ya kasance ɗaya daga cikin magoya bayan wannan hujja.[23][24] Kibunjia ya tsara Omo Industrial Complex don haɗa wuraren kayayyakin tarihi daga wannan lokacin.[24] Babban fasalin wannan hadadden shine ƙarancin matakin ƙwarewa a daddatsa dutse.[24] Semaw bai yarda da ƙirƙirar wannan bambanci ba. Lokacin da Semaw ya fara bayyana tarurrukan East Gona (EG) 10 da EG-12, ya lura cewa babu ɗayan kayan aikin ko fasalulluka da suka faɗi wajen ka'idojin sauran tarurrukan Oldowan daga baya.[11][1] Ya yi jayayya cewa hominins waɗanda suka yi kayan aikin a EG-10 da EG-12 sun ƙware wajen samar da tarkace kuma sun fahimci ka'idodin asali na injiniyar karyewa bisa ga kusan kayayyakin 3,000 da aka tattara daga wuraren.[1] Semaw ya tabbatar da cewa wannan ya nuna "tsayayyen fasaha" a Oldowan.[1] A wasu kalmomi, halayen fasaha suna kama, duk da wasu bambance-bambance.[1] Ko da yake kwanan nan, Semaw da abokan aikinsa sun kauce wa wannan halayyar ta Oldowan.[22][9] Yayin da lokaci ya wuce, ra'ayin pre-Oldowan ya fi yawan faɗuwa.[23][22]

Juyin Halitta na Farko na Fasahar Lithic
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Gano Lomekwian da tarin Bokol Dora 1 daga Ledi-Geraru ya buɗe ƙarin tambayoyi da muhawara game da yanayin bambance-bambance a fasahar lithic a farkon faruwarta a cikin bayanan kayayyakin tarihi. A cikin bayanin da ya yi game da tarin Bokol Dora 1 (BD1) Oldowan, Braun ya nuna cewa kayayyakin BD1 na iya zama ɗan ƙaramin rikitarwa fiye da tsohuwar tarin Gona.[6] Wannan bayanin yana nuna wani yanayi na bambance-bambance na sannu a hankali ta lokaci.[6][19] Koyaya, sanin ko lokaci shine tushen bambance-bambancen da aka lura yana da wahala saboda abubuwa da yawa masu ruɗani waɗanda za su iya kasancewa a aiki.[19] Gano Lomekwian, wanda ya faru tun 3.3 Ma, ya ƙara rikitar da tattaunawa da muhawara game da farkon misalan fasahar lithic.[25] Tsawon lokaci tsakanin tarin Lomekwi 3 da fitowar Oldowan ya sa wasu masana kayayyakin tarihi sun kasance masu shakku.[19] Koyaya, Flicker da Key sun gano cewa a kididdiga, babu wani goyon baya ga ra'ayin cewa Lomekwian da Oldowan sune sakamakon haɗin fasaha.[26] Binciken Flicker da Key ya nuna cewa Oldowan da Lomekwian ya kamata a ɗauke su a matsayin masu alaƙa sai dai idan za a iya yin ƙarin bambanci bisa ga halayen fasaha.[26] Tattaunawa game da waɗannan farkon misalan fasahar kayan aikin dutse za ta ci gaba da haɓaka yayin da ƙarin bayanai suka fito a cikin nau'in ƙarin bincike.

Muhawarar Al'ada ta Tarawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tushen al'adar ɗan adam yanki ne na bincike a cikin ilimin kimiyyar kayayyakin tarihi na Paleolithic wanda ke da muhimmiyar mahimmanci don fahimtar juyin halittar ɗan adam da halayensa.[27][28][9][29] Al'adar ɗan adam tana tarawa.[30][9] Al'adun al'adu suna wucewa ta tsararraki da yawa, kuma sababbin abubuwa suna faruwa a kan lokaci.[9][30] Ci gaban al'ada ta tarawa ya kasance wani muhimmin bangare na faɗaɗa kwakwalwar hominin.[9] Kwakwalwar hominins waɗanda suka yi amfani da kayan aikin dutse na Oldowan sun fi ƙanƙanta sosai fiye da kwakwalwar mutanen zamani.[9] Akwai muhawara game da matsayin Masana'antar Oldowan a cikin juyin halittar al'adar ɗan adam.[9][29] Wannan muhawara tana nuna wasu daga cikin tarurrukan Oldowan na Gona a matsayin shaida kuma tana ɗaukar bincike kan halayen zamantakewar dabbobi masu kama da mutum.[22][9][30][31][32]

Masu bincike waɗanda ke da ra'ayin cewa Oldowan ba al'ada ce ta tarawa ba suna jaddada ci gaba da halayen fasaha na Oldowan a kan lokaci.[29] Idan Oldowan ya kasance al'ada ce ta tarawa, mutum zai yi tsammanin ganin wani canji a kan lokaci.[27] Saboda haka, akwai mafi kyawun bayani don bambance-bambance a cikin tarurrukan Oldowan.[27][28] Suna jayayya cewa saboda rashin sababbin abubuwa, nau'in koyon zamantakewar da ke aiki baya ba da damar watsa sababbin mafita.[29] Ayoyin da hominin zai iya ƙirƙira da kansa ne kawai za a iya watsa su.[30][29] Suna watsa su saboda suna cikin abin da Tennie da abokan aikinsa ke kira "yankin mafita na ɓoye."[30] Tennie da abokan aikinsa sun haɓaka wannan ra'ayi bayan nazarin halayen zamantakewar dabbobi masu kama da mutum.[31][30][32] Mafita na ɓoye sune wani ɓangare na halayen mutum saboda sun sami tushe a cikin mu'amala tsakanin ilimin halittu da muhalli.[28] Idan aka sami dama mai kyau, kowane mutum zai iya sake ƙirƙira waɗannan ayyukan.[30] Hanyoyin koyon zamantakewa suna ba da damar hominins su watsa halayen.[29] Har yanzu, halayen ba sababbi bane, don haka baya buƙatar abubuwan da mutum bai san yadda za a yi su da kansa ba.[29] Bambanci ya fi dacewa sakamakon sake ƙirƙira ne, ba al'ada ce ta tarawa ba.[28][29]

Wasu masana kayayyakin tarihi sun yi imanin cewa Oldowan ya taka rawa a ci gaban al'ada ta tarawa. Stout da abokan aikinsa suna ganin juyin halittar al'adu a matsayin tsari mai jinkiri da sannu a hankali.[9] Sun ba da shawarar wannan yanayin mai yiwuwa don yadda al'ada ta tarawa za ta faru. A ra'ayinsu, daddatsa dutse yana da wahala, har ma ga mutanen zamani.[9][33] Daddatsa dutse yana da dokoki, amma akwai sassauci da yawa a cikin yadda ake amfani da su.[9] Yana ɗaukar lokaci mai tsawo don zama mai kyau a daddatsa dutse, yana buƙatar aiki mai yawa kuma yawanci wani nau'i na kwaikwayo ko koyarwa a cikin mahallin mutanen zamani.[33] Ga masu kera kayan aikin Oldowan, waɗanda ke da iyakantaccen ikon fahimta da ƙwarewar motsa jiki-gani idan aka kwatanta da mutanen zamani, zama mai kyau a daddatsa dutse mai yiwuwa yana kusa da ko a iyakar su don shiga cikin wannan aikin mai buƙatar tunani.[9] Amma yana da mahimmanci a gare su su zama masu kyau a daddatsa dutse saboda kayan aikin dutse sun ba su damar samun albarkatu waɗanda ba za su iya samun su ba.[9] Domin samun waɗannan albarkatun yana da mahimmanci, amma yin kayan aiki yana da wahala, hominins mai yiwuwa sun tallafa wa juna wajen samun ƙwarewar.[9] Goyon bayan zamantakewar da ake buƙata don koyon yadda za a daddatsa dutse ya haifar da muhalli tare da zaɓin matsin lamba kan ilimin fahimta, motsa jiki, da daidaitawar gani, yana sa koyon zamantakewa ya zama mai sauƙi.[9] Waɗannan daidaitawar za su kuma ƙara ƙwarewar su.[9] Yayin da ƙwarewarsu ta ƙaru, za su zama masu sassaucin halaye da sababbin abubuwa.[9] A ƙarshe, wannan zai haifar da al'adar ɗan adam ta zamani.[9]

Stout da abokan aikinsa sun haɓaka wannan yanayin mai yiwuwa ta hanyar duba bambance-bambance a fasaha a cikin tarurrukan Oldowan daga wuraren Gona daban-daban kuma suna ƙoƙarin tantance abin da zai iya haifar da bambance-bambancen.[22][9] Lokacin da suka duba tarurrukan daban-daban, sun ga cewa abu ɗaya tilo da ya canza daga wuri zuwa wuri shine dabarar ragewa.[22][9] Kowace wuri ta yi amfani da takamaiman tsari ga mafi yawan duwatsun da Stout da ƙungiyarsa suka duba.[22][9] Amma akwai tambayoyi da yawa game da dalilin da yasa hakan zai iya faruwa. Yana iya alaƙa da ilimin halittu; watakila nau'i daban-daban sun yi amfani da tsarin daban-daban.[22] Ko kuma yana iya zama yanayi, inda hanya ɗaya ke aiki mafi kyau a cikin takamaiman mahalli.[9] Ta hanyar jerin gwaje-gwaje na kididdiga, sun gano cewa dabarun biyu sun kasance da wahala su kiyaye.[22] Saboda haka, ba zai yiwu ba cewa bambance-bambancen fahimta tsakanin ƙungiyoyi shine dalilin ganin tsarin daban-daban.[22] Sun kuma yi wasu gwaje-gwaje inda suka yi kwafin tarurrukan don sanin ko suna da fa'idodi daban-daban.[9] Sun gano cewa ba su yi ba.[9] Stout da abokan aikinsa suna jayayya cewa wannan yana tabbatar da cewa masu kera kayan aikin Oldowan sun kwaikwayi takamaiman hanyoyin daga membobin ƙungiyarsu.

Fitowar Acheulean

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wuraren Acheulean na yankin aikin Gona sun ba da gudummawa ga tattaunawar fitowar Acheulean. Wurare biyu, DAN5 da OGS-12, an sanya su zuwa 1.6-1.5 Ma.[34][35] Suna ɗan ƙaramin lokaci fiye da farkon faruwar Acheulean da aka rubuta a Konso, Ethiopia, da Kokiselei, Kenya, waɗanda suka faru tun ~1.75 Ma.[36][34] Semaw da abokan aikinsa sun lura da kamanceceniya tsakanin manyan kayan aikin yanke Acheulean na DAN5 da waɗanda ke Kokiselei da Konso.[34] Ko da yake Semaw ya kuma lura da bambance-bambance tsakanin tarurrukan daga Konso da waɗanda daga Gona.[34] Babban bambancin da ya nuna shine cewa an yi manyan kayan aikin yanke daga duwatsun kogi a Gona, yayin da a Konso, masu kera kayan aikin sun yi amfani da manyan tarkace masu fadi.[36][35][34] Semaw ya nuna cewa bambancin kayan albarkatu ya haifar da wasu bambance-bambance tsakanin tarurrukan—musamman a yadda masu kera kayan aikin suka yi aikin kayayyakin.[34] Kayayyakin Acheulean na DAN5 suna da gefe biyu, yayin da waɗanda ke wurin Konso galibi suna da gefe ɗaya.[34][36]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Semaw, Sileshi (2000). "The World's Oldest Stone Artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their Implications for Understanding Stone Technology and Patterns of Human Evolution Between 2·6–1·5 Million Years Ago". Journal of Archaeological Science (in Turanci). 27 (12): 1197–1214. Bibcode:2000JArSc..27.1197S. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0592. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":34" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Simpson, Scott W.; Kleinsasser, Lynnette; Quade, Jay; Levin, Naomi E.; McIntosh, William C.; Dunbar, Nelia; Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J. (2015-04-01). "Late Miocene hominin teeth from the Gona Paleoanthropological Research Project area, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution (in Turanci). 81: 68–82. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.07.004. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 25795338. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Simpson, Scott W.; Levin, Naomi E.; Quade, Jay; Dunbar, Nelia; McIntosh, William C.; Cáceres, Isabel; Stinchcomb, Gary E.; Holloway, Ralph L.; Brown, Francis H. (March 6, 2020). "Co-occurrence of Acheulian and Oldowan artifacts with Homo erectus cranial fossils from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Science Advances. 6 (10): eaaw4694. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.4694S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw4694. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7056306. PMID 32181331. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":8" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Semaw, Sileshi; Simpson, Scott W.; Quade, Jay; Renne, Paul R.; Butler, Robert F.; McIntosh, William C.; Levin, Naomi; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Rogers, Michael J. (January 20, 2005). "Early Pliocene hominids from Gona, Ethiopia". Nature. 433 (7023): 301–305. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..301S. doi:10.1038/nature03177. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15662421. S2CID 4431031. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":32" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 Simpson, Scott W.; Quade, Jay; Levin, Naomi E.; Butler, Robert; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Everett, Melanie; Semaw, Sileshi (2008-11-14). "A Female Homo erectus Pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia". Science (in Turanci). 322 (5904): 1089–1092. Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1089S. doi:10.1126/science.1163592. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19008443. S2CID 22191315. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":14" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Braun, David R.; Aldeias, Vera; Archer, Will; Arrowsmith, J Ramon; Baraki, Niguss; Campisano, Christopher J.; Deino, Alan L.; DiMaggio, Erin N.; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Engda, Blade; Feary, David A.; Garello, Dominique I.; Kerfelew, Zenash; McPherron, Shannon P.; Patterson, David B. (2019-06-11). "Earliest known Oldowan artifacts at >2.58 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia, highlight early technological diversity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 116 (24): 11712–11717. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11611712B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1820177116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6575601. PMID 31160451. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":63" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Plummer, Thomas W.; Oliver, James S.; Finestone, Emma M.; Ditchfield, Peter W.; Bishop, Laura C.; Blumenthal, Scott A.; Lemorinin, Cristina; et al. (2023). "Expanded geographic distribution and dietary strategies of the earliest Oldowan hominins and Paranthropus". Science. 379 (6632): 561–566. Bibcode:2023Sci...379..561P. doi:10.1126/science.abo7452. PMID 36758076 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 256697931 Check |s2cid= value (help). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":82" defined multiple times with different content
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :53
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 Stout, Dietrich; Rogers, Michael J.; Jaeggi, Adrian V.; Semaw, Sileshi (2019). "Archaeology and the Origins of Human Cumulative Culture: A Case Study from the Earliest Oldowan at Gona, Ethiopia". Current Anthropology (in Turanci). 60 (3): 309–340. doi:10.1086/703173. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 155813323. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":133" defined multiple times with different content
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Stout, Dietrich; Quade, Jay; Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Levin, Naomi E. (2005). "Raw material selectivity of the earliest stone toolmakers at Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution (in Turanci). 48 (4): 365–380. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.10.006. PMID 15788183. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":15" defined multiple times with different content
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Semaw, S.; Renne, P.; Harris, J. W. K.; Feibel, C. S.; Bernor, R. L.; Fesseha, N.; Mowbray, K. (1997). "2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia". Nature (in Turanci). 385 (6614): 333–336. Bibcode:1997Natur.385..333S. doi:10.1038/385333a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 9002516. S2CID 4331652.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J; Quade, Jay; Renne, Paul R; Butler, Robert F; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Stout, Dietrich; Hart, William S; Pickering, Travis; Simpson, Scott W (2003). "2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution (in Turanci). 45 (2): 169–177. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00093-9. PMID 14529651.
  13. ↑ Dominguez-Rodrigo, M; Pickering, T; Semaw, S; Rogers, M (2005). "Cutmarked bones from Pliocene archaeological sites at Gona, Afar, Ethiopia: implications for the function of the world's oldest stone tools". Journal of Human Evolution. 48 (2): 109–121. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.09.004. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 15701526.
  14. ↑ Sahle, Yonatan; Gossa, Tegenu (2019-10-08). "More data needed for claims about the earliest Oldowan artifacts". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 116 (41): 20259–20260. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11620259S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1911658116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6789553. PMID 31530728.
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 Empty citation (help)
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 Simpson, Scott W.; Levin, Naomi E.; Quade, Jay; Rogers, Michael J.; Semaw, Sileshi (April 2019). "Ardipithecus ramidus postcrania from the Gona Project area, Afar Regional State, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution. 129: 1–45. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.12.005. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 30904038. S2CID 85500710.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Baab, Karen L.; Rogers, Michael; Bruner, Emiliano; Semaw, Sileshi (2022). "Reconstruction and analysis of the DAN5/P1 and BSN12/P1 Gona Early Pleistocene Homo fossils". Journal of Human Evolution (in Turanci). 162: 103102. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103102. PMID 34891069 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 245109585 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  18. ↑ Quade, J.; Levin, N.; Semaw, S.; Stout, D.; Renne, P.; Rogers, M.; Simpson, S. (2004-11-01). "Paleoenvironments of the earliest stone toolmakers, Gona, Ethiopia". Geological Society of America Bulletin (in Turanci). 116 (11–12): 1529–1544. Bibcode:2004GSAB..116.1529Q. doi:10.1130/B25358.1. ISSN 0016-7606.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 de la Torre, Ignacio (2019-06-11). "Searching for the emergence of stone tool making in eastern Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 116 (24): 11567–11569. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11611567D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1906926116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6575166. PMID 31164417.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Toth, Nicholas (1985-03-01). "The oldowan reassessed: A close look at early stone artifacts". Journal of Archaeological Science (in Turanci). 12 (2): 101–120. Bibcode:1985JArSc..12..101T. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(85)90056-1. ISSN 0305-4403.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 Braun, David R. (2012). "What does Oldowan technology represent in terms of hominin behavior?". In Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel (ed.). Stone Tools and Fossil Bones. Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–244. ISBN 978-1-139-14932-7.
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 Stout, Dietrich; Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Cauche, Dominique (2010). "Technological variation in the earliest Oldowan from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution (in Turanci). 58 (6): 474–491. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.02.005. PMID 20430417.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Plummer, Thomas (2005). "Discord after Discard: Reconstructing Aspects of Oldowan Hominin Behavior". In Stahl, Ann Bower (ed.). African Archaeology: a Critical Introduction. Blackwell. pp. 55–92.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Kibunjia, Mzalendo (1994). "Pliocene Archaeological Occurrences in the Lake Turkana Basin". Journal of Human Evolution. 27 (1–3): 159–171. doi:10.1006/jhev.1994.1040.
  25. ↑ Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E.; Feibel, Craig S.; Lepre, Christopher J.; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenet, Michel; Adrian; Nicholas; Sophie; Guillaume; Jean-Philip; Louise (May 2015). "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature (in Turanci). 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 25993961. S2CID 1207285.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Flicker, Dylan; Key, Alastair (April 2023). "Statistical assessment of the temporal and cultural relationship between the Lomekwian and Oldowan". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (in Turanci). 48: 103834. Bibcode:2023JArSR..48j3834F. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.103834. S2CID 256293351 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Tennie, Claudio; Premo, L. S.; Braun, David R.; McPherron, Shannon P. (October 2017). "Early Stone Tools and Cultural Transmission: Resetting the Null Hypothesis". Current Anthropology (in Turanci). 58 (5): 652–672. doi:10.1086/693846. hdl:10261/357684. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 148701377.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Tennie, Claudio; Braun, David R.; Premo, L. S.; Shannon P. (2016), Haidle, Miriam N.; Conard, Nicholas J.; Bolus, Michael (eds.), "The Island Test for Cumulative Culture in the Paleolithic", The Nature of Culture, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 121–133, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7426-0_11, ISBN 978-94-017-7424-6, retrieved 2023-04-27
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 Tennie, Claudio (2023-02-23), Tehrani, Jamshid J.; Kendal, Jeremy; Kendal, Rachel (eds.), "The Earliest Tools and Cultures of Hominins", The Oxford Handbook of Cultural Evolution (in Turanci) (1 ed.), Oxford University Press, pp. C33P1–C33N40, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198869252.013.33, ISBN 978-0-19-886925-2, retrieved 2023-04-27
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 Tennie, Claudio; Call, Josep; Michael (2009-08-27). "Ratcheting up the ratchet: on the evolution of cumulative culture". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (in Turanci). 364 (1528): 2405–2415. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0052. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 2865079. PMID 19620111.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Tennie, Claudio; Call, Josep; Michael (2012-08-08). "Untrained Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) Fail to Imitate Novel Actions". PLOS ONE (in Turanci). 7 (8): e41548. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...741548T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041548. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3414512. PMID 22905102.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Tennie, Claudio; Daniela; Josep; Michael (2008). "An experimental study of nettle feeding in captive gorillas". American Journal of Primatology. 70 (6): 584–593. doi:10.1002/ajp.20532. PMID 18330896. S2CID 16166264.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Stout, Dietrich; Khreisheh, Nada (2015). "Skill Learning and Human Brain Evolution: An Experimental Approach". Cambridge Archaeological Journal (in Turanci). 25 (4): 867–875. doi:10.1017/S0959774315000359. ISSN 0959-7743. S2CID 140088681.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Simpson, Scott W.; Levin, Naomi E.; Quade, Jay; Dunbar, Nelia; McIntosh, William C.; Cáceres, Isabel; Stinchcomb, Gary E.; Holloway, Ralph L.; Brown, Francis H.; Butler, Robert F.; Stout, Dietrich; Everett, Melanie (2020-03-06). "Co-occurrence of Acheulian and Oldowan artifacts with Homo erectus cranial fossils from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Science Advances (in Turanci). 6 (10): eaaw4694. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.4694S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw4694. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7056306. PMID 32181331.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Cáceres, Isabel; Stout, Dietrich; Leiss, Amanda (2018). "The Early Acheulean ~1.6-1.2 Ma from Gona, Ethiopia: Issues related to the Emergence of the Acheulean in Africa". In Gallotti, Rosalia; Mussi, Margherita (eds.). The emergence of the Acheulean in East Africa and beyond : contributions in honor of Jean Chavaillon. Rosalia Gallotti, M. Mussi, Jean Chavaillon. Cham, Switzerland. pp. 115–128. ISBN 978-3-319-75985-2. OCLC 1048896120.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Beyene, Yonas; Katoh, Shigehiro; WoldeGabriel, Giday; Hart, William K.; Uto, Kozo; Sudo, Masafumi; Kondo, Megumi; Hyodo, Masayuki; Renne, Paul R.; Suwa, Gen; Asfaw, Berhane (2013-01-29). "The characteristics and chronology of the earliest Acheulean at Konso, Ethiopia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 110 (5): 1584–1591. doi:10.1073/pnas.1221285110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3562807. PMID 23359714.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gona,_Habasha&oldid=641260"