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Guguwar Atlantika

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Guguwar Atlantika
type of tropical cyclone (mul) Fassara
Waƙoƙi na guguwa na Arewacin Atlantic daga 1851 zuwa 2019

guguwa Atlantika wani nau'in guguwa ne na wurare masu zafi wanda ke samuwa a cikin Tekun Atlantika da farko tsakanin Yuni da Nuwamba. Ana iya amfani da kalmomin "guguwa", "gugu", da "guguwa zafi" don bayyana wannan yanayin yanayi. Wadannan guguwa suna ci gaba da juyawa a kusa da cibiyar matsin lamba, wanda ke haifar da yanayin guguwa a fadin babban yanki, wanda ba a iyakance shi kawai ga idon guguwar ba. Su ne tsarin da aka tsara na girgije da tsawa wanda ya samo asali ne a kan ruwan zafi ko na subtropical kuma sun rufe yaduwar ƙasa, kuma bai kamata a rikita su da guguwa ba, wanda shine wani nau'in guguwa. A Arewacin Atlantic da Gabashin Pacific, ana amfani da kalmar guguwa, yayin da ake amfani da guguwa a Yammacin Pacific kusa da Asiya. Ana amfani da kalmar cyclone a sauran wuraren teku, wato Kudancin Pacific da Tekun Indiya.

Ana iya rarraba Guguwa ta wurare masu zafi ta hanyar ƙarfi. Guguwa na wurare masu zafi suna da iyakar iska mai ɗorewa na akalla 39 mph (34 knots, 17 m / s, 63 km / h), yayin da guguwa dole ne ta cimma burin iyakar iska ta minti daya wanda shine 75 mph ko fiye (64 knots), 33 m / s.       

Har zuwa tsakiyar shekarun 1900, ana kiran guguwa da sunan da ba a sani ba. Ayyukan kiran guguwa daga jerin sunayen da aka riga aka ƙaddara ya fara ne a 1953. Guguwa da ke haifar da mummunar lalacewa ko wadanda suka mutu na iya samun sunayensu daga jerin. A matsakaici, guguwa masu suna 14 suna faruwa a kowane kakar a cikin tafkin Arewacin Atlantic, tare da 7 zama guguwa kuma 3 zama manyan guguwa (Category 3 ko mafi girma). A watan Afrilu na shekara ta 2004, Catarina ta zama guguwa ta farko da aka rubuta a Kudancin Tekun Atlantika.

Bayyanawa

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guguwa Atlantic wani nau'in guguwa ne na wurare masu zafi wanda ke samuwa a cikin Tekun Atlantika. Suna faruwa da farko tsakanin Yuni da Nuwamba. Ana iya amfani da kalmomin "guguwa", "gugu", da "guguwar zafi" don bayyana wannan yanayin yanayi. Wadannan guguwa suna ci gaba da juyawa a kusa da cibiyar matsin lamba, wanda ke haifar da yanayin guguwa a fadin babban yanki, wanda ba a iyakance shi kawai ga idon guguwar ba. Su ne tsarin da aka tsara na girgije da tsawa wanda ya samo asali ne a kan ruwan zafi ko na subtropical kuma sun rufe yaduwar ƙasa, kuma bai kamata a rikita su da guguwa ba, wanda shine wani nau'in guguwa. Suna samuwa a kan tsarin matsin lamba.

A Arewacin Atlantic da Gabashin Pacific, ana amfani da kalmar "guguwa", yayin da ake amfani da "gugu" a Yammacin Pacific kusa da Asiya. Ana amfani da kalmar "cyclone" a sauran wuraren teku, wato Kudancin Pacific da Tekun Indiya.[1]

Guguwa ta wurare masu zafi suna da iyakar iska mai ɗorewa na akalla 39 mph (34 knots, 17 m / s, 63 km / h), yayin da guguwa dole ne ta cimma burin iyakar iska ta minti daya wanda shine 75 mph ko fiye (64 knots), 33 m / s. Cibiyar Guguwa ta Kasa ta Amurka (NHC) tana sa ido kan tsarin yanayi na wurare masu zafi don Arewacin Atlantic Basin kuma tana ba da rahotanni, agogo, da gargadi; ana ɗaukarsa ɗaya daga cikin Cibiyoyin Yanayi na Yanayi don guguwa na wurare masu wurare masu zafi, kamar yadda Ƙungiyar Yanayi ta Duniya ta bayyana.[2]       

Abubuwan da ke jagorantar

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Yankin subtropical (a cikin Pacific) yana nunawa a matsayin babban yanki na baƙar fata (shacha) akan wannan hoton tauraron dan adam na tururi daga Satumba 2000

Ana jagorantar guguwa ta wurare masu zafi ta hanyar gudana da ke kewaye da su a duk zurfin yanayin zafi (yanayin yanayi daga ƙasa zuwa kusan mil takwas (13 tsawo). Neil Frank, tsohon darektan Cibiyar Guguwa ta Kasa ta Amurka, ya yi amfani da kwatanci kamar "wani ganye da aka ɗauka a cikin rafi" ko "brick yana motsawa ta cikin kogi na iska" don bayyana yadda kwararar yanayi ke shafar hanyar guguwa a fadin teku. Musamman, iskar iska a kusa da tsarin matsin lamba mai girma da kuma zuwa Yankunan matsin lamba yana rinjayar waƙoƙin guguwa.

A cikin latitudes na wurare masu zafi, guguwa na wurare masu wurare masu zafi da guguwa gabaɗaya suna motsawa zuwa yamma tare da ɗan ƙarami hali zuwa arewa saboda kasancewa a ƙarƙashin tasirin tudun subtropical, tsarin matsin lamba wanda yawanci yakan faɗaɗa gabas zuwa yamma a fadin subtropics.[3] Kudancin tudun subtropical, iskar gabas (mai hurawa daga gabas zuwa yamma) ya mamaye. Idan tudun subtropical ya raunana ta hanyar rami na sama, guguwa ta wurare masu zafi na iya juyawa zuwa pole (arewa) sannan ya sake dawowa (ya koma baya zuwa arewa maso gabas zuwa babban belin yamma). A gefen gefen gefuna na subtropical, iskõki na yamma suna rinjaye kuma gabaɗaya suna motsa guguwa na wurare masu zafi waɗanda suka kai latitudes na arewa zuwa gabas. Yammacin kuma yana motsa Guguwa ta extratropical da sanyi da dumi daga yamma zuwa gabas.

Ƙarfin

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Matsakaicin shekaru 20 na yawan guguwa na shekara-shekara na 4 da 5 a yankin Atlantic ya kusan ninka sau biyu tun daga shekara ta 2000.

Samfuri:Most intense hurricanesAna iya rarraba guguwa ta wurare masu zafi ta hanyar ƙarfi. Ƙarfin guguwa na wurare masu zafi yawanci ana ƙayyade shi ta hanyar iskar guguwa ko matsin lamba mafi ƙasƙanci. Tebur mai zuwa ya lissafa guguwar guguwar Atlantic mafi tsananin dangane da matsin lamba mafi ƙasƙanci. Dangane da saurin iska, Guguwar Allen ita ce guguwar da ta fi karfi a cikin Atlantic a rubuce-rubuce, tare da matsakaicin iskõki masu ɗorewa na 165 knots (190 mph; 306 km/h) mph; 305 km / h). Koyaya, waɗannan ma'auni suna da zargi, tunda kayan aikin da aka yi amfani da su don yin rikodin saurin iska a lokacin na iya cinyewa ga iskõki na irin wannan ƙarfi. Duk da haka, matsin lamba na tsakiya yana da ƙarancin isa ya sanya su cikin guguwar guguwar Atlantic mafi ƙarfi.

Saboda tsananin su, guguwar Atlantika mafi ƙarfi duk sun kai ga rarrabuwa ta 5. Guguwar Opal, mafi ƙaƙƙarfan Guguwar 4 da aka rubuta, ta ƙaru don isa matsakaicin matsakaicin hectopascals 916 (27.0 inHg), matsi mai kama da guguwa ta Category 5. Guguwar Wilma ta zama guguwa mafi karfi da aka yi rikodin ta Atlantic bayan ta kai karfin 882 millibars (26.0 inHg) a watan Oktoba 2005; 2015 a gabashin Pacific; yana da karatun matsa lamba na 872 mbar. Gaban Wilma shine Hurricane Gilbert, wanda ya riƙe rikodin mafi tsananin guguwar Atlantika har tsawon shekaru 17.[5] Guguwar Ranar Ma'aikata ta 1935, tare da matsa lamba na 892 mbar (hPa; 892 millibars (26.3 inHg)), ita ce guguwa ta uku mafi ƙarfi ta Atlantika da kuma mafi ƙarfi da aka rubuta cyclone na wurare masu zafi kafin 1950. Tun da an ƙididdige ma'aunin da aka ɗauka a lokacin Wilma da Gilbert ta amfani da dropsonde, wannan ma'aunin ma'aunin ya kasance mafi ƙarancin ƙasa. .

Guguwar Rita ita ce guguwa ta hudu mafi karfi ta Atlantic dangane da matsi na barometric da daya daga cikin guguwa mai zafi guda uku daga shekarar 2005 a jerin, yayin da sauran su ne Wilma da Katrina a farkon da na bakwai. Koyaya, tare da matsi na barometric na hectopascals 895 (26.4 inHg), Rita ita ce guguwar yanayi mafi ƙarfi da aka taɓa yin rikodin a cikin Tekun Mexico. zurfafa zuwa matsa lamba kamar ƙasa

908 millibars (26.8 inHg).

Yawancin guguwar iska mafi ƙarfi da aka yi rikodin su sun yi rauni kafin faduwarsu ta ƙarshe ko halaka. Duk da haka, uku daga cikin guguwa sun kasance masu ƙarfi sosai a faɗuwar ƙasa don a yi la'akari da wasu daga cikin mafi ƙarfi, ƙasa mafi ƙarfi da ke faɗo guguwa - uku daga cikin guguwa goma da ke cikin jerin sun kasance mafi tsananin faɗuwar tekun Atlantika guda uku a tarihi. Guguwar Ranar Kwadago ta 1935 ta yi kasa a kololuwa, ta mai da ita mafi tsananin fadowar Tekun Atlantika. Ko da yake ya ragu kaɗan kafin ƙarshensa ya faɗo a kan Yucatán Peninsula. Guguwar Gilbert ta ci gaba da matsa lamba na 900 hPa a faɗuwar ƙasa, kamar yadda Camille ta yi, wanda hakan ya sa aka ɗaure su a matsayin na biyu mafi ƙarfi. Guguwar Dean ita ma ta yi kasa a mashigin tekun, amma ta yi haka ne da tsananin karfi kuma tare da matsi na barometric; faduwarta ta zama na hudu mafi karfi a tarihin guguwar Atlantika.  

Yanayin yanayi

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Jimlar da Matsakaicin Yawan Guguwa ta Watan (1851-2017)
Wata Jimillar Matsakaicin shekara
Janairu - Afrilu  7 <0.05
Mayu 22 0.1
Yuni 92 0.5
Yuli 120 0.7
Agusta 389 2.3
Satumba 584 3.5
Oktoba 341 2.0
Nuwamba 91 0.5
Disamba 17 0.1
Tushen: NOAA FAQ [4]

Ilimin yanayi yana aiki ne don bayyana abubuwan da ke tattare da matsakaicin yanayi kuma ana iya amfani da shi don yin tsinkaya. Yawancin guguwa sun samo asali ne daga Raƙuman ruwa na wurare masu zafi a cikin ruwa mai zafi da yawa mil ɗaruruwan arewacin ma'auni kusa da Yankin haɗuwa na wurare masu ɗorewa daga raƙumarka na wurare masu wurare masu zafi. Ƙarfin Coriolis yawanci yana da rauni sosai don fara isasshen juyawa kusa da ma'auni.[5] Hadari akai-akai yana faruwa a cikin ruwan Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Tekun Atlantika mai zafi, da kuma yankuna masu nisa gabas kamar tsibirin Cape Verde, suna samar da Guguwar Cape Verde. Tsarin na iya ƙarfafawa a kan Gulf Stream daga gabar gabashin Amurka duk inda yanayin ruwa ya wuce 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) ° C (79.7 ° F). [5]

Kodayake ana samun mafi yawan guguwa a cikin latitudes na wurare masu zafi, a wasu lokuta guguwa za su ci gaba da arewa da gabas saboda rikice-rikice ban da raƙuman ruwa na wurare masu wurare masu zafi kamar gaba da Ƙananan matakin sama. Wadannan an san su da baroclinically induced tropical cyclones.[6] Akwai dangantaka mai karfi tsakanin yawan aikin guguwar Atlantic a cikin wurare masu zafi da kasancewar El Niño ko La Niña a cikin Tekun Pacific. Abubuwan da suka faru na El Niño suna kara iska a kan Tekun Atlantika, suna samar da yanayi mara kyau don samarwa da rage ayyukan wurare masu zafi a cikin kwarin Atlantika. Sabanin haka, La Niña yana haifar da karuwa a cikin aiki saboda raguwar shear iska.

Dangane da ra'ayin Azores High na Kam-biu Liu, ana sa ran tsarin anti-phase zai kasance tsakanin gabar Tekun Mexico da gabar Tekunan Atlantika na Arewacin Amurka. A lokacin kwanciyar hankali (3000-1400 BC, da 1000 AD zuwa yanzu), matsayi na arewa maso gabas na Azores High zai haifar da ƙarin guguwa da ake jagoranta zuwa gabar tekun Atlantika. A lokacin hyperactive (1400 BC zuwa 1000 AD), an tura karin guguwa zuwa gabar tekun Gulf yayin da aka sauya Azores High zuwa matsayi na kudu maso yamma kusa da Caribbean.[7] Irin wannan motsi na Azores High ya dace da shaidar paleoclimatic wanda ke nuna farkon yanayi mai bushewa a Haiti a kusa da shekaru 3200 14C BP, da kuma canji zuwa yanayin da ya fi zafi a cikin Great Plains a lokacin ƙarshen Holocene yayin da aka kara danshi a cikin Kwarin Mississippi ta bakin tekun Gulf.[8] Bayanai na farko daga arewacin Atlantic suna da alama suna tallafawa ra'ayin Azores High. Rubuce-rubucen wakili na shekaru 3000 daga tafkin bakin teku a Cape Cod ya nuna cewa aikin guguwa ya karu sosai a cikin shekaru 500-1000 da suka gabata, kamar yadda bakin tekun Gulf ya kasance a cikin wani lokaci na zaman lafiya na karni na ƙarshe.

Bambancin yanayi

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Guguwar zafi ta Atlantic da yawan guguwa, ta wata [9]

Yawancin Guguwa ta wurare masu zafi na Arewacin Atlantic sun samo asali ne tsakanin Agusta 1 da Nuwamba 30, lokacin da yawancin rikice-rikicen wurare masu zafi ke faruwa. Kimanin kashi 97 cikin dari na guguwa masu zafi da ke faruwa a Arewacin Atlantic suna tasowa tsakanin Yuni 1 da Nuwamba 30, wanda ke iyakance Lokacin guguwar Atlantic na zamani. A matsakaici, guguwa masu suna 14 suna faruwa a kowane kakar a cikin tafkin Arewacin Atlantic, tare da 7 zama guguwa kuma 3 zama manyan guguwa (Category 3 ko mafi girma). [10] Matsakaicin yanayin yanayi na aiki yawanci yana kusa da tsakiyar Satumba.[10]   

Kodayake farkon lokacin guguwa na shekara-shekara ya kasance iri ɗaya a tarihi, ƙarshen hukuma na lokacin guguwar ya sauya daga ranar farko ta Oktoba 31. Ko ta yaya, a matsakaita a kowane 'yan shekaru, guguwa ta wurare masu zafi tana tasowa a waje da iyakokin kakar. Ya zuwa watan Satumbar 2021, akwai guguwa ta wurare masu zafi 88 a cikin lokacin da ba a yi amfani da shi ba, tare da kwanan nan shine Tropical Storm Ana a watan Mayu 2021. Guguwa ta farko ta wurare masu zafi na Lokacin guguwar Atlantika ta 1938, wanda aka kafa a ranar 3 ga Janairu, ya zama guguwar wurare masu zafi ta farko, yayin da sake nazari guguwar ya kammala game da guguwar a watan Disamba na shekara ta 2012.[11] Guguwar Able a cikin 1951 da farko an yi tunanin cewa ita ce babbar guguwa ta farko - guguwa mai zafi tare da iskõki sama da 115 miles per hour (185 km/h) km / h) [nb 1] - duk da haka, bayan binciken guguwa, an ƙaddara cewa Able kawai ya kai ƙarfin Category 1, wanda ya sanya 1966)" id="mwAXY" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Hurricane Alma (1966)">Guguwar Alma ta 1966 sabon mai rikodin, yayin da ta zama babbar guguwar a ranar 8 ga Yuni. Kodayake ya ci gaba a cikin iyakokin Lokacin guguwar Atlantic, [12] Guguwar Audrey a cikin 1957 ta zama guguwar farko da ta fara tasowa ta Category 4 a rikodin bayan ta kai 115 mph a ranar 27 ga Yuni. [13] Koyaya, sake nazarin daga 1956 zuwa 1960 ta NOAA ya rage Audrey zuwa Category 3, yana mai da Guguwar Dennis ta 2005 mafi farko Category 4 a rikodin a ranar 8 ga Yuli, 2005. [14] Guguwar guguwa ta farko ta Category 5, Beryl, ta kai mafi girman ƙarfi a kan sikelin iska na Saffir-Simpson a ranar 2 ga Yuli, 2024.         

Kodayake ƙarshen hukuma na Lokacin 1932_Cuba_hurricane" id="mwAck" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="1932 Cuba hurricane">guguwa Atlantic yana faruwa a ranar 30 ga Nuwamba, kwanakin 31 ga Oktoba da 15 ga Nuwamba suma a tarihi sun nuna ranar ƙarshe ga lokacin guguwa. Disamba, watan da kawai na shekara bayan lokacin guguwa, ya nuna cyclogenesis na guguwa goma sha huɗu na wurare masu zafi. Tropical Storm Zeta a shekara ta 2005 ita ce sabuwar guguwa ta wurare masu zafi don samun karfin guguwa na wurare masu zafi, kamar yadda ta yi a ranar 30 ga Disamba. Koyaya, 1954)" id="mwAaw" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Hurricane Alice (December 1954)">Guguwar Alice ta biyu a cikin 1954 ita ce sabuwar guguwa ta wurare masu zafi don samun ƙarfin guguwa. Dukansu Zeta da Alice sune guguwa guda biyu da suka wanzu a cikin shekaru biyu na kalandar - na farko daga 1954 zuwa 1955 kuma na ƙarshe daga 2005 zuwa 2006.[15] Babu wani guguwa da aka rubuta don wucewa Category 1 guguwa intensity a watan Disamba. A cikin 1999, Guguwar Lenny ta kai matakin 4 a ranar 17 ga Nuwamba yayin da ta ɗauki hanyar da ba a taɓa gani ba daga yamma zuwa gabas a fadin Caribbean; ƙarfinta ya sanya shi sabon guguwar Category 4, kodayake wannan ya kasance a cikin iyakokin lokacin guguwa.[16] Guguwar Hattie (Oktoba 27 - Nuwamba 1, 1961) da farko an yi tunanin cewa ita ce sabuwar guguwar da aka taɓa rubutawa, kamar yadda Guguwar Iota ta 2020, amma daga baya an rage su yayin sake dubawa.[17] Reanalysis kuma ya nuna cewa guguwa a cikin 1932 ta kai matakin 5 daga baya fiye da kowane guguwa da aka yi rikodin a cikin Atlantic. [11]           

Farkon lokacin guguwa yana da alaƙa da lokacin haɓaka yanayin yanayin teku, rashin kwanciyar hankali, da sauran abubuwan zafi.[1] Ko da yake watan Yuni shine farkon lokacin guguwa, ƙananan ayyuka yawanci suna faruwa, tare da matsakaicin guguwa mai zafi guda ɗaya a kowace shekara biyu. A wannan lokacin farkon lokacin guguwa, tsarin wurare masu zafi yakan kasance a cikin Tekun Mexico ko kuma a gefen gabas na Amurka..

Tun daga shekara ta 1851, jimlar guguwa da guguwa 81 sun samo asali a watan Yuni. A wannan lokacin, biyu daga cikin wadannan tsarin sun bunkasa a cikin zurfin wurare masu zafi a gabashin Ƙananan Antilles. Tun daga shekara ta 1870, manyan guguwa guda uku sun samo asali a watan Yuni, kamar Guguwar Audrey a shekara ta 1957. Audrey ta sami ƙarfi fiye da kowane guguwa mai zafi na Atlantic a watan Yuni ko Yuli har zuwa Guguwar Dennis da Emily na shekara ta 2005. Guguwar da ta fi gabashin gabas a watan Yuni, Guguwar Tropical Bret a 2023, an kafa ta ne a 40.3 ° W.

Yanayi da waƙoƙi a watan Yuli

Ƙananan ayyukan wurare masu zafi suna faruwa a watan Yuli, tare da guguwa guda ɗaya kawai na wurare masu zafi. Daga 1944 zuwa 1996, guguwa ta farko ta wurare masu zafi ta faru ne a ranar 11 ga Yuli a cikin rabin lokutan, kuma ta biyu ta kasance a ranar 8 ga Agusta.[10]

Samuwar yawanci yana faruwa a gabashin Caribbean a kusa da Ƙananan Antilles, a arewaci da gabashin sassan Gulf of Mexico, a kusa da arewacin Bahamas, da kuma bakin tekun Carolinas da Virginia a kan kogin Gulf. Guguwa suna tafiya zuwa yamma ta cikin Caribbean sannan ko dai su matsa zuwa arewa su karkata kusa da gabar gabashin Amurka ko kuma su tsaya kan hanyar arewa maso yamma su shiga Tekun Mexico.

Tun daga shekara ta 1851, jimlar guguwa ta wurare masu zafi 105 sun samo asali a watan Yuli. Tun daga 1870, goma daga cikin wadannan guguwa sun kai babban guguwa; daga cikinsu, kawai 2005)" id="mwAhI" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Hurricane Emily (2005)">Guguwar Emily ta 2005 da Guguwar Beryl ta 2024, sun kai matsayin guguwa na 5. Guguwar da ta fi gabashin ita ce kuma ta fi dadewa a watan Yuli, 2008)" id="mwAh4" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Hurricane Bertha (2008)">Guguwar Bertha a cikin 2008, ta samo asali ne a 22.9 ° W kuma ta dauki kwanaki 17.

Agusta

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Yanayi da waƙoƙi a watan Agusta

Ragewar shear iska daga Yuli zuwa Agusta yana taimakawa ga karuwar ayyukan wurare masu zafi. Matsakaicin guguwa na wurare masu zafi na Atlantic 2.8 yana tasowa a kowace shekara a watan Agusta. A matsakaici, guguwa huɗu masu suna, gami da guguwa ɗaya, suna faruwa a ranar 30 ga watan Agusta, kuma guguwa ta farko mai tsanani ta fara ne a ranar 4 ga watan Satumba.[10]

Satumba

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Yanayi da waƙoƙi a watan Satumba

Mafi girman lokacin guguwa yana faruwa a watan Satumba kuma ya dace da ƙananan iska da Yanayin zafi na teku. [18] Watan Satumba yana ganin matsakaicin guguwa 3 a shekara. A ranar 24 ga watan Satumba, matsakaicin lokacin Atlantic yana da guguwa 7 da ake kira guguwa, gami da guguwar guguwa 4. Bugu da kari, manyan guguwa guda biyu suna faruwa a matsakaici a ranar 28 ga Satumba. Ƙananan guguwa na wurare masu zafi suna sauka a waɗannan tsananin.[10]

Oktoba

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Yanayi da waƙoƙi na yau da kullun a watan Oktoba.

Yanayin da ya dace da aka samu a watan Satumba ya fara lalacewa a watan Oktoba. Babban dalilin raguwar aiki shine karuwar iska, kodayake Yanayin zafi na teku yana da sanyi fiye da Satumba. A watan Oktoba, kawai guguwa 1.8 ne ke tasowa a matsakaici, duk da hauhawar yanayi na biyu a kusa da 20 ga Oktoba. Ya zuwa 21 ga Oktoba, matsakaicin lokacin yana da guguwa 9 da ake kira tare da guguwar 5. Wani babban guguwa na uku yana faruwa bayan Satumba 28 a cikin rabin dukkan lokutan guguwa masu zafi na Atlantic.[10] Ya bambanta da ayyukan tsakiyar kakar, matsakaicin wurin da aka kafa yana canzawa zuwa yamma zuwa Caribbean da Gulf of Mexico, yana juyar da ci gaban gabas na Yuni zuwa Agusta.

Nuwamba

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Yanayi da waƙoƙi na al'ada a watan Nuwamba.

Iska shear daga yamma yana ƙaruwa a cikin Nuwamba, gabaɗaya yana hana samar da guguwa. A matsakaici, guguwa ɗaya ta wurare masu zafi ta samo asali a kowane Nuwamba. A lokuta masu wuya, babban guguwa yana faruwa. Ƙananan guguwa masu tsanani a watan Nuwamba sun haɗa da Guguwar Cuba a ƙarshen Oktoba da farkon Nuwamba 1932 (guguwar Nuwamba mafi ƙarfi a rikodin, ta kai matsayi na 5), Guguwar Lenny a tsakiyar Nuwamba 1999, da Guguwar Kate a ƙarshen Nuwamba 1985, wanda shine sabon babban guguwar guguwa a rikodin har zuwa Guguwar Otto a cikin 2016. Guguwar Eta ta karfafa cikin guguwar Category 4 a farkon Nuwamba 2020, ta zama guguwa ta uku mafi tsanani a cikin Nuwamba, kuma ta sauka a Amurka ta Tsakiya. A wannan shekarar, Guguwar Iota ta karfafa cikin guguwa ta Category 4 a ranar 16 ga Nuwamba, ta zama guguwa na biyu mafi tsanani a watan Nuwamba.[19]

Lokacin da ba a yi amfani da shi ba

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Halin guguwa na wurare masu zafi na guguwa ko ƙarfin guguwa a takamaiman kwanan wata, wanda aka bayyana a matsayin tsarin kowace shekara 100

Kodayake an bayyana lokacin guguwa a matsayin farawa a ranar 1 ga Yuni kuma ya ƙare a ranar 30 ga Nuwamba, guguwa masu zafi sun samo asali a kowane wata na shekara. Tun daga shekara ta 1870, an sami guguwa 32 da ba a saba da ita ba, 18 daga cikinsu sun faru a watan Mayu. A wannan lokacin, guguwa tara sun samo asali a watan Disamba, uku a watan Afrilu, kuma daya a cikin Janairu, Fabrairu, da Maris.[20] A cikin shekaru huɗu (1887, [21] 1953, 2003, da 2007), guguwa ta wurare masu zafi ta samo asali a Arewacin Tekun Atlantika a lokacin ko kafin Mayu da kuma watan Disamba. 1887 tana riƙe da rikodin kasancewa shekara tare da mafi yawan guguwa a waje da lokacin guguwa, tare da guguwa huɗu da suka faru a lokacin. Koyaya, iska mai ƙarfi da ƙananan Yanayin zafi na teku gabaɗaya suna hana samar da guguwa ta wurare masu zafi a lokacin da ba a yi amfani da shi ba.[10]  

Daga cikin guguwar yanayi mai zafi da aka yi a watan Disamba, tsawon rayuwar biyu ya ci gaba zuwa watan Janairu na shekara mai zuwa: Hurricane Alice a 1954-55, da Tropical Storm Zeta a 2005-06. Guguwa bakwai masu zafi ko na wurare masu zafi da aka kafa a cikin Janairu, biyu daga cikinsu sun zama guguwa ta 1: guguwar farko ta 1938, da guguwar Alex a cikin 2016.[1] Babu wasu manyan guguwa da suka afku a cikin kaka.

Kulawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cibiyar Guguwa ta Kasa ta Amurka (NHC) tana sa ido kan tsarin yanayi na wurare masu zafi don Arewacin Atlantic Basin kuma tana ba da rahotanni, agogo, da gargadi; ana ɗaukarsa ɗaya daga cikin Cibiyoyin Yanayi na Yanayi don guguwa na wurare masu wurare masu zafi, kamar yadda Ƙungiyar Yanayi ta Duniya ta bayyana.[2]

Ƙarfin Ƙarfin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Guguwar Atlantic mafi tsada
Guguwar Katrina ita ce mafi tsada kuma ɗaya daga cikin guguwa biyar mafi muni a tarihin Amurka.
Guguwar Harvey ita ce guguwa mafi tsada a tarihin Amurka, wanda ya haifar da ambaliyar ruwa a tarihi da bala'i a Texas.
  • Lokacin da mafi yawan guguwa na wurare masu zafi suka samo asali a rikodin shine Lokacin guguwar Atlantic ta 2020, wanda ya haifar da guguwa 30. Koyaya, 2005 ita ce wadda mafi yawan guguwa suka samo asali a rikodin (15).
  • Lokacin guguwar Atlantic na 2005 yana da Manyan guguwa a rikodin (7), kuma an haɗa shi da 2020. Lokacin guguwar Atlantic ta 1950 da Lokacin guguwar Atlantika ta 1961 an yi la'akari da 8 da 7 bi da bi, amma sake nazarin ya nuna cewa guguwa da yawa a lokacin lokutan biyu sun fi rauni fiye da tunanin, kuma ta haka ne yanzu ana gudanar da rikodin a lokutan 2005 da 2020. Wasu guguwa a shekara ta 2005 sune Guguwar Katrina da Guguwar Wilma .
  • Lokacin da ba shi da yawa a rubuce tun daga 1946 (lokacin da aka yi la'akari da bayanan da ya fi amintacce) shine lokacin guguwar Atlantic na 1983, tare da guguwa huɗu na wurare masu zafi, guguwa biyu, da babban guguwa ɗaya. Gabaɗaya, Lokacin guguwar Atlantic ta 1914 ya kasance mafi ƙarancin aiki, tare da guguwa ɗaya kawai da aka rubuta.
  • Guguwar da ta fi karfi (ta hanyar matsin lamba) a rubuce a cikin tafkin Arewacin Atlantic ita ce Guguwar Wilma (2005) (882 mbar).
  • Guguwa mafi girma (a cikin iska mai diamita) a rubuce don samarwa a Arewacin Atlantic shine Guguwar Sandy (2012) tare da guguwar iska mai diamitar mil 870 (1,400 . [22]
  • Guguwar da ta fi dadewa ita ce guguwar San Ciriaco ta 1899, wacce ta dauki kwanaki 27 da awanni 18 a matsayin guguwa mai zafi.[23]
  • Mafi yawan guguwa da guguwa ta haifar sune 127 da Guguwar Ivan ta kirkira (lokacin 2004).
  • Guguwa mafi karfi da ta kai ƙasa ita ce Guguwar Ranar Ma'aikata ta 1935 (892 hPa).  
  • Guguwar da ta fi kisa ita ce Babban Guguwa na 1780 (mutuwa 22,000).
  • Guguwar da ta fi kisa da ta fadi a nahiyar Amurka ita ce Guguwar Galveston a cikin 1900, wanda wataƙila ya kashe mutane 12,000.[24]
  • Guguwar da ta fi lalacewa ita ce Guguwar Katrina da Guguwar Harvey na lokutan 2005 da 2017, bi da bi; dukansu sun haifar da dala biliyan 125 a cikin lalacewa a cikin shekarunsu. Koyaya, lokacin da aka daidaita don hauhawar farashi, Katrina ita ce mafi tsada, tare da dala biliyan 161 a cikin lalacewa.  
  • Guguwar da ta fi sauri ita ce Guguwar Humberto a cikin 2007. Wani karamin guguwa ne wanda ya samo asali ya kara karfi da sauri fiye da kowane guguwa na wurare masu zafi a rubuce kafin ya fadi. Ya ci gaba a ranar 12 ga Satumba, 2007, a arewa maso yammacin Tekun Mexico, guguwar ta ƙarfafa kuma ta buge High Island, Texas, tare da iskõki na kimanin 90 miles per hour (140 km/h) km / h) a farkon Satumba 13.
  • A watan Afrilu na shekara ta 2004, Catarina ta zama guguwa ta farko da aka rubuta a Kudancin Tekun Atlantika. Tun daga shekara ta 2011, Cibiyar Ruwa ta Brazil ta fara amfani da sikelin iri ɗaya kamar Tekun Atlantika ta Arewa don guguwa mai zafi a Tekun Atlantiki ta Kudu kuma ta ba da sunaye ga waɗanda suka kai 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) kn (65 km / h; 40 . [25]

Halin da ake ciki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Atlantic tarin makamashi na guguwa (ACE) daga NOAA.
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation Timeseries, 1856-2013

Paleoclimatology da yanayin tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayanan wakilai bisa ga binciken paleotempestological sun nuna cewa manyan ayyukan guguwa a gefen Gulf Coast sun bambanta a kan lokutan ƙarni zuwa dubban shekaru. [7] Wasu manyan guguwa sun mamaye Gulf Coast a lokacin 3000-1400 BC da kuma cikin karni na baya-bayan nan. Wadannan lokutan kwanciyar hankali sun rabu da wani lokaci mai yawa tsakanin 1400 BC da 1000 AD, lokacin da guguwa ta mamaye bakin Tekun Gulf akai-akai; yiwuwar sauka ta karu da sau 3-5. Wannan bambancin sikelin dubban shekaru an danganta shi da sauye-sauye na dogon lokaci a matsayin Azores High, wanda kuma ana iya danganta shi le canje-canje a cikin ƙarfin Arewacin Atlantic Oscillation. [7][26]

Dangane da ra'ayin Azores High, ana sa ran tsarin anti-phase zai kasance tsakanin Gulf Coast da Atlantic Coast. A lokacin kwanciyar hankali, matsayi na arewa maso gabas na Azores High zai haifar da karin guguwa da ake jagoranta zuwa gabar tekun Atlantika. A lokacin hyperactive, an tura karin guguwa zuwa gabar tekun Gulf, yayin da aka sauya Azores High zuwa matsayi na kudu maso yamma kusa da Caribbean. Irin wannan motsi na Azores High ya dace da shaidar paleoclimatic wanda ke nuna farkon yanayi mai bushewa a Haiti a kusa da shekaru 3200 14C BP, [8] da kuma canji zuwa yanayin da ya fi zafi a cikin Great Plains a lokacin ƙarshen Holocene yayin da aka kara danshi zuwa Kwarin Mississippi ta bakin tekun Gulf. Bayanai na farko daga arewacin Atlantic suna da alama suna tallafawa ra'ayin Azores High. Rubuce-rubucen wakili na shekaru 3,000 daga tafkin bakin teku a Cape Cod ya nuna cewa aikin guguwa ya karu sosai a cikin shekaru 500-1000 da suka gabata, kamar yadda Gulf Coast ya kasance a cikin wani lokaci mai nutsuwa a cikin karni na ƙarshe. Shaida ta kuma nuna cewa matsakaicin latitude na tasirin guguwa yana ci gaba da canzawa zuwa arewa zuwa Gabashin Gabas a cikin 'yan ƙarni da suka gabata. Wannan canjin ya hanzarta a zamanin yau saboda yanayin zafi na Tekun Arctic, musamman daga canjin yanayi da aka haifar da man fetur.[27] 

Adadi da ƙarfin guguwa na Atlantika na iya yin zagayowar shekara 50-70 da aka fi sani da Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Nyberg et al. sake gina manyan guguwar Atlantika a farkon karni na sha takwas kuma an gano tsawon lokaci biyar na matsakaita 3-5 manyan guguwa a kowace shekara da kuma dawwama 40-60 shekaru, da wasu shida na matsakaita 1.5-2.5 manyan guguwa a kowace shekara kuma tana dawwama shekaru 10-20 . Waɗannan lokutan suna da alaƙa da oscillation na multidecadal na Atlantic. A cikin tsawon lokacin, girgizawar decadal da ke da alaƙa da hasken rana ita ce ke da alhakin haɓaka ko rage yawan manyan guguwa da 1-2 kowace shekara..[28]   

Canjin yanayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsakanin 1979 da 2019, tsananin guguwa na wurare masu zafi ya karu; a duniya, guguwa ta wurare masu zafi sun fi 8% damar kaiwa ga manyan tsananin (Saffir-Simpson Categories 3 zuwa 5). Wannan yanayin yana da ƙarfi sosai a Arewacin Atlantic, inda yiwuwar guguwa ta kai Kashi na 3 ko mafi girma ta karu da kashi 49% a kowace shekara goma. Wannan ya dace da fahimtar ka'idoji game da alaƙar da ke tsakanin Canjin yanayi da guguwa na wurare masu zafi da nazarin samfurin.[29]

Duk da yake yawan guguwa a cikin Tekun Atlantika ya karu tun 1995, babu wani yanayi na duniya. Adadin shekara-shekara na guguwa na wurare masu zafi a duk duniya ya kasance kusan 87 ± 10. Koyaya, ikon masu ilimin yanayi don yin nazarin bayanai na dogon lokaci a wasu kwandon yana iyakance ta hanyar rashin amintaccen bayanan tarihi a wasu kwantena, da farko a Kudancin Kudancin.[30]  

An lura cewa ƙaura zuwa pole ya wanzu don hanyoyin da suka fi tsananin ƙarfi na aikin guguwa na wurare masu zafi a cikin Atlantic, [31] kamar yadda bincike a kan latitudes wanda guguwa ta wurare masu zafi na baya-bayan nan a cikin Atlantic ke kaiwa matsakaicin ƙarfi. Bayanan sun nuna cewa a cikin shekaru talatin da suka gabata, ƙarfin ƙarfin waɗannan guguwa ya sauya zuwa pole a cikin sassan biyu a kusan kilomita 60 a kowace shekara goma, wanda ya kai kusan digiri ɗaya na latitude a kowace shekara guda goma. 

Tasirin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Adadin guguwar guguwar Atlantic biliyan 1 kusan ya ninka sau biyu daga shekarun 1980 zuwa 2010, kuma farashin da aka daidaita ya karu fiye da sau goma sha ɗaya.[32] An danganta karuwar ga canjin yanayi da kuma yawan mutanen da ke ƙaura zuwa yankunan bakin teku.
Kodayake girman guguwa mai girma ba ya nuna ƙarfi - wanda ya dogara da ma'aunin iska mai ɗorewa - yana iya nufin cewa mutane da yawa suna fuskantar haɗarinsa.

Guguwar Atlantic tana ƙara lalacewar kuɗi, tun lokacin da biyar daga cikin guguwa goma mafi tsada a tarihin Amurka sun faru tun daga 1990. A cewar Kungiyar Kula da Yanayi ta Duniya, "karin da ya faru kwanan nan a cikin tasirin al'umma daga guguwa na wurare masu zafi ya haifar da karuwar yawan jama'a da ababen more rayuwa a yankunan bakin teku. " Pielke et al. (2008) sun daidaita lalacewar guguwar Amurka daga 1900-2005 zuwa 2005 kuma ba su sami sauran yanayin karuwar lalacewa ba. Shekaru na 1970 da 1980 suna da ƙananan lalacewa idan aka kwatanta da sauransu. shekarun da suka gabata. Shekaru goma na 1996-2005 yana da na biyu mafi lalacewa a cikin shekaru 11 da suka gabata, tare da kawai shekaru goma na 1926-1935 da suka wuce farashinsa. Guguwar da ta fi lalacewa ita ce guguwar Miami ta 1926, tare da dala biliyan 157 na lalacewar al'ada.[33] 

A wani bangare saboda barazanar Wani bangare saboda barazanar guguwa, wasu yankuna na bakin teku suna da karancin yawan jama'a tsakanin manyan tashoshin jiragen ruwa har zuwan yawon bude ido na motoci; don haka, mafi munin guguwar da ta afkawa gabar tekun na iya zama ba a auna ba a wasu lokuta. Haɗuwa da tasirin lalata jirgin da faɗuwar ƙasa mai nisa yana iyakance adadin tsananin guguwa a cikin rikodin hukuma kafin zamanin jirgin leken asirin guguwa da tauraron dan adam meteorology. Duk da haka, rikodin ya nuna bambancin karuwa a adadi da ƙarfin guguwa mai tsanani; don haka, masana suna ɗaukar bayanan farko a matsayin wanda ake zargi. Christopher Landsea et al. kiyasin rashin ƙima na son rai na sifili zuwa shida na cyclones na wurare masu zafi a kowace shekara tsakanin 1851 da 1885 da sifili zuwa huɗu a kowace shekara tsakanin 1886 da 1910. Waɗannan ƙananan ƙididdiga kusan [bayani da ake buƙata] suna la'akari da girman girman cyclones na wurare masu zafi, yawan zirga-zirgar jigilar kayayyaki a kan tekun Atlantika, da adadin yawan bakin tekun.

Kadan a sama-na al'ada lokacin guguwa ya faru daga 1970 zuwa 1994, kuma ko da kasa da suka faru tun 1995. Guguwa barna akai-akai daga 1926 zuwa 1960, musamman a New England. A cikin 1933, guguwa mai zafi na Atlantika ashirin da ɗaya sun haifar; shekarun da suka fi yawa daga cikinsu sune 2005 da 2020, waɗanda suka ga hadari 28 da 30, bi da bi. Guguwa na wurare masu zafi suna faruwa sau da yawa a cikin yanayi na 1900-25; duk da haka, guguwa mai ƙarfi da yawa sun samo asali a lokacin 1870-99. A cikin lokacin 1887, guguwa 19 na wurare masu zafi sun haifar, wanda rikodin 4 ya faru bayan Nuwamba 1; 11 na guguwa sun ƙarfafa zuwa guguwa. Guguwa kaɗan sun faru daga 1840s zuwa 1860s; duk da haka, da yawa sun buge a farkon karni na 19, ciki har da guguwar 1821 da ta yi kasa a birnin New York. Wasu masana yanayi na tarihi sun ce watakila waɗannan guguwa sun kai matsayi na 4 a ƙarfi.[34]

Waɗannan lokutan guguwa mai ƙarfi sun riga sun riga sun ɗauka tauraron dan adam na tekun Atlantika. Kafin a fara zamanin tauraron dan adam a shekara ta 1960, guguwa ko guguwa masu zafi ba a gano su ba, sai dai idan jirgin leken asiri ya ci karo da guda, wani jirgin ruwa ya bayar da rahoton tafiya ta guguwar, ko kuma guguwa ta sauka a wani yanki mai yawan jama'a. Rikodin hukuma, saboda haka, na iya rasa ambaton guguwa wanda babu wani jirgin ruwa da ya fuskanci iskar iska, ta gane shi a matsayin guguwar yanayi mai zafi (saɓanin guguwar da ta fi zafi mai tsayi, igiyar zafi mai zafi, ko taƙaitaccen squall), ya koma tashar jiragen ruwa, kuma ya ba da rahoton kwarewar.

Sunayen

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Har zuwa tsakiyar shekarun 1900, ana kiran guguwa da sunan da ba a sani ba. Daga wannan lokacin zuwa gaba, an ba su sunayen mata ne kawai, har zuwa 1979, lokacin da aka fara ba da guguwa sunayen maza da mata. Ayyukan kiran guguwa daga jerin sunayen da aka riga aka ƙaddara ya fara ne a shekara ta 1953. [35] Tunda ana iya amfani da sunayen guguwa akai-akai, guguwa da ke haifar da mummunar lalacewa ko wadanda suka mutu na iya samun sunayensu daga jerin bisa buƙatar ƙasashen da abin ya shafa don hana rikicewa. [35] A matsakaici, guguwa masu suna 14 suna faruwa a kowane kakar a cikin tafkin Arewacin Atlantic, tare da 7 zama guguwa kuma 3 zama manyan guguwa (Category 3 ko mafi girma). [10]   

  1. ↑ "What is the difference between a hurricane, a cyclone, and a typhoon?". OCEAN FACTS. National Ocean Service. Retrieved 2018-12-24.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 World Meteorological Organization (April 25, 2006). "RSMCs". Tropical Cyclone Programme (TCP). Retrieved 2006-11-05. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "WMO RSMC list" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: What determines the movement of tropical cyclones?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
  4. ↑ "TC FAQ: E17: How many hurricanes have there been in each month?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010-04-22. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: How do tropical cyclones form?". NOAA. Archived from the original on August 27, 2009. Retrieved 2006-07-26.
  6. ↑ Christopher A. Davis & Lance F. Bosart (November 2003). "Baroclinically Induced Tropical Cyclogenesis". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 131 (11): 2730. Bibcode:2003MWRv..131.2730D. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<2730:BITC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Liu, Kam-biu; Fearn, Miriam L. (2000). "Reconstruction of Prehistoric Landfall Frequencies of Catastrophic Hurricanes in Northwestern Florida from Lake Sediment Records". Quaternary Research. 54 (2): 238–245. Bibcode:2000QuRes..54..238L. doi:10.1006/qres.2000.2166. S2CID 140723229. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LiuFearn2000" defined multiple times with different content
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Higuera-Gundy, Antonia; et al. (1999). "A 10,300 14C yr Record of Climate and Vegetation Change from Haiti". Quaternary Research. 52 (2): 159–170. Bibcode:1999QuRes..52..159H. doi:10.1006/qres.1999.2062. S2CID 129650957. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Higuera-Gundy1999" defined multiple times with different content
  9. ↑ "Hurricanes Frequently Asked Questions". AOML.NOAA.gov. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory / National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1 June 2023. Archived from the original on 4 July 2024. (click on "What is the Total Number of Hurricanes and Average Number of Hurricanes in Each Month?")
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 4 November 2017. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "NHCTCclimo" defined multiple times with different content
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Landsea, Chris; et al. (June 2013). "Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT" (TXT). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hurricane Research Division. Archived from the original on 2 August 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2013. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Metadata" defined multiple times with different content
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Season
  13. ↑ Hurricanes: Science and Society. "1957 – Hurricane Audrey". Storms in the 1950s. University of Rhode Island. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  14. ↑ "Reanalysis of 1956 to 1960 Atlantic hurricane seasons completed: 10 new tropical storms discovered" (PDF). National Hurricane Center. July 20, 2016.
  15. ↑ "Atlantic Hurricane and Tropical Storm Records". Hurricane.com. Archived from the original on January 3, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2016.
  16. ↑ Chambers, Gillan (December 1999). "Late Hurricanes: a Message for the Regio". Environment and development in coastal regions and in small islands. Coast and Beach Stability in the Lesser Antilles. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
  17. ↑ Paolino, JJ; Myrie, Donovan (2011). "Category Five Notables". Stormfacts.net. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
  18. ↑ Landsea, Chris. "Frequently Asked Questions: G4) Why do tropical cyclones occur primarily in the summer and autumn?". Archived from the original on 2018-03-28. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  19. ↑ "Hurricane Iota makes landfall in Nicaragua as Category 4 storm". ABC News.
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NOAA Book 27
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NOAA Book 82
  22. ↑ "Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Sandy" (PDF). Hurricane Sandy – National Hurricane Center. National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 4 November 2020..
  23. ↑ "Tropics: Nadine finally done, while Oscar strengthens". Central Florida News 13. Archived from the original on October 6, 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  24. ↑ "Table 2. The thirty deadliest mainland United States tropical cyclones 1900–2000". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  25. ↑ "Normas Da Autoridade Marítima Para As Atividades De Meteorologia Marítima" (PDF) (in Harshen Potugis). Brazilian Navy. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  26. ↑ Elsner, James B.; Liu, Kam-biu; Kocher, Bethany (2000). "Spatial Variations in Major U.S. Hurricane Activity: Statistics and a Physical Mechanism". Journal of Climate. 13 (13): 2293–2305. Bibcode:2000JCli...13.2293E. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<2293:SVIMUS>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 131457444.
  27. ↑ "Killer Hurricanes". www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/. 1 November 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  28. ↑ Nyberg, J.; Winter, A.; Malmgren, B. A. (2005). "Reconstruction of Major Hurricane Activity". Eos Trans. AGU. 86 (52, Fall Meet. Suppl): Abstract PP21C–1597. Bibcode:2005AGUFMPP21C1597N.
  29. ↑ Kossin, James P.; Knapp, Kenneth R.; Olander, Timothy L.; Velden, Christopher S. (2020-05-18). "Global increase in major tropical cyclone exceedance probability over the past four decades". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (22): 11975–11980. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11711975K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1920849117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7275711. PMID 32424081.
  30. ↑ Kossin, James P.; Emanuel, Kerry A.; Vecchi, Gabriel A. (May 2014). "The poleward migration of the location of tropical cyclone maximum intensity". Nature (in Turanci). 509 (7500): 349–352. Bibcode:2014Natur.509..349K. doi:10.1038/nature13278. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 24828193. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NYTimes_20221202
  32. ↑ Pielke, Roger A. Jr.; et al. (2008). "Normalized Hurricane Damage in the United States: 1900–2005" (PDF). Natural Hazards Review. 9 (1): 29–42. Bibcode:2008NHRev...9...29P. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2008)9:1(29). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-17.
  33. ↑ Center for Climate Systems Research. "Hurricanes, Sea Level Rise, and New York City". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 2007-01-02. Retrieved 2006-11-29.
  34. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Tropical Cyclone Naming". public.wmo.int (in Turanci). 2016-05-30. Archived from the original on December 4, 2023. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
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