Gwajin karatu da rubutu
 Gwajin karatu da rubutu | |
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type of test (en)  | |
| Bayanai | |
| Ƙaramin ɓangare na | kwaji |
| Amfani |
disfranchisement (en) da Q4329771 |
gwajin karatu da rubutu yana kimanta ƙwarewar mutum: iyawarsu ta karatu da rubutu. Gwamnatoci daban-daban sun gudanar da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu, musamman ga baƙi.
Tsakanin shekarun 1850 [1] da 1960, an yi amfani da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu a matsayin kayan aiki mai tasiri don hana 'Yan Afirka na Afirka a Kudancin Amurka. Ana gudanar da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu ta hanyar fararen ma'aikata waɗanda zasu iya wucewa ko kasa mutum da gangan.[2] Sau da yawa ana ba wa fararen fata marasa karatu damar yin zabe ba tare da yin waɗannan gwaje-gwajen karatu da rubutu ba saboda ka'idojin kakanni na launin fata da aka rubuta a cikin doka.[2]
Sauran ƙasashe, musamman Ostiraliya, a matsayin wani ɓangare na abin da ake kira "White Australia policy", da Afirka ta Kudu sun karɓi gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu ko dai don cire wasu kabilun launin fata daga jefa kuri'a ko don hana su ƙaura zuwa ƙasar.
Zabe
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Daga shekarun 1890 zuwa 1960, gwamnatocin jihohi da yawa sun gudanar da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu ga masu jefa kuri'a, don gwada karatunsu don yin zabe. Jiha ta farko da ta kafa gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu a Amurka ita ce Connecticut . [3]
State legislatures employed literacy tests as part of the voter registration process starting in the late 19th century. Literacy tests, along with poll taxes, residency and property restrictions, and extra-legal activities (violence and intimidation)[4] were all used to deny suffrage to African Americans.
An gabatar da gwaje-gwajen karatun masu jefa kuri'a na farko a cikin 1890. Da farko, an keɓe fararen fata gabaɗaya daga gwajin karatu idan sun cika wasu buƙatu daban-daban waɗanda a zahiri ke cire baƙar fata, irin su ka'idar kakanni, ko gano " kyakkyawan halin ɗabi'a ", shaidar ta ƙarshe wacce galibi ana tambayar farar fata ne kawai. Wasu yankunan sun gudanar da gwaje-gwajen karatu, tare da gudanar da mafi sauƙin gwajin karatu ga turawa.
A cikin Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections (1959), Kotun Koli ta Amurka ta yanke hukuncin cewa gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu ba lallai ba ne su keta ka'idar kariya ta daidaito na Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu ko Kwaskwarimar goma sha biyar. Jihohin Kudancin sun watsar da gwajin karatu da rubutu ne kawai lokacin da aka tilasta su yi hakan ta hanyar dokar tarayya a cikin shekarun 1960. Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964 ta bayyana cewa gwaje-gwajen karatu da rubutu da aka yi amfani da su azaman cancanta don jefa kuri'a a zaben tarayya za a gudanar da su gaba ɗaya a rubuce kuma kawai ga mutanen da ba su sami ilimi na shida ba.
Don rage amfani da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu, Majalisa ta kafa Dokar 'Yancin Zabe ta 1965. Dokar ta haramta hukunce-hukunce daga gudanar da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu, a tsakanin sauran matakai, ga 'yan ƙasa waɗanda suka sami ilimi na shida a makarantar Amurka inda harshen da ya fi dacewa shine Mutanen Espanya, kamar makarantu a Puerto Rico. Kotun Koli ta amince da wannan tanadin a cikin Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966). Kodayake Kotun a baya ta gudanar a Lassiter cewa gwaje-gwajen karatu da rubutu ba su keta Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu ba, a cikin Morgan Kotun ta yanke hukuncin cewa Majalisa na iya aiwatar da haƙƙin Kwaskwarimar goma sha huɗaya - kamar haƙƙin jefa kuri'a - ta hanyar hana halayyar da aka ɗauka ta tsoma baki da irin waɗannan haƙƙoƙin, koda kuwa wannan halayyar ba ta dace da kanta ba.
Kamar yadda aka kafa shi da farko, Dokar 'Yancin Zabe ta kuma dakatar da amfani da gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu a duk yankuna inda kasa da kashi 50% na mazauna shekarun jefa kuri'a suka yi rajista a ranar 1 ga Nuwamba, 1964, ko kuma sun jefa kuri'ar a Zaben shugaban kasa na 1964. Majalisa ta yi gyare-gyare ga Dokar a cikin 1970 kuma ta fadada haramcin gwajin karatu da rubutu ga duk ƙasar.[5] Kotun Koli ta amince da haramcin a matsayin tsarin mulki a Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), amma kawai don zaben tarayya. Kotun ta rabu sosai a wannan shari'ar, kuma yawancin alƙalai ba su yarda da hujja don gudanarwa ba.[6]
Shige da fice
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Lokacin da aka gabatar da shi a cikin shekarun 1890, gwajin karatu da rubutu na'ura ce don ƙuntata yawan baƙi yayin da ba ya ɓata babban ɓangaren masu jefa kuri'a na kabilanci. "Tsohon" shige da fice (Birtaniya, Dutch, Irish, Jamusanci, Scandinavian) ya fadi kuma an maye gurbinsa da "sabon" shige a Italiya, Rasha da sauran maki a Kudancin da gabashin Turai. "Tsohon" baƙi sun kasance masu jefa kuri'a kuma sun amince da ƙuntata "sabon" baƙi. Dandalin Jamhuriyar Republican na 1896 ya yi kira ga gwajin karatu da rubutu.
Ƙungiyar Ma'aikata ta Amurka ta jagoranci wajen inganta gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu waɗanda za su ware baƙi marasa karatu, da farko Gabashin Turai da ƙasashen da ke da ruwa na ƙasa a cikin Bahar Rum.[7]
Masana'antar kamfanoni, duk da haka, suna buƙatar ma'aikata don ma'adanai da masana'antu kuma suna adawa da duk wani ƙuntatawa kan shige da fice.[8] A cikin 1906, Kakakin Majalisar Joseph Gurney Cannon, mai ra'ayin mazan jiya na Jamhuriyar Republican, ya yi aiki tuƙuru don kayar da gwajin karatu da rubutu ga baƙi. Wani samfurin iyakar yamma, Cannon ya ji cewa halin kirki shine kawai gwajin da ya dace don ingancin baƙo. Ya yi aiki tare da Sakataren Gwamnati Elihu Root da Shugaba Theodore Roosevelt don kafa "Kwamitin Dillingham," ƙungiyar ƙwararrun ƙwararrun da suka samar da binciken ƙwararrun 41 game da shige da fice. Hukumar ta ba da shawarar gwajin karatu da rubutu da yiwuwar ƙididdigar shekara-shekara.[9] Shugabannin Cleveland da Taft sun hana gwajin karatu da rubutu a cikin 1897 da 1913. Shugaba Wilson ya yi haka a 1915 da 1917, amma an wuce gwajin a kan veto na biyu na Wilson.
Dubi kuma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Rashin izini bayan zamanin sake ginawa
- 'Yanci
- Dokokin Jim Crow
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ "Literacy Tests and the Right To Vote - ConnecticutHistory.org". connecticuthistory.org. 2 November 2020.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "How Jim Crow-Era Laws Suppressed the African American Vote for Generations". HISTORY (in Turanci). 2023-08-08.
- ↑ "Literacy Tests and the Right to Vote". 2 November 2020.
- ↑ "Civil Rights Movement -- Literacy Tests & Voter Applications". www.crmvet.org.
- ↑ Williamson, Richard A. (1984). "The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions". Washington University Law Review. 62 (1): 5–9. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved August 29, 2013.
- ↑ Tok ji, Daniel P. (2006). "Intent and Its Alternatives: Defending the New Voting Rights Act" (PDF). Alabama Law Review. 58: 353. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
- ↑ Lane, A. T. (1984). "American Trade Unions, Mass Immigration and the Literacy Test: 1900–1917". Labor History. 25 (1): 5–25. doi:10.1080/00236568408584739.
- ↑ Empty citation (help)
- ↑ Zeidel, Robert F. (1995). "Hayseed Immigration Policy: 'Uncle Joe' Cannon and the Immigration Question". Illinois Historical Journal. 88 (3): 173–188. JSTOR 40192956.