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Gyaran ruwa

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Gyaran ruwa
industry (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na treatment (en) Fassara da physical process (en) Fassara
Amfani Ban ruwa
Product or material produced (en) Fassara Ruwa da ruwa
Matatar Ruwa ta Dalecarlia, Washington, D.C.

Gyaran ruwa ko Tace ruwa wani tsari ne da ke inganta ingancin ruwa domin sanya shi ya dace da wani takamaiman amfani. Amfanin na iya kasancewa don sha, samar da ruwa ga masana'antu, ban ruwa, kiyaye kwararar kogi, shakatawa ta ruwa ko wasu amfani da yawa, gami da mayar da shi cikin muhalli cikin kariya. Gyaran ruwa yana cire abubuwa masu gurbatawa da abubuwan da ba a bukata, ko kuma rage yawansu ta yadda ruwan zai dace da amfanin da ake bukata. Wannan gyaran yana da matukar muhimmanci ga lafiyar dan Adam kuma yana bai wa bil'Adama damar amfana daga amfanin sha da na ban ruwa.

An inganta dabarun gyaran ruwa na zamani a cikin shekarun baya-bayan nan sakamakon karuwar damuwa game da sabbin abubuwa masu gurbata muhalli kamar microplastics, magunguna, da sinadaran per- da polyfluoroalkyl (PFAS). Wadannan sun hada da hanyoyin iskar shaka na zamani (advanced oxidation processes), tace ruwa ta hanyar membrane (membrane filtration), da dabarun dogaro da adsorption ta hanyar amfani da abubuwa kamar nanomaterials da aka kera na musamman da kuma activated carbon. Bugu da kari, ingancin makamashi, dawo da albarkatu, da dorewa a tsarin gyaran ruwa suna samun kulawa sosai, musamman a yankunan da ruwa ke da karanci kuma bukatun muhalli ke karuwa.[1]

Rabe-rabe

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gyaran ruwan sha

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gurbacewar ruwa na faruwa ne galibi sakamakon zubar da gurbataccen ruwa da ba a gyara ba daga ayyukan masana'antu da na kasuwanci. Ruwan da ke fitowa daga masana'antu daban-daban, wanda ke dauke da matakan gurbatawa mabambanta, ana zubar da shi ne a cikin koramu ko wasu albarkatun ruwa. Gurbataccen ruwan na iya kasancewa yana da babban kaso na abubuwan gurbatawa na organic da inorganic a lokatim zubarwa na farko. Masana'antu suna samar da gurbataccen ruwa ne sakamakon ayyukan kera kayayyaki, ayyukan da suka shafi takarda da bargo, yadudduka, sinadarai, da kuma daga sassa daban-daban kamar cooling towers, boilers, da layukan samar da kayayyaki.[2]

Sassan tsarin gyaran ruwan sha na yau da kullum

Gyaran ruwa domin samar da ruwan sha ya kunshi cire abubuwa masu gurbatawa da/ko gurgunta duk wani kwayoyin cuta masu cutarwa daga danyen ruwa domin samar da ruwa mai tsafta sosai don amfanin dan Adam ba tare da wani hadari na gajeren lokaci ko dogon lokaci ga lafiya ba. A takaice, mafi girman hadarin kwayoyin cuta yana da alaka ne da shan ruwan da ke gurbace da bayan gari na bil'Adama ko na dabba (har da na tsuntsaye). Bayan gari na iya zama sanadin kwayoyin cuta na bacteria, viruses, protozoa da helminths. Cirewa ko lalata wadannan kwayoyin cuta yana da muhimmanci, kuma yawanci ya kunshi amfani da sinadarai masu aiki don cire bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, da ma'adanai kamar karfe (iron) da manganese. Bincike da ya kunshi rukunin Farfesa Linda Lawton a Jami'ar Robert Gordon, Aberdeen yana aiki don inganta gano cyanobacteria.[3] Wadannan abubuwa suna ci gaba da haifar da babbar illa ga kasashe masu tasowa da dama wadanda ba su da damar yin amfani da ingantaccen tsarin tace ruwa.Samfuri:Original research inline

Matakan da ake dauka don tabbatar da ingancin ruwa ba wai kawai sun shafi gyaran ruwan ba ne, har ma da jigila da rarraba shi bayan an gyara shi. Saboda haka, al'ada ce a bar ragowar sinadaran kashe kwayoyin cuta a cikin ruwan da aka gyara don kashe gurbacewar kwayoyin cuta lokacin rarrabawa da kuma kiyaye bututu da tsafta.[4]

Ruwan da ake kaiwa gidaje kamar na fanfo ko sauran amfani, ana iya sake gyara shi kafin amfani, galibi ta amfani da tsarin gyaran in-line. [Ana bukatan hujja]

Gyaran gurbataccen ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gyaran ruwan masana'antu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A masana'antar samar da ruwan karkashin kasa ta Turun Seudun Vesi Oy, ana tsotse danyen ruwan da aka riga aka gyara daga Kogin Kokemäki ta cikin kwaruruka zuwa cikin dutsen Virttaankangas.

Hanyoyi da Tsari

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Wurin iskar shaka (aeration tank) da yake fanko don fitar da sinadarin karfe (iron)

Don kawar da sinadarai masu guba daga ruwa, an yi amfani da hanyoyin gyara da yawa.[5]

Hanyoyin da ke tattare da cire abubuwan gurbatawa sun hada da hanyoyin zahiri (physical) kamar giza (settling) da tacewa (filtration), hanyoyin sinadarai (chemical) kamar kashe kwayoyin cuta (disinfection) da daskarewa (coagulation), da hanyoyin halitta (biological) kamar tace ruwa ta yashi mai hankali (slow sand filtration).

Ana amfani da hadin gwiwar da aka zaba daga hanyoyin da ke gaba (dangane da kakar shekara da abubuwan gurbatawa da sinadaran da ke cikin danyen ruwa) don gyaran ruwan sha na birane a fadin duniya.

Hanyoyin Sinadarai (Chemical)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tasoshi masu dauke da matatun yashi don cire sinadarin karfe da ya daskare (ba sa aiki a lokacin)

Ana amfani da hanyoyin sinadarai daban-daban don canzawa zuwa kayan karshe ko cire abubuwa masu gurbatawa domin zubar da abubuwan gurbatawa cikin kariya.[6]

  • Sanya chlorine tun da wuri (Pre-chlorination) don sarrafa algae da dakatar da ci gaban halittu.
  • Shigar da iska (Aeration) tare da pre-chlorination don cire sinadarin karfe da ya narke lokacin da yake tare da kadan daga cikin manganese.
  • Kashe kwayoyin cuta (Disinfection) don kashe bacteria, viruses da sauran kwayoyin cuta, ta amfani da chlorine, ozone da hasken ultra-violet.

Hanyoyin Zahiri (Physical)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dabarun zahiri na gyaran ruwa/gurbataccen ruwa sun dogara ne akan abubuwan da ke faruwa na zahiri don kammala tsarin cirewa, maimakon sauye-sauyen halitta ko na sinadarai.[6]

Mafi yawan dabarun zahiri sune:

  • Dakasawa (Sedimentation) yana daya daga cikin muhimman hanyoyin gyaran gurbataccen ruwa. Giza ta hanyar karfin maganadisu (Gravity settling) wata hanya ce ta raba barbashin abubuwa daga ruwa. Barbashi da ke cikin ruwa yana tsayawa cikakku saboda raguwar gudu (velocity) na ruwa a lokacin tsarin gyaran ruwa, bayan haka barbashin yakan zauna ta hynar karfin gravity.[7][8] Domin raba abubuwa masu tauri wato cire busassun barbashi (suspended solids) da suka makale a cikin daskarewar (floc).
  • Tacewa (Filtration) ita ce dabarar cire abubuwa masu gurbatawa dangane da girman barbashinsu. Cire abubuwa masu gurbatawa daga gurbataccen ruwa yana ba da damar sake amfani da ruwan don amfani daban-daban. Nau'ikan matatun da ake amfani da su a tsarin sun bambanta dangane da abubuwan gurbatawa da ke cikin ruwan. Tacewar barbashi (Particle filtration) da tacewar membrane (Membrane filtration) sune manyan nau'ikan tacewar gurbataccen ruwa guda biyu.[9]
  • Gilmawar iska mai narki (Dissolved air flotation / Degasification) shine tsarin cire iskar gas da ta narke daga cikin ruwa. Dokar Henry (Henry's law) ta bayyana cewa yawan iskar gas da ta narke a cikin ruwa ya yi daidai da partial pressure na iskar gas din. Degasification hanya ce mai arha ta cire iskar carbon dioxide daga gurbataccen ruwa wacce ke daukaka matakin pH na ruwan taamfani da cire iskar gas din.[6]
  • Ana amfani da Deaerator don rage oxygen da nitrogen a cikin ruwan da ke tafiya zuwa boiler.

Hanyoyin Physico-chemical

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Haka kuma ana kiranta da Gyara na Al'ada ("Conventional" Treatment)

  • Daskarewa (Coagulation) don yin flocculation. Sanya sinadaran coagulants yana rage karfin colloidal suspensions ta hanyar daidaita cajinsu, wanda ke haifar da taruwar kananan barbashi yayin tsarin coagulation.[10]
  • Masu taimaka wa Coagulant, wadanda kuma aka sani da polyelectrolytes – don inganta coagulation da kuma samar da daskarewa mai karfi (floc formation).
  • Polyelectrolytes ko kuma wadanda aka sani a fannin da polymers, yawanci suna dauke da ko dai ingantaccen caji (positive) ko mummunan caji (negative). Irin polyelectrolyte da za a amfani da shi ya dogara ne kacokan akan siffofin danyen ruwa na masana'antar gyaran ruwan.
  • Wadannan yawanci ana amfani da su ne tare da babban coagulant kamar ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, ko alum.

Daskarewar Sinadarai (Chemical precipitation) wani tsari ne na yau da kullum da ake amfani da shi don rage yawan kaurin karafa masu nauyi (heavy metals) a cikin gurbataccen ruwa. Ion na karafa da suka narke suna canzawa zuwa wani yanayi da ba ya narkewa ta hanyar hulda da sinadarin precipitant kamar alli (lime). A ayyukan masana'antu, ana iya amfani da alkalis masu karfi don tabbatar da cikakken daskarewa. A gyaran ruwan sha, galibi ana amfani da common-ion effect don taimakawa wajen rage tauri ko kaurin ruwa.[11]

Flotation yana amfani da makalewar kumfa don raba abubuwa masu tauri ko ruwan da ya bazu daga cikin ruwan baki dena.[12]

Tacewar Membrane

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tacewar membrane na iya cire busassun barbashi (suspended solids) da sinadaran organic, da abubuwan gurbatawa na inorganic kamar karafa masu nauyi. Don cire karafa masu nauyi, ana iya amfani da nau'ikan tacewar membrane da yawa, kamar ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, da reverse osmosis, dangane da girman barbashin da za a iya tsayarwa.[13][14] Sinadaran Antiscalants na iya taimakawa wajen dorewar tacewar membrane.[15] Wasu kananan kwayoyin halitta (molecules) na iya ratsawa (permeate) zuwa wani mataki ta cikin membranes.[15]

Musayar Ion (Ion exchange)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Musayar ion wani tsari ne na musayar ion da za a iya juyawa inda wani abu da ba ya narkewa (resin) yake karbar ions daga ruwan electrolytic sannan ya saki sauran ions na caji guda a cikin adadi mai kama da juna ta fuskar sinadarai ba tare da canza tsarin resin din ba.[16][17]

Dabarun Gyara na Electrochemical

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Electrodialysis (ED)
  • Membrane electrolysis (ME)
  • Electrochemical precipitation (EP)[14]

Adsorption

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Adsorption wani tsari ne na mika yawa (mass transfer) inda ake jigilar wani abu daga ruwa zuwa saman wani abu mai tauri ko ruwa (adsorbent) sannan ya makale ta hanyar zahiri da ta sinadarai (adsorbate). Ana iya raba adsorption zuwa gida biyu dangane da irin jan hankali (attraction) da ke tsakanin adsorbate da adsorbent: adsorption na zahiri da na sinadarai, wadanda aka fi sani da physisorption da chemisorptions.[18][19]

Carbon da aka kunna
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Carbon da aka kunna (AC) ko carbon da aka kunna ta hanyar halittu (BAC)[20] yana da matukar tasiri wajen sha abubuwa masu gurbatawa iri-iri. Ana amfani da shi wajen cire launi, ƙamshi, ɗanɗano, da sauran sinadarai masu cutarwa daga ruwan sha da ruwan sharar masana’antu.[21]

Babban fadin saman da kuma girman rami suna ƙara ingancin carbon da aka kunna. An yi amfani da shi wajen cire karafa masu nauyi da sauran gurbatattun sinadarai daga ruwan sharar masana’antu. Farashin carbon da aka kunna yana ƙaruwa saboda ƙarancin samuwa a kasuwa. Saboda fadin saman sa, porosity, da sassauci, yana da babbar dama a gyaran ruwan sharar masana’antu.[21]

Halittu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wannan hanya ce da ake cire sinadarai masu narkewa da kuma masu tsayuwa ta hanyar biodegradation, inda ake amfani da ƙwayoyin halitta don kwaikwayon tsarin tsarkakewa na dabi’a.[22] Ana yin hakan ta hanyoyi biyu: biological oxidation da biosynthesis. A lokacin oxidation, ƙwayoyin halitta suna samar da abubuwa kamar ma’adanai, carbon dioxide, da ammonia. Wadannan suna ci gaba da kasancewa a cikin ruwa kuma ana fitar da su tare da effluent. A lokacin biosynthesis, ƙwayoyin halitta suna amfani da sinadarai na organic don samar da sabbin ƙwayoyin halitta masu yawa, waɗanda ake cirewa ta hanyar sedimentation.[23]

Ma'aunai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Kasashen da za a iya shan ruwan fanfo cikin kariya (shudi)

Kasashe masu tasowa da dama suna gindaya ma'aunai da za a yi amfani da su a cikin kasarsu. A Turai, wannan ya hada da Dokar Ruwan Sha ta Turai[24] sannan a Amurka Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA) tana kafa ma'aunai kamar yadda Dokar Kare Ruwan Sha ta tanada. Ga kasashen da ba su da tsarin doka ko na gudanarwa na irin wadannan ma'aunai, Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya tana buga jagorori kan ma'aunai da ya kamata a cimma.[25] Kasar Sin ta amince da nata ma'aunin ruwan sha na GB3838-2002 (Nau'i na II) wanda Ma'aikatar Kare Muhalli ta fitar a shekarar 2002.[26]

A inda ma'aunai na ingancin ruwan sha suke muddin akwai, yawancinsu ana bayyana su ne a matsayin jagorori ko manufofi maimakon sharuddan tilas, kuma kadan ne kawai daga cikin ma'aunai na ruwa ke da tushen doka ko kuma suke fuskantar keta doka.[27] Banbance-banbance guda biyu sune Dokar Ruwan Sha ta Turai da kuma Dokar Kare Ruwan Sha ta Amurka, wadanda ke bukatar bin doka tare da takamaiman ma'aunai.

Kasashe masu tasowa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Zabukan fasahar da suka dace a fannin gyaran ruwa sun hada da tsare-tsare na matakin al'umma da kuma na matakin gida wato wurin amfani (POU) ko samar wa kai da kanka.[28] Irin wadannan tsare-tsare na iya amfani da hanyoyin kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa ta amfani da hasken rana (SODIS), ta hanyar amfani da hasken rana kai tsaye don gurgunta kwayoyin cuta masu cutarwa da ke rayuwa a cikin ruwa, galibi ta hanyar sashin UV-A na hasken rana, ko a kaikaice ta hanyar kasancewar oxide photocatalyst, yawanci titanium dioxide TiO2 a cikin fasalin anatase ko rutile.[29] Duk da ci gaba a fasahar SODIS, har yanzu ana yawan amfani da na'urorin gyaran ruwa na rago na soja kamar ERDLator a kasashe masu tasowa. Sabbin na'urorin gyaran ruwa na zamani na salon soja na Reverse Osmosis (ROWPU) na'urorin gyaran ruwa ne masu saukin jigila kuma masu zaman kansu wadanda ke kara samuwa don amfanin jama'a.[30]

Domin dorewar raguwar cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta ruwa, shirye-shiryen gyaran ruwa da kungiyoyin bincike da bunkasawa ke farawa a kasashe masu tasowa dole ne su kasance masu dorewa ta hannun 'yan kasar da kansu. Wannan zai iya tabbatar da ingancin irin wadannan shirye-shiryen bayan barin tawagar bincike, duba da cewa sanya ido yana da wahala saboda nisan wurare da dama. Amfani da Makamashi: Masana'antun gyaran ruwa na iya zama manyan masu amfani da makamashi. A California, fiye da 4% na amfani da wutar lantarki na jihar yana tafiya ne wajen jigilar ruwa mai matsakaicin inganci zuwa nisa mai tsawo, da kuma gyara wannan ruwa zuwa babban mataki.[31] A yankunan da ke da albarkatun ruwa masu inganci wadanda ke kwarara ta hanyar karfin gravity zuwa wurin amfani, farashin zai kasance mafi kankanta. Mafi yawan bukatun makamashi yana tafiya ne wajen tura ruwa ta hanyar fanfo (pumping). Hanyoyin da ke kauce wa bukatar tura ruwa suna kasancewa da karancin bukatar makamashi gaba daya. Wadannan fasahohin gyaran ruwa wadanda ke da karancin bukatar makamashi sun hada da trickling filters, slow sand filters, da kuma aqueducts na gravity.

Wani bincike na shekarar 2021 ya gano cewa babban shirin sanya chlorine a cikin ruwa a yankunan birane na kasar Mexico ya rage mace-macen yara sanadin cutar zawo cikin babban mataki.[32]

Kayayyaki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana amfani da bakin karfe (Stainless steels), kamar Nau'in 304L da 316L, sosai wajen kera masana'antun gyaran ruwa saboda juriya da suke da ita ga tsatsa daga ruwa da kuma gurbatawar chlorine da ake amfani da shi don kashe kwayoyin cuta.[33][34]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Nishmitha, P. S.; Akhilghosh, Kochuparambil Ajayaghosh; Aiswriya, Vijayalekshmi Padmachandran; Ramesh, Athira; Muthuchamy, Muthukumar; Muthukumar, Anbazhagi (2025-05-01). "Understanding emerging contaminants in water and wastewater: A comprehensive review on detection, impacts, and solutions". Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. 18. doi:10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100755. ISSN 2772-4166. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Singh, N. B.; Nagpal, Garima; Agrawal, Sonal; Rachna (2018-08-01). "Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review". Environmental Technology & Innovation (in Turanci). 11: 187–240. Bibcode:2018EnvTI..11..187S. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006. ISSN 2352-1864. S2CID 103693107.
  3. ↑ "Linda Lawton – 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria" (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2021-05-27. Retrieved 2021-06-25.
  4. ↑ "Chlorine". Drinking water inspectorate. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  5. ↑ Jothirani, R.; Kumar, P. Senthil; Saravanan, A.; Narayan, Abishek S.; Dutta, Abhishek (2016-07-25). "Ultrasonic modified corn pith for the sequestration of dye from aqueous solution". Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (in Turanci). 39: 162–175. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2016.05.024. ISSN 1226-086X.
  6. 1 2 3 Saravanan, A.; Senthil Kumar, P.; Jeevanantham, S.; Karishma, S.; Tajsabreen, B.; Yaashikaa, P. R.; Reshma, B. (2021-10-01). "Effective water/wastewater treatment methodologies for toxic pollutants removal: Processes and applications towards sustainable development". Chemosphere (in Turanci). 280. Bibcode:2021Chmsp.28030595S. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130595. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 33940449 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Gottfried, A.; Shepard, A. D.; Hardiman, K.; Walsh, M. E. (2008-11-01). "Impact of recycling filter backwash water on organic removal in coagulation–sedimentation processes". Water Research (in Turanci). 42 (18): 4683–4691. Bibcode:2008WatRe..42.4683G. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.08.011. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 18789473.
  8. ↑ Samal, Sneha (2020-04-15). "Effect of shape and size of filler particle on the aggregation and sedimentation behavior of the polymer composite". Powder Technology (in Turanci). 366: 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2020.02.054. ISSN 0032-5910. S2CID 213499533.
  9. ↑ Ahmad, Arslan; Rutten, Sam; de Waal, Luuk; Vollaard, Peter; van Genuchten, Case; Bruning, Harry; Cornelissen, Emile; van der Wal, Albert (2020-06-15). "Mechanisms of arsenate removal and membrane fouling in ferric based coprecipitation–low pressure membrane filtration systems". Separation and Purification Technology (in Turanci). 241. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116644. hdl:1854/LU-8699161. ISSN 1383-5866. S2CID 214445348. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Nyström, Fredrik; Nordqvist, Kerstin; Herrmann, Inga; Hedström, Annelie; Viklander, Maria (2020-09-01). "Removal of metals and hydrocarbons from stormwater using coagulation and flocculation". Water Research (in Turanci). 182. Bibcode:2020WatRe.18215919N. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.115919. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 32622122. S2CID 219414366. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Wang, Lawrence K.; Vaccari, David A.; Li, Yan; Shammas, Nazih K. (2005), "Chemical Precipitation", Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 141–197, doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:141, ISBN 978-1-58829-165-3
  12. ↑ Wang, Lawrence K.; Fahey, Edward M.; Wu, Zucheng (2005), "Dissolved Air Flotation", in Wang, Lawrence K.; Hung, Yung-Tse; Shammas, Nazih K. (eds.), Physicochemical Treatment Processes (in Turanci), Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 431–500, doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431, ISBN 978-1-58829-165-3, retrieved 2021-11-12
  13. ↑ Chadha, Utkarsh; Selvaraj, Senthil Kumaran; Vishak Thanu, S.; Cholapadath, Vishnu; Abraham, Ashesh Mathew; Zaiyan, Mohammed; Manikandan, M; Paramasivam, Velmurugan (6 January 2022). "A review of the function of using carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from wastewater". Materials Research Express. 9 (1): 012003. Bibcode:2022MRE.....9a2003C. doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ac48b8. S2CID 245810763 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  14. 1 2 Kurniawan, Tonni Agustiono; Chan, Gilbert Y. S.; Lo, Wai-Hung; Babel, Sandhya (2006-05-01). "Physico–chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals". Chemical Engineering Journal (in Turanci). 118 (1): 83–98. Bibcode:2006ChEnJ.118...83K. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015. ISSN 1385-8947.
  15. 1 2 Armbruster, Dominic; Müller, Uwe; Happel, Oliver (2019). "Characterization of phosphonate-based antiscalants used in drinking water treatment plants by anion-exchange chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry". Journal of Chromatography A. 1601: 189–204. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.014. PMID 31130225.
  16. ↑ Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu; Ngo, Huu Hao; Chaudhary, Durgananda Singh; Hung, Yung-Tse (2005), "Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse", Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 635–676, doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:635, ISBN 978-1-58829-165-3
  17. ↑ Rengaraj, S; Yeon, Kyeong-Ho; Moon, Seung-Hyeon (October 2001). "Removal of chromium from water and wastewater by ion exchange resins". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 87 (1–3): 273–287. Bibcode:2001JHzM...87..273R. doi:10.1016/s0304-3894(01)00291-6. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 11566415.
  18. ↑ Singh, N. B.; Nagpal, Garima; Agrawal, Sonal; Rachna (2018-08-01). "Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review". Environmental Technology & Innovation (in Turanci). 11: 187–240. Bibcode:2018EnvTI..11..187S. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006. ISSN 2352-1864. S2CID 103693107.
  19. ↑ BABEL, Sandhya; KURNIAWAN, Tonni Agustiono (2003). "A Research Study on Cr(VI) Removal from Contaminated Wastewater Using Natural Zeolite". Journal of Ion Exchange. 14 (Supplement): 289–292. Bibcode:2003JIEx...14S.289B. doi:10.5182/jaie.14.supplement_289. ISSN 1884-3360.
  20. ↑ Sirotkin, A.; Koshkina, L. Yu.; Ippolitov, K. G. (2001). "The BAC-process for treatment of waste water Containing non-ionogenic synthetic surfactants". Water Research. 35 (13): 3265–3271. Bibcode:2001WatRe..35.3265S. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00029-x. PMID 11487125.
  21. 1 2 Mezohegyi, Gergo; van der Zee, Frank P.; Font, Josep; Fortuny, Agustí; Fabregat, Azael (2012-07-15). "Towards advanced aqueous dye removal processes: A short review on the versatile role of activated carbon". Journal of Environmental Management (in Turanci). 102: 148–164. Bibcode:2012JEnvM.102..148M. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.02.021. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 22459012.
  22. ↑ GracePavithra, Kirubanandam; Jaikumar, V.; Kumar, P. Senthil; SundarRajan, PanneerSelvam (2019-08-10). "A review on cleaner strategies for chromium industrial wastewater: Present research and future perspective". Journal of Cleaner Production (in Turanci). 228: 580–593. Bibcode:2019JCPro.228..580G. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.117. ISSN 0959-6526. S2CID 159345994.
  23. ↑ Gray, Nick (2017-01-31). Water Technology (3 ed.). London: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781315276106. ISBN 978-1-315-27610-6.
  24. ↑ "Legislation: The Directive overview". Environment. Brussels: European Commission. 2019-12-31.
  25. ↑ Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition; World Health Organization; 2011
  26. ↑ "Environmental quality standards for surface water". Archived from the original on 2018-08-03. Retrieved 2019-11-19.
  27. ↑ What is the purpose of drinking water quality guidelines/regulations?. Canada: Safe Drinking Water Foundation. Pdf. Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ↑ "Household Water Treatment Guide". Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology, Canada. March 2008. Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
  29. ↑ "Sand as a low-cost support for titanium dioxide photocatalysts". Materials Views. Wiley VCH.
  30. ↑ Lindsten, Don C. (September 1984). "Technology transfer: Water purification, U.S. Army to the civilian community". The Journal of Technology Transfer. 9 (1): 57–59. doi:10.1007/BF02189057. S2CID 154344107.
  31. ↑ "Energy Costs of Water in California". large.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
  32. ↑ Bhalotra, Sonia R.; Diaz-Cayeros, Alberto; Miller, Grant; Miranda, Alfonso; Venkataramani, Atheendar S. (2021). "Urban Water Disinfection and Mortality Decline in Lower-Income Countries". American Economic Journal: Economic Policy (in Turanci). 13 (4): 490–520. doi:10.1257/pol.20180764. ISSN 1945-7731. S2CID 236955246 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  33. ↑ R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill. "Stainless Steels for Potable Water Treatment Plants". Nickel Institute.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ A.H. Tuthill and S. Lamb. "Guidelines for the use of Stainless Steel in Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plants". Nickel Institute.
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