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Haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli

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'yancin ɗan adam na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli (HRWS) nau'in ƙa'ida ce da ke bayyana cewa tsaftar shan ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli na duniya ne Haƙƙin ɗan Adam | Haƙƙin ɗan adam saboda babban mahimmancin da suke da shi wajen raya rayuwar kowane mutum.

Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta amince da shi a matsayin haƙƙin ɗan adam a ranar 28 ga watan Yuli shekara ta 2010. An amince da HRWS a cikin dokokin kasa da kasa ta hanyar yarjejeniyar kare hakkin dan adam, sanarwa da sauran ka'idoji. Wasu masu sharhi sun kafa hujja kan wanzuwar haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa a duniya bisa dalilai masu zaman kansu ba tare da ƙudurin babban taron shekarar 2010, ba, kamar sashe na 11.1 na Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan Hakkokin Tattalin Arziki, Jama'a da Al'adu (ICESCR); daga cikin waɗancan masu sharhi, waɗanda suka yarda da kasancewar ius cogens na duniya kuma suna la'akari da shi ya haɗa da tanade-tanaden Alkawari sun ɗauka cewa irin wannan haƙƙin ƙa'idar doka ce ta duniya. Sauran yarjejeniyoyin da suka amince da HRWS a fili sun haɗa da Yarjejeniyar 1979, kan Kawar da Duk Wani nau'i na Wariya ga Mata[1]. (CEDAW) da 1989, Yarjejeniya kan Haƙƙin Yara (CRC).

Kwamitin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Hakkokin Tattalin Arziki da Jama'a da Al'adu ne ya fitar da mafi kyawun ma'anar 'yancin ɗan adam na ruwa a cikin Gabaɗaya Comment 15 da aka tsara a cikin shekarar alif 2002. Fassarar da ba ta ɗaure ba ce cewa samun ruwa ya kasance sharadi ne don jin daɗin haƙƙin madaidaicin yanayin rayuwa. wanda ke da alaƙa da haƙƙin ma'aunin lafiya mafi girma, don haka haƙƙin ɗan adam. Ya ce: “Haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa yana ba kowa damar samun wadatar. lafiyayye, karɓuwa, ruwa mai araha da araha don amfanin mutum da na gida.

Babban taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da Hukumar Kare Hakkin Bil Adama ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ne suka zartar da kuduri na farko game da HRWS a shekarar 2010. Sun bayyana cewa akwai haƙƙin tsaftar muhalli da ke da alaƙa da haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa, tunda rashin tsaftar muhalli yana rage ingancin ruwa a kasa. don haka tattaunawar ta gaba ta ci gaba da jaddada haƙƙoƙin biyu tare. A cikin Yuli 2010, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UN) Resolution 64/292 ya sake tabbatar da 'yancin ɗan adam na samun aminci, mai araha, da tsaftataccen ruwan sha da sabis na tsafta. A yayin wancan babban taron, ya bayyana cewa, domin fahimtar jin dadin rayuwa da dukkan hakkokin bil'adama. tsaftataccen ruwan sha mai tsafta da kuma tsafta an amince da shi a matsayin hakkin dan Adam. Kudirin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya mai lamba 64/292 na ‘yancin dan Adam na samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli ya tada batutuwan da suka shafi haƙƙin gwamnati na sarrafawa da alhakin tabbatar da wannan ruwa da tsaftar muhalli.

Shirin raya kasashe na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya bayyana cewa, sanin muhimmancin samun dogaro da tsaftataccen ruwan sha da ayyukan tsafta, zai inganta fadada ci gaban rayuwa mai koshin lafiya. Wani kuduri na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da aka yi wa kwaskwarima a shekarar 2015, ya nuna cewa hakokin biyu sun bambanta amma daidai suke.

HRWS ta tilasta wa gwamnatoci su tabbatar da cewa mutane za su iya jin daɗin inganci, samuwa, m, m, kuma mai araha ruwa da tsafta. Samar da ruwa yana la'akari da girman abin da farashin ruwa ya zama mai hanawa wanda zai buƙaci mutum ya sadaukar da damar samun wasu kayayyaki da ayyuka masu mahimmanci. Samun damar ruwa yana la'akari da lokacin da aka ɗauka, dacewa don isa ga tushen da kuma haɗarin da ke tattare da samun zuwa tushen ruwa. Dole ne ruwa ya kasance mai isa ga kowane ɗan ƙasa, ma'ana kada ruwa ya wuce mita 1,000 ko ƙafa 3,280 kuma dole ne ya kasance cikin mintuna 30. Samun ruwa yana la'akari da ko samar da ruwa yana samuwa a cikin adadi mai yawa, abin dogaro kuma mai dorewa. Ingancin ruwa yana la'akari da ko ruwa yana da aminci don amfani, gami da sha ko wasu ayyuka. Don yarda da ruwa, dole ne kada ya kasance da wani wari kuma kada ya ƙunshi kowane launi.

ICESCR na buƙatar ƙasashe masu sanya hannu don ci gaba da ci gaba da mutunta duk haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam, ciki har da na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Ya kamata su yi aiki cikin sauri da inganci don haɓaka dama da haɓaka sabis.[2]

Mahallin Duniya

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Shirin WHO/UNICEF na hadin gwiwa kan Samar da Ruwa da Tsabtace Muhalli ya bayyana cewa mutane miliyan 663 ba su da damar samun ingantaccen ruwan sha, kuma fiye da biliyan 2.4 ba su da damar samun aiyukan tsafta na asali a shekarar 2015.[3] Samun ruwan tsabta babban matsala ne a sassan duniya da dama. Hanyoyin da aka amince da su sun hada da "haɗin gidaje, bututun jama’a, ramin rijiyoyi da aka kare, ruwan rijiya da aka kare, ruwan tushe da aka kare da kuma tarin ruwan sama."[4] Duk da cewa kashi 9% na al’ummar duniya ba su da damar samun ruwa, akwai "yankuna da suka fi jinkiri, kamar Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara".[4] Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kara jaddada cewa "kimanin yara miliyan 1.5 ‘yan kasa da shekaru biyar suna mutuwa a kowace shekara kuma an rasa kwanakin makaranta miliyan 443 saboda cututtukan da suka shafi ruwa da tsafta."[5] A shekarar 2022, fiye da mutane biliyan 2, wato kashi 25% na al’ummar duniya, ba su da damar samun ruwan sha mai tsabta a kai a kai.[6][7] Mutane biliyan 4.2 ba su da damar samun aiyukan tsafta masu aminci.[8][9][10] Zuwa shekarar 2024, sabbin kididdiga sun nuna karuwar matsalar, inda mutane biliyan 4.4 a kasashe masu karamin karfi da matsakaici ba su da damar samun ruwan sha mai aminci a gidajensu.[11][12]

Tushen shari'a da amincewa

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Yurjejeniyar Ƙasa da Ƙasa Kan Haƙƙoƙin Tattalin Arziki, Zamantakewa da Al'adu (ICESCR) ta shekarar 1966 ta tsara haƙƙoƙin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa, da al'adu da aka samu a cikin Sanarwar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam ta Duniya (UDHR) ta shekarar 1948. Babu ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan takaddun farko da ya fito fili ya amince da haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Sai dai, da yawa daga cikin yarjejeniyoyin haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam na ƙasa da ƙasa na baya sun ƙunshi sassa da suka fito fili suka amince da haƙƙin samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli.

  • Yarjejeniyar Kawar da Duk Wani Nau'in Nuna Bambanci Ga Mata (CEDAW) ta shekarar 1979 tana da Mataki na 14.2 wanda ke bayyana cewa "ɓangarorin da abin ya shafa za su ɗauki duk wani mataki da ya dace don kawar da nuna bambanci ga mata a yankunan karkara don tabbatar da cewa, a kan daidaito tsakanin maza da mata, sun shiga kuma sun amfana daga ci gaban karkara, kuma musamman za su tabbatar wa mata haƙƙin: ... (h) Don morar ingantattun yanayin rayuwa, musamman dangane da gidaje, tsaftar muhalli, wutar lantarki da samar da ruwa, sufuri da sadarwa."[13]
  • Yarjejeniyar Haƙƙoƙin Yara (CRC) ta shekarar 1989 tana da Mataki na 24 wanda ke tanadin cewa "ɓangarorin sun amince da haƙƙin yaro na morar mafi girman matsayi na lafiya da za a iya samu da kuma kayan aiki don magance rashin lafiya da dawo da lafiya ... 2. Jihohin da ke cikin yarjejeniyar za su himmatu wajen ganin an aiwatar da wannan haƙƙi cikakku, kuma musamman, za su ɗauki matakan da suka dace... (c) Don yaƙar cututtuka da rashin abinci mai gina jiki, gami da tsarin kula da lafiya na farko, ta hanyar, inter alia... samar da isasshen abinci mai gina jiki da tsaftataccen ruwan sha..."[14]
  • Yarjejeniyar Haƙƙoƙin Guragu da Masu Bukata Ta Musamman (CRPD) ta shekarar 2006 tana da Mataki na 28(2)(a) wanda ke buƙatar cewa "ɓangarorin sun amince da haƙƙin guragu na samun kariya ta zamantakewa da kuma morar wannan haƙƙi ba tare da nuna bambanci ba saboda nakasa, kuma za su ɗauki matakan da suka dace don kiyayewa da haɓaka tabbatar da wannan haƙƙi, gami da matakan tabbatar da daidaiton damar samun ayyukan tsaftataccen ruwa ga guragu, da kuma tabbatar da samun damar yin amfani da ayyuka masu dace da sauƙin kuɗi, na'urori da sauran agaji don buƙatun da suka shafi nakasa."[15]

"Kundin Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam na Ƙasa da Ƙasa" - wanda ya ƙunshi Yarjejeniyar Ƙasa da Ƙasa Kan Haƙƙoƙin Bil'adama da Siyasa (ICCPR) ta 1966; Matani na 11 da 12 na Yarjejeniyar Ƙasa da Ƙasa Kan Haƙƙoƙin Tattalin Arziki, Zamantakewa da Al'adu (ICESCR) ta 1966; da kuma Mataki na 25 na Sanarwar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam ta Duniya (UDHR) ta 1948 ya rubuta juyin halittar haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli da sauran haƙƙoƙin da ke da alaƙa da ruwa don a amince da su a cikin dokokin duniya.[16][17]

Malamai kuma sun jawo hankali ga mahimmancin yuwuwar amincewar Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya ga haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a ƙarshen ƙarni na ishirin. Ƙoƙarin farko guda biyu na bayyana haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa sun fito ne daga farfesan shari'a Stephen McCaffrey na Jami'ar Pacific (University of the Pacific) a shekarar 1992[18] da kuma Dr. Peter Gleick a shekarar 1999.[19] McCaffrey ya bayyana cewa "Irin wannan haƙƙi ana iya ɗaukarsa a matsayin wani ɓangare mai mahimmanci na haƙƙin samun abinci ko abin dogaro da rayuwa, haƙƙin lafiya, ko kuma mafi mahimmanci, haƙƙin rayuwa.[18] Gleick ya ƙara da cewa: "samun damar yin amfani da buƙatun ruwa na yau da kullum haƙƙi ne na ɗan adam na asali wanda dokokin duniya, sanarwa, da ayyukan Jihohi ke tallafawa a kaikaice da kuma kai tsaye."[19]

Kwamitin Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya Kan Haƙƙoƙin Tattalin Arziki, Zamantakewa da Al'adu (CESCR) wanda ke kula da bin ka'idojin ICESCR ya cimma matsaya madaidaiciya da ta waɗannan malamai a cikin Sharhi na Gabaɗaya na 15 (General Comment 15) a shekarar 2002.[20] An gano cewa, haƙƙin samun ruwa wani ɓangare ne na fito-na-fito na haƙƙin samun ingantaccen mizanin rayuwa kuma yana da alaƙa da haƙƙin samun mafi girman matsayi na lafiya da za a iya samu da kuma haƙƙoƙin samun isasshen gida da isasshen abinci.[20] Ya bayyana cewa "Haƙƙon ɗan adam na samun ruwa yana ba kowa damar samun isasshen ruwa, mai aminci, karɓaɓɓe, wanda za a iya shiga dashi ta jiki kuma mai sauƙin kuɗi don amfanin kai da na gida. Isasshen adadin ruwa mai aminci ya zama dole don hana mutuwa daga rashin ruwa a jiki, don rage haɗarin cututtukan da ke da alaƙa da ruwa da kuma samar da buƙatun sha, girki, da tsaftar kai da na gida."[21] Kasashe da yawa sun amince kuma sun amshe haƙƙin samun ruwa a matsayin ɓangare na wajibansu na yarjejeniya a ƙarƙashin ICESCR (misali, Jamus; United Kingdom;[22] Netherlands[23]) bayan buga Sharhi na Gabaɗaya na 15.

An ɗauki ƙarin mataki a shekarar 2005 ta tsohon Ƙaramar Hukumar Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya Kan Haɓakawa da Kare Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam wadda ta fitar da jagorori don taimakawa gwamnatoci wajen cimmawa da girmama haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli.[24] Waɗannan jagororin sun jagoranci Majalisar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam ta Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya wajen naɗa Catarina de Albuquerque a matsayin kwararre mai zaman kansa kan batun wajibai na haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam da suka shafi damar samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli a shekarar 2008.[25] Ta rubuta cikakken rahoto a shekarar 2009 wanda ya fayyace wajibai na haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam ga tsaftar muhalli, kuma CESCR ta mayar da martani ta hanyar bayyana cewa ya kamata dukkan jihohi su amince da tsaftar muhalli.[2]

Bayan tattaunawa mai tsanani, ƙasashe 122 sun amince a hukumance da "Haƙƙon Ɗan Adam na Samun Ruwa da Tsaftar Muhalli" a cikin Ƙudurin Majalisar Gabaɗaya mai lamba 64/292 a ranar 28 ga watan Yuli, 2010.[26] Ya amince da haƙƙin kowane ɗan adam na samun isasshen ruwa don amfanin kai da na gida (tsakanin lita 50 zuwa 100 na ruwa ga kowane mutum a rana), wanda dole ne ya kasance mai aminci, karɓaɓɓe kuma mai sauƙin kuɗi (kuɗin ruwa kada ya wuce 3% na kuɗin shiga na gida), sannan kuma mai sauƙin shiga ta jiki (wurin samun ruwa dole ne ya kasance tsakanin mita 1,000 daga gida kuma lokacin ɗibo ruwa kada ya wuce mintuna 30)."[5] Majalisar Gabaɗaya ta bayyana cewa tsaftataccen ruwan sha yana da "mahimmanci ga cikakken more rayuwa da dukkan sauran haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam".[5] A watan Satumba na shekarar 2010, Majalisar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam ta MDD ta amince da wani ƙuduri da ke amincewa da cewa haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli ya kafa ɓangare na haƙƙin samun ingantaccen mizanin rayuwa.[27]

An tsawaita wa'adin Catarina de Albuquerque a matsayin "Kwararre mai zaman kansa kan batun wajibai na haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam da suka shafi damar samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli" kuma aka sake masa suna zuwa "Mai Ba da Rahoto na Musamman kan haƙƙon ɗan adam na samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli" bayan ƙudurin na shekarar 2010. Ta hanyar rahotanninta ga Majalisar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam da Majalisar Gabaɗaya ta MDD, ta ci gaba da fayyace fanni da abubuwan da ke cikin haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. A matsayinta na Mai Ba da Rahoto na Musamman, ta magance batutuwa kamar su: Wajibai na Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam da Suka Shafi Samar da Ayyuka Masu Zaman Kansu a Fannin Ruwa da Tsaftar Muhalli (2010);[28] Samar da Kuɗi Don Tabbatar da Haƙƙoƙin Samun Ruwa da Tsaftar Muhalli (2011);[29] Gudanar da ruwan shaƙon (wastewater) wajen tabbatar da haƙƙoƙin samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli (2013);[30] da kuma Dorewa da rashin komawa baya wajen tabbatar da haƙƙoƙin samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli (2013).[31] An naɗa Léo Heller a shekarar 2014 don zama Mai Ba da Rahoto na Musamman na biyu kan haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam na samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli.

Ƙudurin da suka biyo baya sun tsawaita wa'adin Mai Ba da Rahoto na Musamman kuma suka bayyana matsayin kowace jiha wajen girmama waɗannan haƙƙoƙi. Ƙudurin Majalisar Gabaɗaya na baya-bayan nan mai lamba 7/169 na shekarar 2015 an kira shi da sanarwar "Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam na Samun Tsaftataccen Ruwan Sha da Tsaftar Muhalli.[32] Ya amince da bambanci tsakanin haƙƙin samun ruwa da haƙƙin samun tsaftar muhalli. An yanke wannan shawarar ne saboda damuwa game da yadda ake yin watsi da haƙƙin samun tsaftar muhalli idan aka kwatanta shi da haƙƙin samun ruwa.[33]

Hukuncin shari'a na ƙasa da ƙasa

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Kotun Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam na Amurka

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An yi la'akari da haƙƙin samun ruwa a cikin shari'ar Kotun Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam na Amurka (Inter-American Court of Human Rights) a kan batun "Al'ummar Ƙasar Sawhoyamaxa v. Paraguay".[34] Batutuwan da abin ya shafa sun haɗa da gazawar gwamnati wajen amincewa da haƙƙin mallakar filaye na kakanni na al'ummar ƙasar. A cikin shekarar 1991, gwamnati ta korar al'ummar Sawhoyamaxa daga filayensu, wanda hakan ya yi sanadiyyar rasa damar samun ayyukan yau da kullum na buƙata, kamar ruwa, abinci, makaranta, da ayyukan lafiya.[34] Wannan ya faɗa ƙarƙashin fannin Yarjejeniyar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam na Amurka; wanda ya keta haƙƙin rayuwa.[35] Ruwa yana cikin wannan haƙƙi, a matsayin ɓangare na damar samun fili. Kotun ta buƙaci a mayar da filayen, a ba da diyya, kuma a samar da kayayyaki da ayyukan yau da kullum na buƙata, yayin da al'ummar ke kan tsarin dawo da filayensu.[36]

Cibiyar Ƙasa da Ƙasa don Warware Rikicin Zuba Jari

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Shari'o'i masu zuwa daga Cibiyar Ƙasa da Ƙasa don Warware Rikicin Zuba Jari (ICSID) sun shafi kwangilolin da aka kulla tsakanin gwamnatoci da kamfanoni don kula da hanyoyin ruwa. Kodayake shari'o'in sun shafi tambayoyi na zuba jari, masana sun lura cewa tasirin kaikaice na haƙƙin samun ruwa a kan hukunce-hukuncen yana da mahimmanci.[37] Bayanan Bankin Duniya sun nuna cewa sayar da kamfanonin ruwa ga masu zaman kansu (water privatization) ya yi tashin gwauron zabi tun daga shekarun 1990 kuma gagarumin ci gaba a fannin ya ci gaba har zuwa shekarun 2000.[38]

Azurix Corp v. Argentina

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Shari'ar farko sananniya da ta shafi haƙƙin samun ruwa a cikin ICSID ita ce ta "Azurix Corp v. Argentina".[39] Rikicin ya kasance ne tsakanin Jamhuriyar Argentina da Kamfanin Azurix (Azurix Corporation) game da saɓanin da ya taso daga kwangilar shekaru 30 tsakanin ɓangarorin biyu don gudanar da samar da ruwa a larduna daban-daban. An yi la'akari da haƙƙin samun ruwa a kaikaice lokacin sasantawa don neman diyya, inda aka yanke shawarar cewa Azurix tana da haƙƙin samun kyakkyawan sakamako na kuɗi da ya dace da darajar kasuwa ta zuba jarin. Wannan ya saba wa dalar Amurka miliyan 438.6 da suka nema, tare da bayyana cewa mai hankali na kasuwanci ba zai iya tsammanin irin wannan riba ba, idan aka yi la'akari da iyakokin ƙarin farashin ruwa da gyare-gyaren da za a buƙata don tabbatar da ingantaccen tsarin samar da tsaftataccen ruwa.[40]

Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania

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Na biyu, makamanciyar shari'ar da ICSID ta fuskanta ita ce ta "Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania".[41] Wannan ma ya kasance rikici ne na kwangila tsakanin kamfanin ruwa mai zaman kansa da gwamnati, a wannan karon Jamhuriyar Haɗaddiyar Tanzania. Wannan kwangilar ta kasance don gudanarwa da tafiyar da tsarin ruwa na Dar es Salaam. A watan Mayu na shekarar 2005, gwamnatin Tanzania ta soke kwangilar da Biwater Gauff saboda zargin gazawarta wajen cika ka'idojin aiki. A watan Yuli na shekarar 2008, Kotun ta fitar da shawararta kan shari'ar, inda ta bayyana cewa gwamnatin Tanzania ta keta yarjejeniyar da suka yi da Biwater Gauff.[42] Sai dai, ba ta ba wa Biwater diyya ta kuɗi ba,[43] tare da amincewa cewa buƙatun amfanin jama'a ne mafi mahimmanci a cikin rikicin.

Haƙƙin samun ruwa a cikin dokokin cikin gida

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Idan babu wata hukuma ta ƙasa da ƙasa da za ta iya tilasta aiwatar da shi, haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa ya dogara ne a kan ayyukan kotunan ƙasa.[44] An kafa tushen wannan ne ta hanyar shigar da haƙƙoƙin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu (ESCR) cikin kundin tsarin mulki ta hanyar guda biyu: ko dai a matsayin "manufofin jagora" (directive principles) waɗanda manufofi ne kawai kuma galibi kotu ba za ta iya matsa lamba a kansu ba; ko kuma a matsayin waɗanda aka kiyaye su sosai kuma kotu za ta iya tilasta aiwatar da su.[45]

Afirka ta Kudu

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Wani rukunin mutane da suka taru a kusa da famfon unguwa a Johannesburg, Afirka ta Kudu

A ƙasar Afirka ta Kudu, an kiyaye haƙƙin samun ruwa a cikin kundin tsarin mulki kuma ana aiwatar da shi ta hanyar dokoki na yau da kullum. Wannan shaida ce ta ɗan sauye-sauye na fasaha ta biyu ta tsarin mulki wacce ake kira da "tsarin dokokin tallafi" (subsidiary legislation model). Wannan yana nufin cewa babban ɓangare na abubuwan da ke cikin haƙƙin da kuma aiwatar da shi ana yin su ne ta hanyar dokar cikin gida ta yau da kullum mai matsayi na tsarin mulki.[46]

Mazauna Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council

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Shari'ar farko sananniya da kotuna suka yi amfani da wannan tsari ita ce "Mazauna Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council".[47] Shari'ar an shigar da ita ne ta hanyar mazauna wani rukunin gidaje (Bon Vista Mansions), biyo bayan yanke samar da ruwa da Majalisar yankin ta yi, sakamakon rashin biyan kuɗin ruwa. Kotun ta yanke hukuncin cewa, domin yin biyayya ga Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Afirka ta Kudu, a tsarin mulki duk mutane ya kamata su sami damar yin amfani da ruwa a matsayin haƙƙi.[48]

Ƙarin dalilin da ya sa aka yanke wannan shawarar ya dogara ne a kan Sharhi na Gabaɗaya na 12 (General Comment 12) kan Haƙƙin Samun Abinci, wanda Kwamitin Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya Kan Haƙƙoƙin Tattalin Arziki, Zamantakewa da Al'adu ya yi, wanda ke ɗora wa ɓangarorin yarjejeniyar wajibcin kiyayewa da girmama damar da mutane ke da ita a halin yanzu ta samun isasshen abinci ta hanyar rashin aiwatar da kowane irin matakan takawa.[49]

Kotun ta gano cewa dakatar da tushen ruwan da ake da shi, wanda bai bi ƙa'idodin "daidaito da adalci" na Dokar Ayyukan Ruwa ta Afirka ta Kudu ba, ya kasance haramtacce.[50] Wannan shawara ta riga ɗaukar Sharhi na Gabaɗaya na 15 na MDD.[51]

Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An ƙara tattauna batun adadin ruwan da za a samar a cikin shari'ar "Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg".[52] Shari'ar ta mayar da hankali ne a kan rarraba ruwa ta hanyar daddalar daddalar bututu zuwa Phiri, ɗaya daga cikin tsofaffin yankuna na Soweto. Wannan shari'ar ta shafi manyan batutuwa guda biyu: ko manufar birnin game da samar da kyautar ruwa na asali, lita 6,000 (kilolitres 6) a kowane wata ga kowane mai asusun ajiya a birnin tana cin karo da Sashi na 27 of Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Afirka ta Kudu ko Sashi na 11 na Dokar Ayyukan Ruwa.[53] Batun na biyu shi ne ko sanya mita na ruwa na biyan kuɗi tukunna (pre-paid water meters) ya kasance daidai da doka.

An yanke hukunci a cikin Babban Kotun (High Court) cewa dokokin cikin gida na birnin ba su ba da umarnin sanya mita ba kuma sanya su ya kasance haramtacce. Bugu da ƙari, tunda mitocin suna dakatar da samar da ruwa ga mazauna da zarar kyautar ruwan asali ta ƙare, an ɗauki wannan a matsayin dakatar da samar da ruwa ta hanyar da ba ta dace da doka ba. Kotun ta yanke hukuncin cewa ya kamata a samar wa mazauna Phiri kyautar ruwa ta asali lita 50 ga kowane mutum a kowace rana.[54] Ayyukan Cibiyar Nazarin Shari'a (CALS) ta Jami'ar Witwatersrand da ke Johannesburg, Afirka ta Kudu da kuma Pacific Institute da ke Oakland, California, sun raba lambar yabo ta Business Ethics Network BENNY Award na shekarar 2008 saboda ayyukansu a kan wannan shari'ar.[55] Pacific Institute ta ba da shaidar shari'a bisa ga aikin Dr. Peter Gleick wanda ke bayyana haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da kuma ƙayyade buƙatun ruwa na asali na ɗan adam.[56]

Wadanda ake ƙara sun ɗaukaka ƙara zuwa Kotun Ƙoli ta Ɗaukaka Ƙara (SCA) wadda ta yanke hukuncin cewa an tsara manufar ruwa ta birnin ne bisa kuskuren shari'a game da wajibcin birnin na samar da mafi ƙanƙanta adadin da aka tsara a Ma'aunin Ƙasa na Afirka ta Kudu, saboda haka aka soke ta.[57] Kotun ta kuma yanke hukuncin cewa adadin ruwan da ake buƙata don rayuwar ɗan adam mai daraja cikin bin sashi na 27 na kundin tsarin mulki a haƙiƙanin gaskiya lita 42 ne ga kowane mutum a kowace rana maimakon lita 50 ga kowane mutum a kowace rana. Hukumar SCA ta bayyana cewa sanya mitocin ruwa haramtacce ne, amma ta dakatar da aiwatar da umarnin na tsawon shekaru biyu don ba wa birnin damar gyara lamarin.[58]

Batutuwan sun ci gaba zuwa Kotun Tsarin Mulki (Constitutional Court), wadda ta yanke hukuncin cewa aikin da kundin tsarin mulki ya kafa yana buƙatar cewa jiha ta ɗauki matakan doka masu dace da sauran matakai a hankali don cimma haƙƙin samun ruwa, gwargwadon wadatar arzikinta. Kotun Tsarin Mulki ta kuma bayyana cewa al'amari ne na majalisa da sashen zartarwa na gwamnati su yi aiki a cikin iyakokin kasafartansu, kuma binciken shirye-shiryensu al'amari ne na riƙon amana na dimokiraɗiyya. Saboda haka, mafi ƙanƙancin abubuwan da ƙa'ida ta 3(b) ta tsara yana daidai da tsarin mulki, yana barin hukumomi su ƙara adadin zuwa sama, kuma bai dace kotu ta ƙayyade nasarar kowane haƙƙin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki da gwamnati ta ɗauki matakan aiwatarwa ba.[59] Kotunan a maimakon haka sun mayar da hankali kan bincikensu ga ko matakan da Gwamnati ta ɗauka suna da ma'ana, da kuma ko Gwamnati tana duba manufofinta akai-akai.[46] An soki hukuncin saboda yin amfani da "ra'ayi mai iyakancewa na girmama shari'a ba gaira ba dalili".[60]

Indiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shari'o'i biyu mafi fice a ƙasar Indiya game da haƙƙin samun ruwa suna nuna cewa kodayake ba a kiyaye wannan a fito fili ba a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Indiya, kotuna sun fassara cewa haƙƙin rayuwa ya haɗa da haƙƙin samun tsaftataccen ruwa da isasshe.[61]

Kogin Jamuna, kogin da jihar Haryana da birnin Delhi suke amfani da shi

Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A nan, an sami takaddama kan amfani da ruwa sakamakon gaskiyar cewa jihar Haryana tana amfani da Kogin Jamuna don noman rani (irrigation), yayin da mazauna Delhi suke buƙatarsa don sha. An ba da dalilin cewa amfanin gida ya fi amfanin kasuwanci na ruwa muhimmanci, kuma kotu ta yanke hukuncin cewa dole ne Haryana ta ba da damar isasshen ruwa ya isa Delhi don sha da amfanin gida.[62]

Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hakanan abin lura shi ne shari'ar "Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar", inda aka shigar da ƙara ta hanyar shari'ar maslahar jama'a (public interest litigation) game da zubar da daddala ko laka daga wuraren wanke-wanke zuwa cikin Kogin Bokaro. Kotuna sun gano cewa haƙƙin rayuwa, kamar yadda Sashi na 21 na Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Indiya ya kiyaye, ya haɗa da haƙƙin morar ruwa mara gurbatawa.[63] Shari'ar ta gaza bisa ga hujjojin gaskiya kuma an yanke hukuncin cewa an shigar da ƙarar ne ba don kowane maslahar jama'a ba face don maslahar kansa ta mai ƙaran, saboda haka ci gaba da shari'ar zai zama cin zarafin tsari.[62]

Ranar Haƙƙoƙin Ruwa ta Duniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ruwa yana da mahimmanci ga waisuwar rayayyun halittu har da mutane. Saboda haka, samun damar yin amfani da ruwa mai tsarki da isasshe haƙƙi ne na ɗan adam da ba za a iya raba shi ba. Don haka, Ƙungiyar Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) tana ɗaukar da mahimmanci a amince da haƙƙin samun ruwa (tare da tabbataccen mafi ƙanƙancin adadin ruwa ga kowane mutum) ta hanyar ingantaccen tsarin doka da aka bayyana fito fili. Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya tare da yarjejeniyoyinta da dama ta sanya shi ya zama tilas ga dukkan ƙasashe su tabbatar da daidaiton rarraba ruwa a tsakanin dukkan 'yan ƙasa. Haka zalika, ENF ta fara kiyayewa da haɓaka bikin Ranar Haƙƙoƙin Ruwa ta Duniya a ranar 20 ga watan Maris, ranar da Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar ("uba ga Indiya ta zamani") ya jagoranci satyagraha ta farko ta duniya don neman ruwa a shekarar 1927. Ranar Haƙƙoƙin Ruwa ta Duniya tana kiran da a ɗauki doka ta musamman da za ta kafa haƙƙin duniya na samun ruwa. Ƙarƙashin jagororin wanda ya kafa, Dr Priyanand Agale, ENF tana shirya shirye-shirye iri-iri don tabbatar da haƙƙin samun ruwa ga 'yan ƙasar Indiya.[64]

New Zealand

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ba a kiyaye ESCR a fito fili ba a ƙasar New Zealand a halin yanzu, ko dai ta Dokar Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam ko Dokar Haƙƙoƙi (Bill of Rights Acts), saboda haka ba a kare haƙƙin samun ruwa ta hanyar doka a can.[65] Ƙungiyar Shari'a ta New Zealand ta nuna kwanan nan cewa ƙasar za ta ƙara yin la'akari da matsayin shari'a na haƙƙoƙin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu.[66]

Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Babu wani haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da aka amince da shi a matakin tarayya a ƙasar Amurka.[67] Wasu dokokin tarayya suna kare ingancin ruwa:

  • Dokar Amincin Ruwan Sha (Safe Drinking Water Act) tana shafar daddalar samar da ruwa na jama'a, amma ba rijiyoyin kanka ko ruwan kwalba ba
  • Dokar Tsaface Ruwa (Clean Water Act), tana shafar ruwan saman ƙasa na Amurka
  • Dokar Kariya da Maido da Albarkatu (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)
  • Superfund, wanda aka kafa ta Dokar Kula da Muhalli na Gabaɗaya, Diyya, da Alhakki ta shekarar 1980
  • Dokar Manufofin Muhalli ta Ƙasa (National Environmental Policy Act), wacce ke buƙatar bayanan tasirin muhalli amma ba rage tasirin ba

Australia

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hankali a ƙasar Australia ya mayar ne a kan haƙƙoƙin 'Yan Ƙasar Asali na Australia (Indigenous Australians) na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Tarihin mulkin mallaka na mazauna (settler-colonialism) ya mamaye tsarin gudanarwar gwamnati na yau wanda ke tsara amfanin ruwa ga 'yan ƙasar asali. Akwai yarjejeniyoyin gwamnati da yawa, amma yawancinsu ba su cika ba don yin tasiri sosai a kan ikon haƙƙin 'yan ƙasar asali na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. A cikin shari'ar "Mabo v. Queensland" ta shekarar 1992, an amince da haƙƙoƙin 'yan ƙasar asali a shari'ance a karon farko. 'Yan ƙasar asali na Australia galibi suna da'awar alaƙar al'adu da ƙasar. Kodayake an amince da "al'adu" a kotu kamar yadda aka amince da albarkatun ƙasa, darajar al'adu da ta ruhaniya ta Aborigines ga guraren ruwa tana da fuskoki marasa tabbas. Yana da wahala amma kuma ana buƙatar canza darajar al'adunsu da ta ruhaniya zuwa fagen shari'a. A halin yanzu, kusan babu wani ci gaba.[68][69]

Dokar ruwa ta Australia madaidaiciya tana ba da umarnin ruwan saman ƙasa ga 'yan ƙasa waɗanda za su iya amfani da ruwan saman amma ba za su iya mallaka ba. A cikin kundin tsarin mulki, duk da haka, babu wani bayani game da ruwan cikin gida da na gaɓar kogi. Saboda haka, fannin haƙƙoƙin ruwan cikin gida/na gaɓar kogi sune manyan ayyuka na jihohi. Gwamnatin Tarayya (Commonwealth Government) tana samun iko a kan ruwa ta hanyar aron taimakon alaƙar waje, gami da Ikon Tallafi (Grants Power) da Ikon Kasuwanci da Ciniki (Trade and Commerce Power).[68]

A cikin shekarar 2000, Kotun Tarayya ta kammala yarjejeniyar da ta ba wa masu mallakar filaye na asali damar ɗaukar ruwa don amfanin gargajiya. Sai dai, amfanin ya takaita ga al'adun gargajiya kawai, wanda bai haɗa da noman rani a matsayin aikin gargajiya ba.[68]

A watan Yunin 2004, CoAC ta kammala yarjejeniyar tsakanin gwamnatoci kan Tsarin Ruwa na Ƙasa (NWI), tana haɓaka amincewa da haƙƙin 'yan ƙasar asali na samun ruwa. Sai dai, NWI ba ta damu sosai game da daddalar tarihin mulkin mallaka na mazauna ba, wanda ya tsara tsarin rarraba ruwa mara daidaito ta hanyar tsari. Mutanen asali a Australia suna ci gaba da neman haƙƙin samun ruwa.[68][69][70]

Tattaunawa da suka rage

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasiri tsakanin iyakoki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Matakin da Habasha ta ɗauka na cika madatsar ruwa ta Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam zai iya rage kwararar Kogin Nilu da kusan kashi 25% tare da lalata gonakin ƙasar Masar.[71]
Bayan mamaye yankin Crimea da Rasha ta yi, ƙasar Ukraine ta toshe Hanyar Ruwa ta Arewacin Crimea (North Crimean Canal), wacce ke samar da kashi 85% na ruwan sha ga Crimea.[72]

Ganin cewa samun ruwa wani lamari ne da ke shafar iyakokin ƙasashe da kuma zama sanadin takaddama a Gabas ta Tsakiya, Kudancin Asiya, Gabashin Tekun Mediterranean da wasu sassa na Arewacin Amurka da sauran wurare, wasu ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu (NGOs) da masana suna jayayya cewa haƙƙin samun ruwa yana da fuskoki na ketare iyakar ƙasa ko na waje. Suna jayayya cewa tunda hanyoyin samar da ruwa a dabi'ance suna shiga cikin juna kuma suna ketare iyakoki, jihohi suna da hurumin shari'a na kada su yi aiki ta hanyar da za ta iya cutar da morar haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam a sauran ƙasashe.[73] Amincewa a hukumance da wannan wajibci na shari'a zai iya hana mummunan tasiri na "ƙarancin ruwa" na duniya (a matsayin barazanar nan gaba da kuma mummunan sakamako guda ɗaya na yawan jama'a).

Ƙarancin ruwa da ƙaruwar amfani da ruwan sha suna sa wannan haƙƙin ya kasance mai sarkakiya sosai. Yayin da yawan jama'ar duniya ke ƙaruwa cikin sauri, ƙarancin ruwan sha zai haifar da matsaloli da yawa. Ƙarancin adadin ruwa yana kawo tambayar ko ya kamata a canza ruwa daga wata ƙasa zuwa wata ko a'a.[74]

Takaddamar Ruwa Tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Takaddamar ruwa tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan tana samun tasiri ne daga ƙarancin ruwa a yankin Kudancin Asiya.[75] Ƙasashen biyu suna da wata yarjejeniya da ke akwai da ake kira Yarjejeniyar Ruwan Indus (Indus Waters Treaty). An kafa yarjejeniyar ce don takaita rikici tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan game da amfani da rafin Indus da kuma rarraba ruwa ga ƙasashen biyu bayan sun sami 'yancin kai.[76][77] Sai dai, sabani game da ita ya kunno kai. A ƙarƙashin yarjejeniyar, an amince wa Indiya ta yi amfani da rafin kogin yamma don noman rani da sauran amfanin da ba sa cinye ruwan gaba ɗaya, yayin da Pakistan ke da mafi yawancin iko a kan rafin.[78] Amma, Pakistan ta bayyana damuwarta cewa gine-ginen da Indiya ke yi a kogunan na iya haifar da mummunan ƙarancin ruwa a Pakistan.[75] Haka kuma, Pakistan ta bayyana cewa madatsun ruwa da Indiya ta gina don amfanin da ba ya ƙarewa ana iya amfani da su wajen karkatar da kwararar ruwa tare da katse hanyoyin samar da ruwa na Pakistan.[79] Bugu da ƙari, yarjejeniyar ta shafi koguna da suka samo asali daga Jammu da Kashmir, waɗanda aka cire su daga ikon sarrafa albarkatun ruwansu na kansu.[75]

Mayar da ruwa harkar kasuwanci da sabanin samarwa na jiha

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai saɓani game da wanda ke da alhakki, idan ma akwai, na tabbatar da haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Sau da yawa, ra'ayoyi guda biyu suna fitowa daga irin wannan tattaunawa: nauyin jiha ne ta samar da tsaftataccen ruwa ga mutane sabanin mika rarrabawa da tsaftace muhalli ga kamfanoni masu zaman kansu (privatization).[Ana bukatan hujja]

Ana gabatar da mayar da ruwa harkar kasuwanci (commercialization) a matsayin martani ga ƙaruwar ƙarancin ruwa wanda ya samo asali saboda yawan jama'ar duniya ya ninkasu sau uku yayin da buƙatar ruwa ta ƙaru sau shida. Tsarin kasuwar muhalli (market environmentalism) yana amfani da kasuwanni a matsayin mafita ga matsalolin muhalli kamar gurɓataccen muhalli da rashin amfani da albarkatu yadda ya kamata. Masu goyon bayan wannan tsari sun yi amfani da ra'ayin cewa sarrafa ruwa a matsayin kayan tattalin arziki ta hannun kamfanoni masu zaman kansu zai fi inganci fiye da yadda gwamnatoci ke samar da albarkatun ruwa ga 'yan ƙasarsu. Masu goyon bayan hakan suna da'awar cewa kuɗaɗen da gwamnati ke kashewa wajen haɓaka abubuwan more rayuwa don rarraba albarkatun ruwa ba su dace da fa'idodin da ake samu ba, don haka suke ɗaukar jihar a matsayin mai samar da ruwa marar tasiri. Haka kuma, ana jayayya cewa mayar da ruwa haja ta kasuwanci yana haifar da dorewar sarrafa ruwa saboda kwarin gwiwa na tattalin arziki ga masu amfani na yin amfani da ruwa cikin hikima.[80]

Su kuwa masu adawa sun yi imanin cewa sakamakon kasancewar ruwa haƙƙi ne na ɗan adam ya fitar da sa hannun kamfanoni masu zaman kansu, kuma yana buƙatar a ba dukan mutane ruwa saboda yana da mahimmanci ga rayuwa. Samun ruwa a matsayin haƙƙi na ɗan adam yana amfani da shi ta wasu ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu (NGOs) azaman hanyar yaƙi da ƙoƙarin mika shi ga kamfanoni masu zaman kansu. Haƙƙin ɗan adam na samun ruwa "yawanci ya dogara ne akan hujjoji guda biyu: rashin madadin ruwan sha ('mahimmanci ga rayuwa'), da kuma gaskiyar cewa sauran haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam da yawa waɗanda aka amince da su a sarari a cikin Yarjejeniyar MDD sun ginu ne akan samuwa (da aka zata) na ruwa (misali haƙƙin samun abinci)."[81]

Ƙungiyoyi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An jera ƙungiyoyin da ke aiki a kan haƙƙoƙin samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a ƙasa.

Ƙungiyoyin Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hukumomin haɗin gwiwa na gwamnati

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • DFID (Hukumar Haɗin Gwiwa ta Masarautar Birtaniya)
  • GIZ (Kamfanin Jamus don Haɗin Gwiwar Ƙasa da Ƙasa)
  • SDC (Hukumar Swiss don Ci gaba da Haɗin Gwiwa)[82]
  • EPA (Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka)[83]Samfuri:Failed verification

Ƙungiyoyi da hanyoyin sadarwa masu zaman kansu na ƙasa da ƙasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Yaki da Yunwa (Action against Hunger - ACF)
  • Blood:Water[84]
  • Cibiyar Tsaron Ruwa da Haɗin Gwiwa (Center for Water Security and Cooperation)[85]
  • Hanyar Sadarwa ta Ayyukan Ruwa Mai Daɗi (Freshwater Action Network - FAN)[86]
  • Ruwa Mai Tsarki ga Duniya (Pure Water for the World)[87]
  • Aikin DigDeep na Haƙƙin Ruwa (The DigDeep Right to Water Project)[88]
  • Pacific Institute[89]
  • Aikin Ruwa (The Water Project)[90]
  • Transnational Institute tare da aikin Adalcin Ruwa (Water Justice project)[91]
  • UUSC[92]
  • WaterAid
  • WaterLex (ta daina aiki tun daga shekarar 2020)[93]
  • PeaceJam
  • Thirst Project

Manazarta.

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ https://www.rfi.fr/ha/tag/hakkin-dan-adam/
  2. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":1".
  3. ↑ Archived 3 ga Yuli, 2017 at the Wayback Machine ,2015 report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation
  4. 1 2 General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.
  5. 1 2 3 Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.
  6. ↑ "Drinking-water". www.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  7. ↑ "Transforming Water Access: How the "World's Lifeblood" is Under Attack". USGLC (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  8. ↑ SeventhQueen; Wolf, Jared (8 June 2022). "The truth behind clean water in Africa 2022". Sustainable Review (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  9. ↑ Advocacy, W. V. (22 March 2022). "How Improving Clean Water Access Can Fight Global Hunger". World Vision Advocacy (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  10. ↑ "Building access to clean water in support of Sustainable Development Goal 6 | UNICEF Supply Division". www.unicef.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  11. ↑ Greenwood, Esther E.; Lauber, Thomas; van den Hoogen, Johan; Donmez, Ayca; Bain, Robert E. S.; Johnston, Richard; Crowther, Thomas W.; Julian, Timothy R. (16 August 2024). "Mapping safe drinking water use in low- and middle-income countries". Science (in Turanci). 385 (6710): 784–790. Bibcode:2024Sci...385..784G. doi:10.1126/science.adh9578. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 39146419 Check |pmid= value (help).
  12. ↑ Ford, Celia (15 August 2024). "More than 4 billion people don't have access to clean water at home". Vox (in Turanci). Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  13. ↑ "Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women". United Nations. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  14. ↑ The full text of the Convention on the rights of the child is available at: "Convention on the Rights of the Child". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 20 November 1989. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2010..
  15. ↑ The text of the Convention is available here: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities
  16. ↑ Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305
  17. ↑ Meier, Benjamin Mason; Kayser, Georgia; Amjad, Urooj; Bartram, Jamie (15 November 2012). "Implementing an Evolving Human Right Through Water and Sanitation Policy". Water Policy (in Turanci). Rochester, N.Y. 15. SSRN 2015424.
  18. 1 2 , McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.
  19. 1 2 , Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.
  20. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":0".
  21. ↑ "Resources and Information". ww1.unhchr.ch. Archived from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  22. ↑ "righttowater - Just another WordPress site". righttowater (in Turanci). Retrieved 27 November 2020.
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