Jump to content

Haƙƙin a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da aikata laifin

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
zato na rashin laifi
general principles of French law (en) Fassara da Haƙƙoƙi
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na rebuttable presumption (en) Fassara
Fuskar due process (en) Fassara
Babban tsarin rubutu Gamayyar Sanarwa na Yancin Dan'adam, Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Siyasa, Yarjejeniyar Turai kan Haƙƙin Dan Adam da Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (en) Fassara
Hannun riga da Tsinkaya da laifi da Q19283764 Fassara

It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer.[1]

Tsinkaya na rashin Laifi ka'idar doka ce cewa, kowane mutum da ake zargi da kowane laifi ana daukar shi mara Laifi har sai an tabbatar da ya aikata laifi. A karkashin zaton rashin laifi, nauyin shari'a na tabbatarwa ya kasance a kan mai gabatar da kara, wanda dole ne ya gabatar da shaidar da ta tilasta wa mai gudanar da shari'ar gaskiyar (Alƙali ko juri). Idan mai gabatar da kara bai tabbatar da zargin gaskiya ba, to an wanke mutumin daga zargin. Mai gabatar da kara dole ne a mafi yawan lokuta ya tabbatar da cewa wanda ake tuhuma yana da laifi ba tare da wata shakka ba. Idan akwai shakku mai ma'ana, dole ne a wanke wanda ake tuhuma. Saɓanin tsarin shine zaton laifi.

A cikin ƙasashe da yawa kuma a ƙarƙashin tsarin shari'a da yawa, gami da doka ta al'ada da tsarin dokar farar hula (kada a rikita shi da sauran nau'ikan dokar farar fata, wanda ke hulɗa da batutuwan shari'a marasa laifi), zaton rashin laifi haƙƙin doka ne na wanda ake tuhuma a cikin shari'ar laifi. Har ila yau, Hakkin ɗan adam ne na duniya a ƙarƙashin sanarwar haƙƙin ɗanɗano ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, Mataki na 11.

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dokar Romawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Digest na ƙarni na shida na Justinian (22.3.2) ya ba da, a matsayin babban ƙa'idar shaida: Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat [2] - "Tabba ta kasance a kansa wanda ya tabbatar, ba a kansa wanda ke musantawa ba". [3] A can ne aka danganta shi ga lauyan ƙarni na biyu da na uku Julius Paulus . An gabatar da shi a cikin dokar aikata laifuka ta Romawa ta sarki Antoninus Pius .

Tsarin dokar farar hula tsarin shari'a ne na zamani wanda aka samo daga tsarin shari'ar Romawa na dā (kamar yadda ya saba da tsarin dokar Ingilishi). Ƙasashe da yawa da ke amfani da tsarin dokar farar hula sun karɓi ƙa'idar da kwatankwacin ta, gami da ƙasashe kamar su: Brazil, [4] China, Faransa, [5] Italiya, [6] Philippines, [4] Poland, [4] Romania [4] da Spain [4] .[7][8][9][10]

Dokar Talmud

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cewar Talmud, "kowane mutum ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifinsa. Don haka dole ne a jinkirta aiwatar da tsauraran matakan da ba a saba gani ba a kan wanda ake tuhuma har sai an samu nasarar ƙalubalantar rashin laifinsa. Don haka, a farkon matakin shari'ar, muhawarar da ake yi a kan kare lafiyarsa ta kasance dalla-dalla kamar yadda ake yi wa kowane mutum da ake yi masa shari'a. Sai dai lokacin da laifinsa ya bayyana a fili ne aka ba da kariya ga waɗanda ake tuhuma.".

Dokar Musulunci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsinkaya na rashin laifi yana da mahimmanci ga dokar musulunci inda ƙa'idar cewa nauyin tabbatarwa yana kan mai tuhuma ko mai da'awar yana da ƙarfi, bisa ga hadith da Imam Nawawi ya rubuta. "Suspicion" kuma an hukunta shi sosai, wannan kuma daga hadisi da Imam Nawawi da Imam Bukhari da Imam Muslim suka rubuta.

Bayan lokacin Muhammadu, an kuma ambaci KHalifa na huɗu Ali ibn Abi Talib ya ce, "Ka guje wa hukuncin da aka tsara ta hanyar kin amincewa da shaidar shakku".

Dokar Turai ta Tsakiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan rushewar Daular Romawa ta Yamma, Yammacin ya kuma fara yin doka ta feudal, wanda shine haɗuwa da fannoni na dokar Romawa da kuma wasu al'adun Jamusanci bisa ga sabon ƙwararru, gami da zargin laifi. Misali, wanda ake tuhuma zai iya tabbatar da rashin laifi ta hanyar yin rantsuwa da mutane goma sha biyu cewa ba zai iya yin abin da ake zargi da shi ba. A aikace, wannan ya nuna fifiko ga masu daraja a kan ƙananan ɗalibai, waɗanda shaidun su ke cikin haɗarin ganin su a matsayin marasa gaskiya.[11]

Gwaje-gwaje ta hanyar wahala sun kasance sananne ne daga ƙarni na 6 har zuwa farkon ƙarni na 13, kuma an san su da ci gaba zuwa ƙarni na 17 a cikin hanyar farautar maƙaryaci. Yayinda ya zama ruwan dare a farkon dokar Jamusanci, Paparoma Innocent III ya karɓi compurgation a hukumance a Roma a cikin shekara ta 1215 a Majalisar Lateran ta huɗu kuma an haramta gwajin wuta da ruwa musamman. Wannan ya kasance a lokacin ci gaban yankin jus, dokar canon na Cocin Katolika ta rinjayi dokar gama gari a lokacin tsakiyar zamani

A farkon ƙarni na 13, Louis IX na Faransa ya haramta duk fitina ta hanyar wahala kuma ya gabatar da zaton rashin laifi ga hanyoyin aikata laifuka. Wannan bai daɗe ba kuma amfani da azabtarwa, wanda ake kira "tambayar da ta dace" kuma an raba shi zuwa "tambaya ta yau da kullun" (tambayar azabtarwa mai sauƙi) da "tambatar da ta musamman" (tutuwa mai tsanani), wanda aka yi amfani da shi a kan alƙalin da ake zargi da aikata laifi, zai kasance har zuwa gabashin juyin juya halin ƙasar Faransa.

Ma'anar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Sir William Garrow ya kirkiro kalmar nan "an ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi", yana mai da hankali ga cewa masu tuhumar da ake tuhumar su da shaidun su a kotu.

"Tunanin rashin laifi" yana aiki ne don jaddada cewa mai gabatar da ƙara yana da wajibin tabbatar da kowane ɓangare na laifin ba tare da wata shakka ba (ko wasu matakan hujja dangane da tsarin shari'ar aikata laifuka) kuma cewa wanda ake tuhuma ba shi da nauyin hujja. Sau da yawa ana bayyana wannan a cikin kalmar "an ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi", wanda lauya Burtaniya Sir William Garrow (1760-1840) ya ƙirƙiro a lokacin shari'ar shekarar 1791 a Old Bailey. Garrow ya nace cewa a gwada masu tuhuma sosai a kotu. Mai lura da manufa a matsayin mai Shari'a ko juri dole ne ya tabbatar da cewa wanda ake tuhuma kusan tabbas ya aikata laifin. A cikin shekarar 1935, a cikin hukuncinsa na Woolmington v Darakta na Masu gabatar da kara, Kotun daukaka kara ta Ingila daga baya za ta bayyana wannan ra'ayi a matsayin 'tsarin zinariya' da ke gudana ta hanyar yanar gizo na dokar aikata laifuka ta ƙasar Ingila. Sanarwar Garrow ita ce ta farko da aka bayyana game da wannan.[12]

Da farko an bayyana zaton rashin laifi ne daga masanin shari'a na ƙasar Faransa kuma mai shari'a Jean Lemoine a cikin kalmar nan "item quilbet presumitur innocens nisi probetur nocens (an ɗauka mutum marar laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi) ", bisa ga ƙaddamar da doka cewa yawancin mutane ba masu laifi ba ne. Wannan yana nufin ba kawai gaskiyar cewa nauyin hujjoji ya dogara ne akan mai gabatar da kara a cikin shari'ar laifi ba, amma kariya da ya kamata a ba wanda ake tuhuma: sanarwa ta farko game da zargin da ake yi musu, haƙƙin gwagwarmaya, haƙƙin lauya, da dai sauransu. A zahiri ana ɗaukar tabbacin da ya dace ga wanda ake tuhuma wanda ke shiga shari'a ta atomatik. Yana buƙatar mai gwada gaskiyar, ko mai juri ne ko alƙali, ya fara da zaton cewa jihar ba ta iya tallafawa da'awarta ba.[13] Don tabbatar da cewa ana kiyaye wannan kariya ta shari'a, jerin dokoki guda uku masu alaƙa suna sarrafa tsarin shari'ar aikata laifuka. Wannan zato yana nufin:

  1. Game da muhimman abubuwan da suka faru na shari'ar - ko an aikata laifin da ake tuhuma kuma ko wanda ake tuhuma shine mutumin da ya aikata laifin - jihar tana da dukkan nauyin tabbatarwa.
  2. Dangane da mahimman abubuwan da ke cikin shari'ar, wanda ake tuhuma ba shi da wani nauyin tabbatarwa. Wanda ake tuhuma ba lallai bane ya ba da shaida, ya kira shaidu ko ya gabatar da wata shaida, kuma idan wanda ake tuhuma ya zaɓi kada ya ba da shaidar ko ya gabatar, ba za a iya amfani da wannan shawarar a kansu ba.
  3. Mai Shari'a ko alƙali ba za su sami wani mummunan ra'ayi daga gaskiyar cewa an tuhumi wanda ake tuhuma da laifi kuma yana cikin kotu kuma lauya ne ke wakilta. Dole ne su yanke shawarar shari'ar ne kawai a kan shaidar da aka gabatar a lokacin shari'ar.

Rahoton Blackstone kamar yadda lauyan ƙasar Ingila William Blackstone ya bayyana a cikin aikinsa na asali, Commentaries on the Laws of England, wanda aka buga a cikin shekara ta 1760, ya ce:

Throughout the web of the English criminal law one golden thread is always to be seen—that it is the duty of the prosecution to prove the prisoner's guilt subject to what I have already said as to the defence of insanity and subject also to any statutory exception...

Wannan ra'ayin daga baya ya zama babban tunani na shari'a a cikin ikon Anglo-Saxon kuma ya ci gaba da zama batun muhawara.

Wannan aikin a kan mai gabatar da kara an san shi da "gwargwadon zinariya" a cikin dokar aikata laifuka ta Ubangiji Sankey LC a cikin Woolmington da DPP:  

Haƙƙi na asali

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wannan haƙƙin yana da mahimmanci a cikin mulkin demokraɗiyya na zamani, mulkin mallaka na tsarin mulki da jamhuriya waɗanda mutane da yawa sun haɗa shi a bayyane a cikin ƙa'idojin shari'a da kundin tsarin mulki kamar haka:

  • Sanarwar Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Mataki na 11, ta ce: "Kowane mutum da ake tuhuma da laifin kisa yana da damar a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da shi da laifi bisa ga doka a cikin shari'ar jama'a inda yake da duk tabbacin da ake bukata don kare shi".
  • Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Bil'adama da Siyasa, sashi na 14, sakin layi na 2 ya bayyana cewa "Kowane wanda ake tuhuma da laifi zai sami damar a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da shi da laifi bisa ga doka. " An kuma tsara zaton rashin laifi a cikin Sashe na 66 na Dokar Roma ta Kotun Shari'a ta Duniya, bisa ga abin da "Kowane mutum za a ɗauka ba tare da laifi ba har sai an nuna shi da laifi a gaban Kotun bisa ga dokar da ta dace".
  • yarjejeniya Kare Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam da Ƴancin Musamman na Majalisar Turai ta ce (mataki na 6.2): "Kowane wanda ake tuhuma da laifi za a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi bisa ga doka. " Wannan yarjejeniyar an karɓe ta yarjejeniya kuma tana ɗaure dukkan mambobin Majalisar Turai. A halin yanzu (kuma a cikin kowane faɗaɗa EU) kowace ƙasa memba na Tarayyar Turai ita ma memba ce a Majalisar Turai, don haka wannan yana tsaye ga membobin EU a matsayin al'amari. Duk da haka, wannan da'awar an sake maimaita shi a zahiri a cikin Mataki na 48 na Yarjejeniyar Haƙƙi na Tushen Tarayyar Turai.
  • A cikin ƙasar Burtaniya, ana ba da zaton rashin laifi ta hanyar sashi na 6 na Dokar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta 1998, wanda ke da niyyar haɗa haƙƙoƙin da ke cikin Yarjejeniyar Turai kan' Yancin Dan Adam da aka ambata a sama.[14]
  • Mataki na 8 (1) da 8 (2) (dama ga shari'a mai adalci), tare da Mataki na 1 (1) (daidaitawa don girmamawa da tabbatar da hakkoki ba tare da nuna bambanci ba), na Yarjejeniyar Amurka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam ta sa Kotun Amurka ta jaddada cewa "tsinkayawar rashin laifi shine ka'ida mai jagora a cikin shari'o'in aikata laifuka da kuma ka'ida ta zama mai ma'anawa, da rashin son kai don karyata aikin rashin laifi. Kotun ta sake tabbatar da laifin ta tabbatar da laifuffukan ta zama mai laifi don tabbatar da laifi.
  • A Brazil, Mataki na 5, batun LVII na Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya ce: "babu wanda za a dauki laifi har sai an kai ga hukuncin kisa na ƙarshe".
  • A Kanada, sashi na 11 (d) na Yarjejeniyar 'Yancin Kanada da' Yanci ya ce: "Duk wanda ake tuhuma da laifi yana da damar a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi bisa ga doka a cikin sauraron adalci da jama'a ta kotun mai zaman kanta da rashin son kai".
  • A cikin kundin tsarin mulkin Colombia, Title II, Babi na 1, Mataki na 29 ya bayyana cewa "Kowane mutum ana zaton ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi bisa ga doka".
  • A Faransa, Mataki na 9 na Sanarwar 'Yancin Mutum da na Dan kasa na shekara ta 1789, wanda ke da iko a matsayin dokar kundin Tsarin Mulki, ya fara: "Duk wani mutum da ake zaton ba shi da laifi har sai an bayyana shi da laifi ..." Dokar Shari'a ta bayyana a cikin labarin farko cewa "duk wanda ake zargi ko gurfanar da shi ana zaton ba a kafa laifin su ba" kuma rantsuwar masu juriya' ta maimaita wannan ikirarin (mataki na 304; lura cewa kawai manyan laifuka ne kawai masu hukunci a Faransa).[5][15] Wani sanannen kuskuren shine cewa, a karkashin dokar Faransa, ana ɗaukar wanda ake tuhuma da laifi har sai an tabbatar da shi ba shi da laifi. 
  • A Iran, Mataki na 37 na Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Jamhuriyar Musulunci ta Iran ya ce: "Ya kamata a ɗauka cewa ba shi da laifi, kuma babu wanda za a same shi da laifi sai dai idan kotun da ta dace ta tabbatar da laifinsa".
  • A ƙasar Italiya, sakin layi na biyu na Mataki na 27 na Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya ce: "Za a dauki wanda ake tuhuma ba shi da laifi har sai an yanke hukunci na ƙarshe".[16]
  • A Romania, Mataki na 23 na Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya bayyana cewa "kowane mutum za a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an same shi da laifi ta hanyar yanke shawara ta ƙarshe ta kotun".
  • Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Rasha, a cikin Mataki na 49, ya bayyana cewa "Kowane wanda ake tuhuma da laifi za a ɗauke shi ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifinsa dai-dai da dokar tarayya kuma an kafa shi ta hanyar hukuncin kotun shari'a". Har ila yau, ya bayyana cewa "Ba za a tilasta wa wanda ake tuhuma ya tabbatar da rashin laifi ba" kuma "Duk wata shakka mai ma'ana za a fassara ta a madadin wanda ake tuhumar".
  • A cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Afirka ta Kudu, sashi na 35 (3) (h) na Dokar 'Yancin ya ce: "Kowane mutum da ake tuhuma yana da 'yancin yin shari'a mai kyau, wanda ya haɗa da' yancin da za a ɗauka ba shi da laifi, ya yi shiru, kuma kada ya ba da shaida yayin shari'a".
  • Kodayake Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka bai ambaci shi a bayyane ba, ana zaton rashin laifi a ko'ina don biyo baya daga Kwaskwarimar Biyar, Na shida, da Na goma sha huɗu. Shari'ar Coffin v. Amurka (1895) ta kafa zaton rashin laifi na mutanen da ake zargi da laifuka. Dubi kuma In re Winship .A cikin Winship.
  • A New Zealand, New Zealand Bill of Rights 1990 ya ba da a sashi na 25 (c) "Kowane wanda ake tuhuma da laifi yana da, dangane da ƙaddamar da cajin, mafi ƙarancin haƙƙoƙi masu zuwa: (c) haƙƙin da za a ɗauka ba shi da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi bisa ga doka".
  • A cikin Tarayyar Turai, ban da Yarjejeniyar Hakki na Musamman, ana kuma kare zaton rashin laifi ta hanyar Dokokin (EU) 2016/343 na Majalisar Tarayyar Tarayyar Duniya da Majalisar ta 9 ga Maris 2016 kan karfafa wasu fannoni na zaton rashin rashin laifi da kuma haƙƙin kasancewa a shari'ar a cikin shari'ar aikata laifuka (Directive). Mataki na 3 ya bayyana cewa: Kasashen membobin za su tabbatar da cewa ana zaton wadanda ake zargi da wadanda ake tuhuma ba su da laifi har sai an tabbatar da laifi bisa ga doka. An bayyana manufar umarnin a cikin Mataki na 1. Matsayin shi ne ya kafa mafi ƙarancin dokoki game da: (a) wasu fannoni na zaton rashin laifi a cikin shari'o'in aikata laifuka; (b) haƙƙin kasancewa a cikin shariʼar a cikin shari" a cikin shari ƴancin aikata Laifuka.

Ayyuka na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙasar Ingila

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Muƙala ta 48 na Yarjejeniyar Hakki na Musamman na Tarayyar Turai ya tabbatar da haƙƙin zaton rashin laifi.

A cikin Ƙasar Ingila an yi canje-canje da suka shafi wannan ƙa'idar. Za a iya bayyana hukuncin da ake tuhuma a wasu yanayi ga alƙali. Koda yake ba a tilasta wa wanda ake zargi ya amsa tambayoyin ba bayan kama shi, rashin ba da bayanai yanzu na iya zama mai nuna bambanci a shari'a. Dokar doka ta wanzu kuma wacce ke ba da hukuncin aikata laifuka don rashin warware bayanai bisa buƙatar ƴan sanda. Idan wanda ake zargi bai yarda ya yi hakan ba, laifi ne.[17] Saboda haka ana iya yanke wa ƴan ƙasa hukunci kuma a ɗaure su ba tare da wata shaida ba cewa kayan da aka ɓoye ba bisa ka'ida ba ne. Bugu da ƙari, a cikin shari'o'in aikata laifuka na jima'i kamar fyaɗe, inda aka riga an tabbatar da jima'i ba tare da wata shakka ba, akwai ƙananan yanayi inda wanda ake tuhuma ke da alhakin gabatar da shaidar cewa mai shigar da ƙara ya yarda da aikin jima'i, ko kuma wanda ake tuhumar ya yi imanin cewa mai shigarwa ya yarda. Waɗannan yanayi sun haɗa da, alal misali, inda mai shigar da ƙara ba shi da hankali, an tsare shi ba bisa ƙa'ida ba, ko kuma an yi masa tashin hankali.[18]

Kanada

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin Dokar Kanada, an karfafa zaton rashin laifi a wasu lokuta. Dokar Laifuka a baya ta ƙunshi tanadi da yawa wanda ke da alhakin kare wasu laifuka: wato, idan wanda ake tuhuma yana so ya yi wannan kare, dole ne su tabbatar da gaskiyar kare zuwa ma'auni na yiwuwar, maimakon Crown ya ƙaryata kare fiye da wata shakka. Wannan yana nufin cewa wanda ake tuhuma a wasu yanayi na iya zama da laifi ko da akwai shakku game da laifin su. A lokuta da yawa, an gano tanadi daban-daban na sake fasalin don keta zaton tanadin rashin laifi na Yarjejeniyar 'Yancin Kanada da' Yanci. An maye gurbin su da hanyoyin da wanda ake tuhuma kawai ya nuna "iska na gaskiya" ga tsaron da aka tsara, bayan haka nauyin ya koma ga Crown don karyata tsaron.

Bill C-51, Dokar da za ta yi gyare-gyare ga Dokar Laifuka da Dokar Ma'aikatar Shari'a da kuma yin gyare- gyare-gine ga wani Dokar, ta sami Royal Assent a cikin watan Disambar shekara ta 2018. Daga cikin wasu abubuwa, ya kawar da tanadi da yawa na juyawa daga Dokar Laifuka, wasu daga cikinsu a baya an same su ba bisa ƙa'ida ba, wasu kuma da farko don kauce wa ƙarin ƙalubalen Yarjejeniya.[19]

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "Commentaries on the laws of England". J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1893.
  2. ↑ "Digesta seu Pandectae 22.3.2". Université Pierre-Mendès-France. Archived from the original on 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  3. ↑ Alan Watson (legal scholar). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ↑ "Decree-Law 3689". August 2012.
  5. 1 2 Code de procédure pénale, article préliminaire (in French)
  6. ↑ "ForoEuropo Italia". Foroeuropeo.it. Archived from the original on 2010-06-11. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  7. ↑ "Assomedici.It". Assomedici.It. 1993-01-29. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  8. ↑ "National Constitutional Law Related to Article 48 – Presumption of Innocence and Right to Defence". European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. Archived from the original on 2012-07-11. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  9. ↑ "Constitution of Romania, Article 23". Archived from the original on 2020-04-04. Retrieved 2013-06-13.
  10. ↑ Valentin Anders (2010-09-08). "Latin legal maxims in Spanish". Latin.dechile.net. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  11. ↑ "Law in the Middle Ages". The Finer Times. 29 May 2012. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
  12. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "WP".
  14. ↑ "Your right to a fair trial". www.citizensadvice.org.uk (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-02-14.
  15. ↑ Code de procédure pénale, article 304 (in French).
  16. ↑ "The Italian Constitution" (PDF). The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic. Archived from the original on 2016-11-27.
  17. ↑ "OPSI.gov.uk". OPSI.gov.uk. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  18. ↑ "legislation.gov.uk". legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 2011-04-27.
  19. ↑ Government of Canada, Department of Justice (7 June 2017). "Questions and Answers - Cleaning up the Criminal Code, Clarifying and Strengthening Sexual Assault Law, and Respecting the Charter". www.justice.gc.ca. Retrieved 31 July 2019.

Hanyoyin Haɗin waje

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haƙƙin_a_ɗauka_ba_shi_da_laifi_har_sai_an_tabbatar_da_aikata_laifin&oldid=721928"