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Hanyar tsakiyaa

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Hanyar tsakiyaa
trade route (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na African slave trade (en) Fassara
Bangare na Cinikin guda ukku da Kasuwancin bayi na Atlantika
Ƙasantuwa a yanayin ƙasa Tekun Atalanta

Hanyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar ita ce matakin cinikin bayi na Atlantic inda miliyoyin 'yan Afirka da aka sayar da su don bautar [1] aka tilasta musu zuwa Amurka a matsayin wani ɓangare na cinikin bayi mai kusurwa uku. Jiragen ruwa sun tashi daga Turai zuwa kasuwannin Afirka tare da kayayyaki da aka kera (bangaren farko na triangle), waɗanda aka yi ciniki da su ga ƴan Afirka da aka kama. Jiragen ruwa na bauta sun kai fursunonin Afirka ta tekun Atlantika (gefen na biyu na triangle). Daga nan ne aka yi amfani da kuɗin da aka samu daga sayar da waɗannan bayi da aka yi amfani da su don siyan kayayyaki kamar su fur da fatu, taba, sukari, rum, da kayan daɗaɗɗa, [2] wadanda za a mayar da su zuwa Turai (bangaren uku na triangle, kammala shi).

Hanya ta farko ita ce tattakin tilas da ‘yan Afirka suka yi daga gidajensu na cikin gida, inda sarakunan wasu kasashen Afirka ko kuma ‘yan kabilarsu suka kama su domin bautar da su zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa na Afirka. Anan aka daure su har aka sayar da su aka dora su a cikin jirgi. Ƙarshen Ƙarshe ita ce tafiya daga tashar jirgin ruwa na Amurka zuwa shuka ko wata manufa don bautar da aikin tilastawa. Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tekun Atlantika ta haɗu da waɗannan biyun. Tafiya a kan Hanyar Tsakiya ta kasance manyan ayyuka na kudi, wanda kamfanoni ko ƙungiyoyin masu zuba jari suka tsara gabaɗaya maimakon daidaikun mutane[3]

Jirgin bauta na farko na Turai ya kwashe ’yan Afirka da aka yi garkuwa da su daga São Tomé zuwa New Spain a shekara ta 1525. ‘Yan kasuwan Portugal da Holland sun mamaye kasuwancin a ƙarni na 16 da 17, ko da yake a ƙarni na 18 da Ingila da Faransa suka maye gurbinsu. Sauran kasashen Turai da ke da hannu sun hada da Spain, Denmark-Norway, Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, Prussia, da wasu biranen Italiya da kuma 'yan kasuwa daga Amurka. 'Yan Afirka da aka bautar sun fito galibi daga yankunan Senegambia, Upper Guinea, Windward Coast, Gold Coast, Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, da Angola,[4] da haɓaka motsi na kawar da kai a Turai da Amurka, cinikin bayi na transatlantic ya ragu sannu a hankali har sai an kawar da shi gaba ɗaya a cikin rabin na biyu na karni na 19.[5]].[6]

Bisa ga bincike na zamani, an kai kusan mutane miliyan 15 bayi daga Afirka ta Tsakiyar Tsakiya zuwa Amurka.[7] An yi jigilar su cikin mummunan yanayi, maza da mata sun rabu, a hayin Tekun Atlantika. Mutuwar ta yi yawa; masu karfin jiki sun tsira. Ma'aikatan jirgin sun yi wa matasa mata da 'yan mata fyade. Kimanin kashi 19 cikin 100 na su sun mutu a lokacin balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron balaguron bala'in ya shafa, inda adadin mace-macen ya haura a nahiyar Afirka da kanta a lokacin da ake gudanar da kamawa da kuma kai mutanen da ake bautar zuwa gabar teku.[8] adadain adadin mace-macen kai tsaye da ake dangantawa da balaguron wucewa ta Tsakiya ya kai miliyan biyu; Idan aka yi la’akari da mace-macen Afirka kai tsaye da ake dangantawa da cibiyar bauta daga shekara ta 1500 zuwa 1900 na nuni da mutuwar mutane miliyan hudu.[9] An dauki "Tsarin wucewa" lokaci ne na tsaka-tsaki inda 'yan Afirka da aka kama suka kulla alaka ta dangi, wanda hakan ya haifar da tilastawa al'ummomin transatlantic.[10]

Tafiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Taswirar cinikin triangular

Hoton jirgin bawa daga cinikin bayi na Atlantic. Daga Abstract na Shaidar da aka gabatar a gaban zaɓaɓɓen kwamiti na House of Commons a 1790 da 1791.

Bayanin Brookes, jirgin bayi na Burtaniya, 1787 Tsawon lokacin balaguron tekun Atlantika ya bambanta sosai,[11] daga wata ɗaya zuwa shida ya danganta da yanayin yanayi. Tafiya ta zama mafi inganci a cikin ƙarni: yayin da matsakaicin tafiya na transatlantic na farkon karni na 16 ya ɗauki watanni da yawa, a karni na 19 ketare yakan buƙaci ƙasa da makonni biyar zuwa bakwai.[12] [13] Tun farko dai ana sayar da fursunonin yaƙi ga Turawa, amma lokacin da ƙasashen Afirka suka koyi mugunyar tsarin bautar, sai suka ƙi sayar da maƙwabtansu da aka kama. Masu garkuwa da mutane masu zaman kansu sun sayar da mutanen ga Turawa wadanda ke rike da sansanoni da dama a bakin teku. Wadannan maza da mata da kananan yara kan yi tattaki ne da karfi zuwa wadannan tashoshin jiragen ruwa da ke yammacin gabar tekun Afirka, inda ake sayar da su ga masu fataucin bayi na Turai ko Amurkawa a cikin baraguzan ruwa. Yawancin jiragen ruwa na bayi sun ƙunshi bayi ɗari da yawa tare da ma'aikatan jirgin kusan 30.[14]

An daure mutanen da aka kama da sarka bibbiyu don adana sarari; ƙafar dama zuwa ƙafar hagu na mutum na gaba-yayin da mata da yara na iya samun ɗan daki. An san sarƙoƙi ko sarƙoƙin hannu da ƙafa da suna bilboes, waɗanda ke cikin yawancin kayan aikin cinikin bayi, waɗanda a koyaushe suke ƙarancin wadata. An fi amfani da Bilboes akan maza, kuma sun ƙunshi ƙuƙumman ƙarfe guda biyu da aka kulle a kan maƙala kuma yawanci ana ɗaure su a ƙafafu na maza biyu.[15] Mafi kyawu, ana ciyar da bayi da aka kama, wake, masara, dawa, shinkafa, da dabino, sau ɗaya kowace rana da ruwa, in ba haka ba. Lokacin da abinci ya yi karanci, masu bautar bayi suna da fifiko kan bayi[16] wani lokaci ana barin waɗanda aka kama su yi yawo da rana, amma jiragen ruwa da yawa suna riƙe da sarƙoƙi[17]

Yawancin masana tarihi na zamani sun kiyasta cewa tsakanin 9.4 zuwa 12.6 'yan Afirka miliyan sun hau sabuwar duniya.,[18] [19] [20] Cuta da yunwa saboda tsayin hanya sune manyan abubuwan da suka haifar da mutuwar amoebic dysentery da scurvy wanda ke haifar da mafi yawan mutuwar[21] Bugu da ƙari, barkewar cutar sankarau, syphilis, kyanda, da sauran cututtuka sun bazu cikin sauri a cikin dakunan da ke kusa.[22]

Yawan mace-mace ya karu da tsawon tafiyar, tun lokacin da cutar sankarau da scurvy ya karu tare da tsayin daka a cikin teku yayin da inganci da adadin abinci da ruwa ya ragu. Bugu da ƙari, ciwon jiki, da yawa daga cikin bayi sun yi baƙin ciki sosai don ci ko aiki yadda ya kamata saboda asarar ’yanci, iyali, tsaro, da kuma nasu ɗan adam.[23]

Fasahar jirgin ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sha'awar samun riba a cikin tattalin arzikin kasuwar Atlantika na ƙarni na 18 ya haifar da sauye-sauye na ƙirar jiragen ruwa da sarrafa kayan da mutane ke ɗauka, waɗanda suka haɗa da bayin Afirka da galibin ma'aikatan jirgin na Turai. Inganta kwararar iska a cikin jiragen ya taimaka wajen rage yawan mace-macen da wadannan jiragen suka yi suna a tsawon karni na 16 da 17. Sabbin zane-zanen da ke ba jiragen ruwa damar tafiya da sauri da kuma shiga cikin bakin koguna sun tabbatar da samun damar shiga wasu wuraren bautar da ke gabar tekun Afirka ta Yamma.[24] adadin kuɗin da 'yan Afirka da ke bauta a duk wani shingen gwanjo na Amurka a tsakiyar karni na 18 ya kai tsakanin dala 800 zuwa dala 1,200, wanda a zamanin yau zai yi daidai da dala 32,000-48,000 ga kowane mutum ($ 100 to yanzu ya kai $4,000 saboda hauhawar farashin kaya). Don haka, shugabannin jiragen ruwa da masu zuba jari sun nemi fasahar da za ta kare kayansu na ɗan adam.[25] [26] [27]

Maganin bayi da juriya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Maganin mutanen da aka bautar ya kasance mai ban tsoro saboda maza da matan Afirka da aka kama da ake ganin ba su kai ɗan adam ba; ga bayi, sun kasance "kayan kaya", ko "kaya", kuma ana bi da su kamar haka. Mata masu yara ba su da sha'awar bautar da su, don sun ɗauki sarari da yawa, kuma ba a son yara masu tasowa saboda kulawa ta yau da kullum.[28] misali, Zong, wani jirgin bauta na Biritaniya, ya ɗauki bayi da yawa a kan tafiya zuwa sabuwar duniya a 1781. cunkoson jama'a tare da rashin abinci mai gina jiki da cututtuka sun kashe ma'aikatan jirgin da yawa kuma kusan 60 sun zama bayi. Mummunan yanayi ya sa tafiyar ta Zong ta yi tafiyar hawainiya kuma rashin ruwan sha ya zama abin damuwa. Ma'aikatan jirgin sun yanke shawarar nutsar da wasu bayi a cikin teku, don adana ruwa da ba da damar masu su karbi inshora na kayan da suka bata. Kimanin bayi 130 ne aka kashe kuma wasu da dama sun zabi kashe kansu domin nuna rashin amincewa, ta hanyar tsalle cikin ruwa da son rai. Lamarin da ya faru na Zong ya zama mai rura wutar rugujewar ruguzawa da kuma babban shari'ar kotu, saboda kamfanin inshora ya ki biyan diyya ga asarar da aka yi.[29] [30] [31] Yayin da aka ci gaba da ciyar da waɗanda aka bautar da kuma shayar da su kamar yadda bayi masu lafiya suka fi daraja, idan albarkatun sun yi ƙasa a kan dogon tafiye-tafiye maras tabbas, ma'aikatan jirgin sun sami kulawa na musamman. Hukunce-hukuncen bayi da azabtarwa ya zama ruwan dare gama gari, domin a cikin balaguron jirgin dole ne ma'aikatan su mayar da mutane masu zaman kansu bayi masu biyayya.[32] ] Mata masu juna biyu da ke cikin jiragen ruwa da suka haifi jariransu a cikin jirgin sun yi kasadar kashe ‘ya’yansu domin a sayar da iyaye mata[24]. Mafi munin azaba sun kasance na tawaye; A wani lokaci wani kyaftin ya hukunta wani tawaye da bai yi nasara ba ta hanyar kashe wani bawa nan da nan, tare da tilasta wa wasu bayi biyu cin zuciyarsa da hantarsa[33] A matsayin hanyar magance cututtuka da yunƙurin kashe kansu, ma’aikatan jirgin za su tilasta wa bayi a kan benen jirgin don motsa jiki, yawanci yakan haifar da duka saboda bayin ba zai yarda ya yi rawa da su ba ko yin hulɗa da su[34] irin wannan duka zai kasance mai tsanani sau da yawa kuma zai iya haifar da bautar da ke mutuwa ko kuma zama masu saurin kamuwa da cututtuka. [35] [36] [37]

Kashe kansa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayi sun yi tsayayya ta hanyoyi da yawa. Mafi yawan nau'ikan juriya guda biyu sune ƙin ci da kashe kansa. Kashe kansa ya kasance abin da ya faru akai-akai, sau da yawa ta hanyar ƙin abinci ko magani ko tsalle a cikin ruwa, da kuma ta hanyar wasu hanyoyi masu dam[38] Idan wani bawa ya tsallake rijiya da baya, sai a bar shi ya nutse ko kuma a harbe shi daga cikin jirgin.[39] cikin shekaru aru-aru, an fahimci wasu al'ummar Afirka, irin su Kru, a matsayin bayi, saboda suna da kaurin suna wajen alfahari da zama bayi, da yunkurin kashe kansu nan da nan bayan sun rasa 'yancinsu[[40] [41] Ma'aikatan bautar sun hana su kashe kansu da kuma yunwa ta yadda zai yiwu; An yi ta ciyar da bayi da karfi ko azabtarwa har sai sun ci abinci, ko da yake wasu sun yi nasarar kashe kansu da yunwa; An nisantar da bayi daga hanyar kashe kansa, kuma ana yawan taru a gefen benen.[42] Masu bautar sun ci nasara har yanzu, musamman a tsalle-tsalle. Sau da yawa idan tawaye ya gaza, ’yan ta’addan kan yi tsalle da yawa cikin teku. Gabaɗaya bayi sun yi imanin cewa idan suka yi tsalle a cikin ruwa, za a mayar da su ga danginsu da abokansu a ƙauyensu ko kuma ga kakanninsu a lahira.[43] Kisan kai ta hanyar tsalle-tsalle irin wannan matsala ce da kyaftin din suka magance ta kai tsaye a lokuta da yawa. Sun yi amfani da sharks da ke bin jiragen ruwa a matsayin makamin ta'addanci. Daya daga cikin kyaftin, wanda ke da saurin kashe kansa a jirginsa, ya dauki wata mata ya saukar da ita cikin ruwa a kan igiya, ya ciro ta da sauri. Lokacin da ta zo gani, sharks sun riga sun kashe ta—kuma sun ciji rabin jikinta.[44]

Ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa da ma'aikatan jirgin Yayin da masu mallakar jiragen ruwa da shugabannin jiragen ruwa za su iya samun riba mai yawa, yawancin ma’aikatan jirgin ruwa ba su da isasshen albashi kuma suna fuskantar mugun horo. Ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa sau da yawa suna rayuwa da barci ba tare da matsuguni a kan buɗaɗɗen jirgin ba don dukan balaguron tekun Atlantika kamar yadda dukan sararin da ke ƙarƙashin belun mutane bayi ne suka mamaye shi.[45] Ana sa ran adadin mace-macen ma'aikatan da ya kai kusan kashi 20% yayin balaguron balaguro, inda ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa ke mutuwa sakamakon cututtuka (musamman zazzabin cizon sauro da zazzabin rawaya), bulala ko tayar da bayi.[46] [47] Yawan mace-macen ma'aikatan jirgin a kan komawar ya kasance cikin moriyar kyaftin yayin da ya rage adadin ma'aikatan jirgin da za a biya su isa tashar jirgin ruwa.[48] ma aikatan jirgin da suka tsira sun kasance ana yaudararsu akai-akai daga albashinsu idan sun dawo[49]

Yawancin ma’aikatan jirgin ana amfani da su ta hanyar tilastawa kamar yadda suka sani kuma sun ƙi cinikin bayi. A cikin garuruwan tashar jiragen ruwa, masu daukar ma’aikata da masu gidajen abinci za su sa ma’aikatan jirgin ruwa su bugu sosai (kuma suna da bashi) sannan su ba da bashin da suke bi idan sun rattaba hannu da jiragen ruwa na bayi. Idan ba su yi ba, za a daure su. Ma’aikatan jirgin da ke gidan yari sun sha wahala wajen samun ayyukan yi a wajen sana’ar jiragen ruwa tun da yawancin sauran masana’antun teku ba za su yi hayar “tsuntsu-tsuntsaye” ba, don haka an tilasta musu zuwa jiragen bayi.,[50]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay
  2. ↑ Walker, Theodore (2004). Mothership Connections. p. 10.
  3. ↑ The Slave Trade: the story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
  4. ↑ Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery. Cambridge University
  5. ↑ Bennett, Herman L. (2009). Colonial Blackness: A History of Afro-Mexico. Indiana University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780253223319.
  6. ↑ Wolfe, Brendan (2021). "Slave Ships and the Middle Passage". In Miller, Patti (ed.). Encyclopedia Virginia. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Humanities – Library of Virginia. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  7. ↑ Slave Voyages
  8. ↑ Mancke, Elizabeth and Shammas, Carole. The Creation of the British Atlantic World, 2005, pp. 30–31.
  9. ↑ Rosenbaum, Alan S.; Charny, Israel W. (17 April 2018). Is the Holocaust Unique?. Routledge. p. 132. ISBN 9780429974762.
  10. ↑ Bell, Karen B. (2010). "Rice, Resistance, and Force Transatlantic Communities: (Re)Envisioning the African Diaspora in Low Country Georgia, 1750–1800". Journal of African American History. 95 (2): 157–182 [p. 158]. doi:10.5323/jafriamerhist
  11. ↑ Walker, Theodore (2004). Mothership Connections. p. 10.
  12. ↑ Eltis, David. The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas, 2000, pp. 156–
  13. ↑ Deborah Gray White
  14. ↑ "THE GHOSTS OF THE HENRIETTA MARIE"
  15. ↑ Deborah Gray White
  16. ↑ , Weslynn M. (2009). Trace: Our connection to the past. [n.p]: Tate Pub & Enterprises Ll. p. 84. ISBN 978-1607998334
  17. ↑ Thornton, John (1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 155
  18. ↑ Eltis, David and Richardson, David. "The Numbers Game". In: Northrup, David: The Atlantic Slave Trade, second edition, Houghton Mifflin Co.,
  19. ↑ Basil Davidson
  20. ↑ "The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database"
  21. ↑ The Slave Trade: The story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
  22. ↑ Determinants of Slave and Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade
  23. ↑ Herbert S. Klein
  24. ↑ Herbert S. Klein
  25. ↑ Ron Soodalter, "Hell on the water" (Civil War Times, 2011
  26. ↑ Herbert S. Klein,
  27. ↑ Haines, Robin; Shlomowitz, Ralph (2000). "Explaining the mortality decline in the eighteenth-century British slave trade". The Economic History Review. 53 (2): 262. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00160
  28. ↑ Bush, Barbara (March–June 2010). "African Caribbean Slave Mothers And Children: Traumas Of Dislocation And Enslavement Across The Atlantic World". Caribbean Quarterly. 56 (1–2): 69–94. doi:10.1080/00086495.2010.11672362. S2CID 141289167.
  29. ↑ "Haunting relics from a slave ship headed for African American museum"
  30. ↑ Antonio T. (1998). "Crossing the Lake of Fire: Slave Resistance during the Middle Passage, 1720–1842". Journal of Negro History. 83 (3): 178–186. doi:10.2307/2649014. JSTOR 2649014. S2CID 140948545
  31. ↑ Rediker, Marcus. The Slave Ship, 2007, p
  32. ↑ "The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Forgotten Crime Against Humanity as Defined by International Law"
  33. ↑ Rediker, Marcus. The Slave Ship, 2007
  34. ↑ "Life on board slave ships"
  35. ↑ Taylor, Eric Robert. If We Must Die, 2006, pp. 37–
  36. ↑ "Summary of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I"
  37. ↑ Johnston, Harry; Johnston, Harry Hamilton; Stapf, Otto (1906). Liberia. p. ,,
  38. ↑ Taylor, Eric Robert. If We Must Die, 2006, pp. 37–38.
  39. ↑ "Summary of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I"
  40. ↑ Johnston, Harry; Johnston, Harry Hamilton; Stapf, Otto (1906). Liberia. p. 110.
  41. ↑ Skeehan, Danielle (2013). Deadly Notes: Atlantic Soundscapes and the Writing of the Middle Passage.
  42. ↑ "Haunting relics from a slave ship headed for African American museum"
  43. ↑ Slave Resistance during the Middle Passage, 1720–1842". Journal of Negro History. 83 (3): 178–186. doi:10.2307/2649014. JSTOR 2649014. S2CID 140948545
  44. ↑ "Middle Passage"
  45. ↑ Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
  46. ↑ Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
  47. ↑ Bernard Edwards; Bernard Edwards (Captain.) (2007). Royal Navy Versus the Slave Traders: Enforcing Abolition at Sea 1808–1898. Pen & Sword Books. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-1-84415-
  48. ↑ Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
  49. ↑ Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
  50. ↑ Marcus Rediker (2007). The Slave Ship: A Human History. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4406-2084-
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