Harsunan Nilo-Saharan

Nilo-Saharan
(disputed)
Geographic distribution	Central Africa, north-central Africa and East Africa
Linguistic classification	Proposed language family
Proto-language	Proto-Nilo-Saharan
Subdivisions	Berta Bʼaga Fur Kadu Koman Kuliak Kunama Maban Saharan Songhay Central Sudanic Eastern Sudanic Samfuri:ExtinctMimi-D? Samfuri:ExtinctPlateau?
ISO 639-2 / 5	ssa
Glottolog	None
Distribution of Nilo-Saharan languages (in yellow)

Harsunan Nilo-Sahara iyali ne na harshe wanda ya ƙunshi kusan 210 na asalin Afirka wanda ke magana da kusan masu magana miliyan 70, galibi a saman kogin Chari da Nilu, gami da Nubia na tarihi, arewacin inda Kogin Nilu biyu suka hadu. Harsunan sun kai ga kasashe 17 a arewacin rabin Afirka: daga Aljeriya zuwa Benin a yamma; daga Libya zuwa Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo a tsakiya; kuma daga Masar zuwa Tanzania a gabas.

Kamar yadda aka nuna ta cikin sunan da aka yi wa alama, Nilo-Saharan dangin yankin cikin Afirka ne, gami da babban yankin Kogin Nilu da kuma Hamadar Sahara ta Tsakiya. Yawancin yankunan da ake hasashen za su rarrabu suna nan a ƙasashen zamani na Sudan da Kudancin Sudan, inda Kogin Nilu ke gudana ta cikinsa.

A cikin littafinsa mai suna The Languages of Africa (1963), Joseph Greenberg ya sanya wa ƙungiyar suna kuma ya yi jayayya cewa dangin gado ne . Ya ƙunshi dukkan harsunan da ba a haɗa su cikin iyalan Nijar-Congo, Afroasiatic ko Khoisan ba . Kodayake wasu masana harsuna sun kira wannan rukunin a matsayin " kwandon sharar gida na Greenberg", inda ya sanya duk harsunan Afirka marasa alaƙa da juna, [1] [2] wasu ƙwararru a fannin sun yarda da shi a matsayin hasashe mai aiki tun lokacin da Greenberg ya rarraba su. [3] Masana harsuna sun yarda cewa shawara ce mai wahala a nuna amma suna jayayya cewa tana da kyau a nuna cewa aikin ya fi kyau. [4] [5] [6]

An kiyasta cewa wasu daga cikin ƙungiyoyin da suka ƙunshi Nilo-Saharan sun riga zamanin neolithic na Afirka . Misali, an kiyasta cewa haɗin kan Gabashin Sudan ya kasance har zuwa aƙalla ƙarni na 5 kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (AS). [1] Haɗin kan kwayoyin halitta na Nilo-Saharan zai fi tsufa kuma ya kasance tun daga ƙarshen Upper Paleolithic . Harshen rubutu na farko da ke da alaƙa da dangin Nilo-Saharan shine Old Nubian, ɗaya daga cikin tsoffin harsunan Afirka da aka rubuta, wanda aka tabbatar a rubuce daga ƙarni na 8 zuwa na 15 bayan haihuwar Annabi Isa (AS).

Ba dukkan masana harsuna sun yarda da Nilo-Saharan ba. Misali, Glottolog (2013), wani littafi na Cibiyar Max Planck da ke Jamus, bai amince da haɗin kan iyalin Nilo-Saharan ko ma reshen Gabashin Sudan ba; Georgiy Starostin (2016) shi ma bai yarda da dangantaka tsakanin rassan Nilo-Saharan ba, kodayake ya bar yiwuwar cewa wasu daga cikinsu na iya tabbatar da alaƙa da juna da zarar an gama aikin sake ginawa da ake buƙata. A cewar Güldemann (2018), "yanayin bincike na yanzu bai isa ya tabbatar da hasashen Nilo-Saharan ba." [1]

Halaye

Iyalan da ke cikin Nilo-Saharan suna da bambancin ra'ayi. Wani siffa ta musamman ita ce tsarin lambobi masu lamba uku-na gama gari-jam'i, wanda Blench (2010) ya yi imanin cewa sakamakon tsarin rarrabuwar suna ne a cikin harshen farko . Rarraba iyalai na iya nuna tsoffin hanyoyin ruwa a cikin Sahara mai kore a lokacin danshi na Afirka kafin taron shekaru 4.2, lokacin da hamada ta fi zama a wurin fiye da yadda take a yau.

Manyan harsuna

A cikin harsunan Nilo-Saharan akwai harsuna da dama waɗanda ke da aƙalla masu magana da miliyan ɗaya (mafi yawan bayanai daga Ethnologue 16 (2009) na SIL). A cikin jerin da ke ƙasa:

• Luo ( Dholuo, miliyan 4.4). Yaren Dholuo na mutanen Luo na Kenya da Tanzania, ƙabila ta huɗu mafi girma a Kenya bayan Agĩkũyũ masu jin harshen Bantu, Luhya da Kalenjin masu jin harshen Kudancin Nilotic (kalmar "Luo" kuma ana amfani da ita ga rukuni mai faɗi na harsuna waɗanda suka haɗa da Dholuo .).
• Kanuri (miliyan 4.0, dukkan yaruka; miliyan 4.7 idan an haɗa da Kanembu ). Babban ƙabilar da ke kewaye da Tafkin Chad .
• Zarma (miliyan 6). Yaɗuwa a gefen Kogin Niger a Nijar da kuma cikin Najeriya, a yankin kudancin Daular Songhai mai tarihi.
• Teso (miliyan 1.9). Mai alaƙa da Karamojong, Turkana, Toposa da Nyangatom
• Harshen Nubia (miliyan 1.7, dukkan yaruka). Harshen Nubia, wanda ya fara daga kudancin Masar zuwa arewacin Sudan a yau. Mutane da yawa na Nubia suma sun yi ƙaura zuwa arewa zuwa Alkahira tun lokacin da aka gina madatsar ruwan Aswan .
• Lugbara (miliyan 1.7, 2.2 idan an haɗa da Aringa (Ƙaramar Lugbara)). Babban harshen Sudan na Tsakiya; Uganda da Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Kongo .
• Harsunan Nandi–Markweta ( Kalenjin, miliyan 1.6). Rift Valley na Kenya, Kapchorua Uganda .
• Lango (miliyan 1.5). Yaren Luo ne, ɗaya daga cikin manyan harsunan Uganda .
• Dinka (miliyan 1.4). Babban ƙabilar Sudan ta Kudu .
• Acholi (miliyan 1.2). Wani yaren Luo na Uganda .
• Yaren Nuer (miliyan 1.1 a shekarar 2011, ya fi yawa a yau). Yaren Nuer, wani adadi mai yawa na mutane daga Kudancin Sudan da Habasha .
• Maasai (miliyan 1.0). Mutanen Maasai na Kenya da Tanzania ne ke magana da shi.
• Ngambay (miliyan 1.0 tare da Laka). Harshen Sudan na Tsakiya, babban harshen kudancin Chadi .

Wasu muhimman harsunan Nilo-Saharan da ke ƙasa da miliyan 1 masu magana da su:

• Fur (500,000 a shekarar 1983, wanda ya fi yawa a yau). Harshe mai suna na lardin Darfur a yammacin Sudan .
• Tubu (350,000 zuwa 400,000) Ɗaya daga cikin harsunan Nilo-Saharan da ke arewacin ƙasar, waɗanda suka fara daga Najeriya, Nijar, da Chadi zuwa Libya . Yawancin masu magana da Tubu suna zaune a Arewacin Chadi kusa da tsaunukan Tibesti . Tubu tana da manyan nau'ikan guda biyu: harshen Daza da kuma harshen Teda .

Jimillar dukkan masu magana da harsunan Nilo-Saharan bisa ga Ethnologue 16 sun kai mutane miliyan 38-39. Duk da haka, bayanan sun kai daga kimanin 1980 zuwa 2005, tare da matsakaicin nauyi a kimanin 1990. Idan aka yi la'akari da yawan karuwar jama'a, adadin a shekarar 2010 na iya sake ninka sau biyu, ko kuma kusan miliyan 60.

Tarihin shawarar 

Heinrich Barth ya amince da dangin Sahara (wanda ya haɗa da Kanuri, Kanembu, harsunan Tebu, da Zaghawa ) a shekarar 1853, Karl Richard Lepsius ya amince da harsunan Nilotic a shekarar 1880, rassan da Friedrich Müller ya samar (amma ba alaƙar da ke tsakaninsu ba) da kuma dangin Maban a shekarar 1889, Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes ya samar a shekarar 1907. Tunani na farko na babban iyali ya zo ne a shekarar 1912, lokacin da Diedrich Westermann ya haɗa uku daga cikin iyalai (har yanzu suna da 'yancin kai) na Tsakiyar Sudan a cikin Nilotic a cikin wani tsari da ya kira Niloto-Sudanic ; wannan faɗaɗar Nilotic ya danganta da Nubian, Kunama, da kuma wataƙila Berta, wato shawarar Greenberg ta Macro-Sudanic ( Chari-Nile ) ta shekarar 1954.

A shekarar 1920, GW Murray ya tsara harsunan Gabashin Sudan lokacin da ya haɗa Nilotic, Nubian, Nera, Gaam, da Kunama. Carlo Conti Rossini ya gabatar da irin wannan shawarwari a shekarar 1926, kuma a shekarar 1935, Westermann ya ƙara Murle . A shekarar 1940, AN Tucker ya buga shaidu da suka haɗa rassan Sudan guda biyar daga cikin shida na Tsakiya tare da shawararsa mafi bayyananne game da Gabashin Sudan. A shekarar 1950, Greenberg ya riƙe Gabashin Sudan da Tsakiyar Sudan a matsayin iyalai daban-daban, amma ya amince da sakamakon Westermann na shekaru arba'in da suka gabata a shekarar 1954 lokacin da ya haɗa su wuri ɗaya a matsayin Macro-Sudanic (daga baya Chari-Nile, daga Ruwayen Chari da Nile ).

Daga baya Greenberg ya bayar da gudunmawarsa a shekarar 1963, lokacin da ya haɗa Chari-Nile da Songhai, Sahara, Maban, Fur, da Koman-Gumuz kuma ya ƙirƙiri sunan da ake kira Nilo-Saharan don dangin da suka biyo baya. Lionel Bender ya lura cewa Chari-Nile wani abu ne da ya samo asali daga tsarin hulɗar Turawa da 'yan uwa kuma bai nuna alaƙa ta musamman tsakanin waɗannan harsunan ba, kuma an yi watsi da ƙungiyar, tare da waɗanda suka haɗa ta suka zama manyan rassan Nilo-Saharan—ko kuma, daidai gwargwado, Chari-Nile da Nilo-Saharan sun haɗu, tare da riƙe sunan Nilo-Saharan . Lokacin da aka fahimci cewa harsunan Kadu ba Nijar-Congo ba ne, ana ɗaukar su a matsayin Nilo-Saharan, amma wannan ya ci gaba da zama abin cece-kuce.

An samu ci gaba tun lokacin da Greenberg ya tabbatar da sahihancin iyali. Koman da Gumuz har yanzu ba a tabbatar da su sosai ba kuma suna da wahalar aiki da su, yayin da muhawara ke ci gaba da gudana kan shigar da Songhai. Blench (2010) ya yi imanin cewa rarraba Nilo-Saharan yana nuna hanyoyin ruwa na Sahara mai dausayi shekaru 12,000 da suka gabata, kuma harshen farko yana da masu rarraba sunaye, waɗanda a yau ake nuna su a cikin nau'ikan prefixes, kari, da alamar lamba.

Dangantaka ta ciki

Dimmendaal (2008) ya lura cewa Greenberg (1963) ya dogara ne akan hujjoji masu ƙarfi kuma cewa shawarar gaba ɗaya ta ƙara zama mai gamsarwa a cikin shekarun da suka gabata. Mikkola (1999) ya sake duba shaidar Greenberg kuma ya same ta mai gamsarwa. Roger Blench ya lura da kamanceceniya a cikin dukkan rassan da aka ambata, wanda hakan ya sa ya yi imani da cewa iyalan suna da inganci.

Ba a san Koman da Gumuz sosai ba kuma suna da wahalar tantancewa har zuwa kwanan nan. Songhay ya bambanta sosai, wani ɓangare saboda tasirin harsunan Mande . Har ila yau, akwai matsala a harsunan Kuliak, waɗanda mafarauta da masu tattarawa ke magana da su kuma da alama suna riƙe da tushen da ba Nilo-Saharan ba; Blench ya yi imanin cewa wataƙila sun yi kama da Hadza ko Dahalo kuma sun koma Nilo-Saharan ba tare da cikakke ba.

Anbessa Tefera da Peter Unseth suna ɗaukar harshen Shabo da ba a tabbatar da shi sosai a matsayin Nilo-Saharan ba, kodayake ba a rarraba shi a cikin iyali ba saboda rashin bayanai; Dimmendaal da Blench, bisa ga cikakken bayani, suna ɗaukarsa a matsayin harshe da aka keɓe bisa ga shaidar da ake da ita a yanzu. A wasu lokutan ana yin shawarwari don ƙara Mande (galibi ana haɗa shi a Nijar-Congo ), galibi saboda kamanceceniya da yawa da Songhay maimakon Nilo-Saharan gabaɗaya, duk da haka wannan dangantakar ta fi yiwuwa saboda kusancin da ke tsakanin Songhay da Mande dubban shekaru da suka gabata a farkon zamanin Nilo-Saharan, don haka dangantakar wataƙila ta fi alaƙa da tsohuwar dangantaka fiye da alaƙar kwayoyin halitta.

Masana harsuna kamar Rille, Dimmendaal, da Blench sun amince da harshen Meroitic da ya ɓace a zamanin Kush a matsayin Nilo-Saharan, kodayake wasu suna jayayya cewa yana da alaƙa da Afroasiatic . Ba a tabbatar da shi sosai ba.

Banda Gabashin Sudan, babu shakka cewa iyalan Nilo-Saharan—wanda Gabas Sudan da Tsakiyar Sudan kaɗai ke nuna bambancin cikin gida—ƙungiyoyi ne masu inganci. Duk da haka, an sami rarrabuwar ra'ayoyi daban-daban masu karo da juna wajen haɗa su wuri ɗaya. Wasu masu bincike sun ƙi kowace ƙungiya mai girma da aka gabatar: Chari-Nile na Greenberg ta Bender da Blench, da kuma Bender's Core Nilo-Saharan ta Dimmendaal da Blench. Abin da ya rage shi ne iyalai takwas (Dimmendaal) zuwa goma sha biyu (Bender) waɗanda ba su da wani shiri na amincewa.

Greenberg 1963

Reshen harsunan Nilo-Sahara

Joseph Greenberg, a cikin Harsunan Afirka, ya kafa iyali da rassan da ke ƙasa. Tushen Chari-Nile sune alaƙar da masu bincike na baya suka ba da shawara.Samfuri:Nilo-Saharan familiesSamfuri:Language familiesBa a gane Gumuz a matsayin wanda ya bambanta da Koman maƙwabci ba; Bender (1989) ne ya raba shi (wanda ya samar da "Komuz").

Bender 1989, 1991

Lionel Bender ya fito da wani tsari wanda ya faɗaɗa kuma ya sake fasalin na Greenberg. Ya ɗauki Fur da Maban a matsayin reshen Fur-Maban, ya ƙara Kadu zuwa Nilo-Saharan, ya cire Kuliak daga Gabashin Sudan, ya cire Gumuz daga Koman (amma ya bar shi a matsayin wani yanki na 'yan'uwa), sannan ya zaɓi ya sanya Kunama a matsayin reshen iyali mai zaman kansa. A shekarar 1991 ya ƙara ƙarin bayani ga bishiyar, ya raba Chari-Nile zuwa cikin gida, gami da ƙungiyar Core wadda aka ɗauke Berta a matsayin mai bambanci, kuma ya daidaita Fur-Maban a matsayin 'yar'uwa ga Chari-Nile.

Bender ya sake gyara tsarinsa na Nilo-Saharan a shekarar 1996, a lokacin ne ya raba Koman da Gumuz zuwa sassa daban-daban na Core Nilo-Saharan.

Ehret 1989, 2001

Christopher Ehret ya fito da wani sabon rarrabuwa na Nilo-Saharan a shekarar 1989, kodayake ba a buga mafi yawan shaidar ba sai a shekarar 2001. Rarrabawarsa, wadda wasu masu bincike ba su amince da ita ba, ta ƙunshi manyan rassan biyu: Gumuz-Koman, da kuma ƙungiyar 'Sudanic' wadda ta ƙunshi sauran iyalai. Ba kamar yadda aka saba ba, Songhay tana cikin babban rukuni kuma tana da alaƙa da Maban a cikin wani yanki na 'Western Sahelian', yayin da aka cire Kadu a cikin Nilo-Saharan. Lura cewa 'Koman' a cikin wannan rarrabuwa yayi daidai da Komuz, watau iyali tare da Gumuz da Koman a matsayin manyan rassan, kuma Ehret ya sake sunan ƙungiyar Koman ta gargajiya 'Western Koman'.Samfuri:Language families

Bender 2000

A shekara ta 2000, Bender ya yi watsi da rassan Chari-Nile da Komuz gaba ɗaya. Ya kuma ƙara Kunama zuwa ƙungiyar "Tauraron Dan Adam-Core" kuma ya sauƙaƙa wa sassan da ke ciki. Ya janye haɗa Shabo, yana mai cewa ba za a iya rarraba shi yadda ya kamata ba amma yana iya zama Nilo-Saharan da zarar an yi cikakken bincike. Wannan rarrabuwar gwaji da ɗan ra'ayin mazan jiya ta kasance wani nau'in mizani na shekaru goma masu zuwa.

Blench 2006

Blench (2006) ne ya gabatar da shi a matsayin harshen da ya haɗu da Nijar- Congo da Nilo-Saharan phyla. Wasu masana harsuna ba su yarda da shi ba. Rarraba cikin gida na Blench (2006) na macrophylum na Nijar-Saharan shine kamar haka:

A cewar Blench (2006), siffofin rubutu da suka shafi Niger-Congo da Nilo-Saharan sun haɗa da:

• Ilimin Sauti: Daidaiton wasali na ATR da kuma labial-velars /kp/ da /gb/
• Alamun-aji: misali, ma - affix don yawan sunaye a cikin Nilo-Saharan
• Faɗaɗa kalmomin magana da fi'iloli da yawa

Blench 2010

Tare da fahimtar rabe-raben Nilo-Saharan, da kuma alamomin lamba da suka samo asali a cikin rassa daban-daban, Blench ya yi imanin cewa duk iyalai da aka yi la'akari da su a matsayin Nilo-Saharan sun kasance tare. Ya gabatar da wannan rarrabuwa ta ciki, tare da Songhai mafi kusanci da Sahara, wata dangantaka da ba a taɓa ba da shawara a baya ba:Samfuri:CladeMimi na Decorse

Blench 2015

Zuwa shekarar 2015, da kuma a shekarar 2017, Blench ya inganta rarrabuwar wannan samfurin, inda ya haɗa Maban da Fur, Kadu da Gabashin Sudan, da Kuliak da maɓalli da ke ɗauke da su, kuma ya ƙara wani reshe mai ban mamaki, wanda ya sanya wa suna "Plateau" don bayyana yiwuwar wani abu mai kama da Nilo-Saharan a cikin harsunan Dogon da Bangime na Malian, don tsarin da ke ƙasa:Samfuri:CladeBlench (2021) ya kammala da cewa Maban yana iya kusanci da Gabashin Sudan.

An nuna "Macro-Sudanic" na Starostin a cikin harsunan shunayya, da kuma iyalai masu kewaye.

Georgiy Starostin (2016), ta amfani da ƙamus na kalmomi bisa ga jerin Swadesh, ya fi Glottolog haɗaka, kuma ban da haka yana samun alaƙa mai yiwuwa da mai yiwuwa tsakanin iyalai waɗanda za su buƙaci sake gina harsunan proto don tabbatarwa. Starostin kuma bai ɗauki Nilo-Saharan na Greenberg a matsayin clade mai inganci, mai haɗin kai ba.

Baya ga iyalai da aka lissafa a cikin Glottolog (sashe na baya), Starostin yana ɗaukar waɗannan a matsayin waɗanda aka kafa:

• "K" ta Arewa ta Gabas ta Sudan ko "NNT" (Nubian, Nara, da Tama; duba ƙasa don Nyima)
• Kudancin "N" Gabashin Sudan (Surmic, Temein, Jebel, Daju, Nilotic), kodayake ainihin dangantakarsu da juna har yanzu ba a san ta ba.
• Tsakiyar Sudan (gami da Birri da Kresh–Aja, waɗanda za su iya zama mafi kusanci da juna)
• Koman (har da Gule)

Ana ɗaukar dangantaka tsakanin Nyima da Nubian, Nara, da Tama (NNT) a matsayin "mai yuwuwa sosai" kuma tana da kusanci sosai har aikin kwatantawa ya kamata ya nuna alaƙar idan tana da inganci, kodayake ba za ta yi daidai da NNT ba (duba harsunan Gabashin Sudan ).

Sauran rukunin da ke da "yiwuwar" tabbatar da cewa iyalai masu inganci ne daga ƙarshe sune:

• Gabashin Sudan gaba ɗaya
• Sudan ta Tsakiya – Kadu (Sudan ta Tsakiya + Kadugli – Krongo )
• Maba – Kunama ( Maban + Kunama )
• Komuz (Koman + Gumuz)

A taƙaice, a wannan matakin tabbas, “Nilo-Saharan” ya ƙunshi iyalai dabam dabam dabam guda goma: Gabashin Sudan, Sudan ta Tsakiya – Kadu, Maba–Kunama, Komuz, Saharan, Songhai, Kuliak, Fur, Berta, da Shabo.

Za'a iya samun ƙarin haɗin "mai zurfi", wanda ba za'a iya kimantawa ba har sai an kammala aikin kwatankwacin da ya dace a kan rassan, sune:

• Gabashin Sudan + Fur + Berta
• Central Sudanic – Kadu + Maba–Kunama

Akwai ra'ayoyi marasa tushe cewa harshen Gabas da Tsakiyar Sudan na iya kasancewa da alaƙa (musamman tsohon yankin Chari-Nile), kodayake wannan yiwuwar "ba za a iya bincika ta a yanayin da ake ciki ba" kuma yana iya zama da rikitarwa idan aka ƙara Nijar-Congo a cikin kwatancen. Starostin bai sami wata shaida ba cewa harsunan Komuz, Kuliak, Sahara, Songhai, ko Shabo suna da alaƙa da kowace daga cikin sauran harsunan Nilo-Saharan. Ba a yi la'akari da Mimi-D da Meroitic ba, kodayake Starostin ya riga ya gabatar da cewa Mimi-D shi ma wani yanki ne na daban duk da ɗan kamanceceniya da harshen Sudan ta Tsakiya.

A wani bincike da aka buga a shekarar 2017, Starostin ya sake nanata batutuwan da ya gabata tare da amincewa da alaƙar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin Macro-East Sudanic da Macro-Central Sudanic. Starostin ya ambaci wannan shawara a matsayin "Macro-Sudanic". Rarrabawa kamar haka.   Starostin (2017) ya gano ma'anoni masu mahimmanci na kalmomi tsakanin Kadu da Central Sudanic, yayin da wasu kamanceceniya na kalmomi kuma da Central Sudanic ke rabawa da Fur-Amdang, Berta, da Eastern Sudanic zuwa ƙaramin mataki.

Dimmendaal 2016, 2019

Gerrit J. Dimmendaal yana ba da shawarar rabe-rabe mai zuwa na Nilo-Saharan:Samfuri:CladeDimmendaal da sauransu sun yi la'akari da shaidar da ke nuna cewa Kadu da Songhay sun yi rauni sosai don a yanke hukunci a yanzu, yayin da akwai wasu shaidu da ke nuna cewa Koman da Gumuz sun kasance tare kuma suna iya kasancewa Nilo-Saharan.

Babban ɓangaren Arewa maso Gabas ya dogara ne akan alamomi da yawa na nau'in rubutu:

• haƙurin tsarin siffa mai rikitarwa
• mafi yawan nau'ikan siffofi na inflectional da derivational, gami da kasancewar lokuta
• tsarin kalmomi na ƙarshe (SOV ko OSV)
• gina fi'ili mai sauƙi + coverb
• maganganu

Blench 2023

Zuwa shekarar 2023, Blench ta ɗan yi gyara ga tsarin don zurfafa rarrabuwar kawuna tsakanin Koman-Gumuz da sauran. Ana sanya Kunama da Berta a matsayin reshen da ke kusa da su, saboda suna da ɓangarorin da suka haɗa sauran iyalin. Duk da haka, ba a fayyace ko wannan ya faru ne saboda sun rabu da wuri ba, ko kuma sun rasa waɗannan siffofi a wani lokaci daga baya. Misali, Berta tana raba kalmomi masu ma'ana da harsunan Gabashin Jebel (Gabashin Sudan) kuma tsarin lambar nahawunsa "yana kama da" na harsunan Gabashin Sudan ; Kunama na iya bambanta "saboda hulɗar dogon lokaci da harsunan Afroasiatic ." Sahara-Songhay (musamman Songhay) sun ga raguwar muhimman halaye, amma wannan ya bayyana a matsayin ci gaba na biyu ba shaida na farkon reshe ba. "Core" Nilo-Saharan ("Tsakiya ta Afirka" a cikin Blench 2015) don haka ya zama kamar nau'in rubutu ne maimakon rukunin kwayoyin halitta, kodayake ana ɗaukar Maban a matsayin reshe daban-daban na Gabashin Sudan; Kadu kuma da alama yana kusa sosai. Tsarin da ya haifar shine kamar haka:   Bayan aikin Colleen Ahland, Blench ya lura cewa aikin Manuel Otero ne ya ƙarfafa shigar da Koman. Hujjar Songhay galibi tana da ma'ana, musamman ma karin magana. Blench ya ba Greenberg yabo ga Gabas da Tsakiyar Sudan. Sahara da Songhay suna da wasu kamanceceniya masu ban mamaki a cikin ƙamus ɗinsu, wanda Blench ya yi jayayya cewa yana da alaƙa da kwayoyin halitta, kodayake rashin ingantattun sake gina proto-Sarahan da proto-Songhay yana sa kimantawa ta yi wahala.

Glottolog 4.0 (2019)

A taƙaice game da wallafe-wallafen da suka gabata, Hammarström da abokan aikinsa a cikin Glottolog ba su yarda cewa waɗannan iyalai suna da alaƙa da binciken da ake yi a yanzu ba:

• Berta
• Tsakiyar Sudan (ban da Kresh–Aja ; Birri kuma ana iya shakkar sa a matsayin Tsakiyar Sudan)
• Daju (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )
• Gabashin Jebel (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )
• Furan
• Gule
• Gumuz
• Kadugli–Krongo
• Koman (ban da Gule )
• Kresh-Aja ( Sudan ta tsakiya )
• Kuliak
• Kunama
• Maban (har da Mimi-N)
• Mimi-Gaudefroy (Mimi-D)
• Nara (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )
• Nilotic (a zahiri, Gabashin Sudan )
• Nubian (a zahiri, Gabashin Sudan )
• Nyimang (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )
• Sahara
• Songhai
• Surmic (a zahiri, Gabas Sudanic )
• Tama (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )
• Temein (a zahiri Gabashin Sudan )

Hulɗar waje

Shawarwari don alaƙar waje tsakanin Nilo da Sahara yawanci sun fi mayar da hankali kan Nijar da Kongo : Gregersen (1972) ya haɗa su biyun a matsayin Kongo da Sahara . Duk da haka, Blench (2011) ya ba da shawarar cewa kamanceceniya tsakanin Nijar da Kongo da Nilo-Saharan (musamman Atlantic-Congo da Central Sudanic) ya samo asali ne daga hulɗa, tare da tsarin suna na Nijar-Congo wanda aka haɓaka daga, ko kuma aka ƙara bayani akan samfurin, masu rarraba suna na Tsakiyar Sudan.

Ilimin sautuka

Harsunan Nilo-Saharan suna da manyan bambance-bambance, kasancewar ƙungiya ce mai bambancin ra'ayi. Ya tabbatar da wahalar sake gina fannoni da yawa na Proto-Nilo-Saharan. Lionel Bender da Christopher Ehret sun gabatar da sake gina harsunan proto guda biyu daban-daban.

Sake gina Bender

Tsarin harafi da Bender ya sake ginawa don Proto-Nilo-Saharan shine:

		Labil		Coronal		Palatal		Velar
plosive	babu murya			*t, *t₂				*k, *kʰ
	an bayyana	*b		*d, *d₂		*ɟ		*g
mai ban dariya		*f		*s
ruwa				*r, *l		*r₂
hanci		*m		*n				*ŋ
rabin wasali		*w				*j

Lakabin sauti /*d₂, *t₂/ yayi daidai da coronal plosives, cikakkun bayanai na sauti suna da wahalar tantancewa, amma a bayyane yake, sun kasance daban da /*d, *t/ kuma an tallafa masa da wasiƙu da yawa na sauti (wani marubuci, Cristopher Ehret, ya sake gina yankin coronal sautin [d̪], [ḍ] kuma [t̪], [ṭ] waɗanda wataƙila sun fi kusa da cikakkun bayanai na /*d₂, *t₂/, duba infra)

Bender ya bayar da jerin sunayen kalmomi kimanin 350 kuma ya tattauna sosai game da rukuni da tsarin sautin da Ehret ya gabatar. Blench (2000) ya kwatanta tsarin biyu (na Bender da na Ehret) kuma ya fi son na farko saboda ya fi aminci kuma an gina shi ne a cikin bayanai mafi inganci. Misali, Bender ya nuna cewa akwai jerin kalmomin da suka haɗa da kalmomin implosives /*ɓ, *ɗ, *ʄ, *ɠ/, abubuwan da suka shafi /*pʼ, *tʼ, (*sʼ), *cʼ, *kʼ/ da kuma abubuwan da ke faruwa kafin hanci /*ᵐb, *ⁿd, (*ⁿt), *ⁿɟ, *ᵑg/, amma da alama za a iya sake gina su ne kawai don ƙungiyoyin asali (E, I, J, L) da kuma ƙungiyar jingina (C, D, F, G, H), amma ba don Proto-Nilo-Saharan ba.

Sake gina Ehret

Christopher Ehret ya yi amfani da wata hanya da ba ta da cikakken bayani kuma ya gabatar da tsarin sautin mafi girma:

		Labial	Dental	Alveol.	Retrof.	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
plosive	implosive	*ɓ		*ɗ	*ɗ̣		*ɠ
	voiced	*b	*d̪	*d	*ḍ		*g
	voiceless	*p	*t̪	*t	*ṭ		*k
	aspirate	*pʰ	*t̪ʰ	*tʰ	*ṭʰ		*kʰ
	ejective	*pʼ	*t̪ʼ	*tʼ	*ṭʼ		*kʼ
fricative			*θ	*s, *z	*ṣ
nasal	simple	*m		*n		*ɲ	*ŋ
	prenasal	*ⁿb	*ⁿð	*ⁿd	*ⁿḍ		*ⁿg
liquid			*l̪	*r, *l
approximant	plain	*w				*j
	complex	*ʼw				*ʼj		*h

Bender da Blench sun soki tsarin Ehret na mafi girman ra'ayi. Waɗannan marubutan sun bayyana cewa kalmomin da Ehret ya yi amfani da su ba su da cikakken bayani kuma saboda haka yawancin sautunan da ke cikin teburin na iya zama bambance-bambancen allophonic ne kawai.

Tsarin Halitta

Dimmendaal (2016) ya ambaci waɗannan abubuwan da ke cikin yanayin halittu a matsayin waɗanda suka tsaya cak a fadin Nilo-Saharan:

• Karin bayani mai dalili : *ɪ- ko *i-
• Sunan magana (taƙaice / participial / wakili ) kari: *a-
• Karin bayani na lamba : *-i, *-in, *-k
• Alamar mai lankwasawa : *rʊ
• Sunaye na mutum : mutum na farko mufuradi *qa, mutum na biyu mufuradi *yi
• Karin magana mai suna : *(y)ɛ
• Alamomin Deictic : mufuradi *n, jam'i *k
• Matsayin matsayi : mallaka *ne, locative *ta
• Gabatarwa : *kɪ
• Fi'ilin kuskure: *kʊ

Kalmomin kwatancen

Misalin ƙamus na asali a cikin rassan Nilo-Saharan daban-daban:

Lura : A cikin ƙwayoyin tebur masu yanke-yanke, ana ba da siffar muƙami kafin yanke-yanke, yayin da siffar jam'i ke bin yanke-yanke.

Language	eye	ear	nose	tooth	tongue	mouth	blood	bone	tree	water	eat	name
Proto-Nilotic	*(k)ɔŋ, pl. *(k)ɔɲ	*yit̪	*(q)ume	*kɛ-la(-c)	*ŋa-lyɛp	*(k)ʊt̪ʊk		*käw	*kɛ-ɛt, *kɪ-yat	*pi(-ʀ)	*ɲam	*ka-ʀin
Proto-Jebel	**ed ~ *er	**si(di ~ gi)		**ɲi-di	**kala-d	**udu	**k-afa-d	**(g-)am-	**kaca	**cii ~ *kii	**ɲam	(siigə, saag)
Temein	nɪ́ŋɪ̀nàʈ / kɛ̀ɛ́n	wénàʈ / kwèén	kɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ̀n / kɪkɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ́nɪ̀	awɪ̀s / kɛ́ɛ̀ʔ	mɛ́nɖɪnyàʈ	íʈùk / k(w)úʈɪ̀n	mónɪ̀ʈ	àmɪ̀s / kɔ́maʔ	mɛ́rɛŋɪ̀s / mɛ́rɛŋ	múŋ	láma	kàlɪ́n, kàlɪ́ŋ
Proto-Daju	*aŋune / *aŋwe ~ *aŋun	*wunute / *wunuge	*mu-ne	*ɲiɣte / *ɲiɣke	*ɲabire / *ɲabirta	*ikke / *ikku	*tamuke	*ŋai / *ŋayu	*ewete / *ewe	*ma-	*si-	*ange / *angu
Kadugli (Talla dialect)	ayyɛ / iyyɛ	naasɔ / isinɛ́	ámb-/nigáŋg-árɔk	t̪- / iŋŋini	áŋdáɗuk / ni-	niinɔ / niginíínɔ	ariid̪ʊ	t̪iŋguba / kuba	ffa / nááfa	ɓiid̪i	oori	ɛɛrɛ / nigirɛɛnɛ
Proto-Northern Eastern Sudanic	*maɲ	*ɲog-ul	*em-u	*ŋes-il	*ŋal	*ag-il ~ *ag-ul	*ug-er	*kɛs-ɛr	*koɲ-er-	*mban	*kal- / *kamb-	*(ŋ)ɛr-i
Nara	no, nòò / no-ta, nóó-ta	tús / túsá	demmo, dəmmo, dàm̀mò, dòmmò	nɪ̀hɪ̀ / nɪ̀hɪ̀t-tá; nèʃɪ̀ / nèʃá	hàggà, àggà, ààdà, hàdà	aùlò / aùl-lá; àgúrá / àgúr-tà	kitto, kɪ̀tò	ketti, kəti, kátɪ́ / ketta, kátá	tüm, tûm; kè́l	emba, mbàà	kal, kál, kár	ade, ààdà
Proto-Nubian	*maaɲ, sg. *miɲ-di	*ugul(-e), sg. *ugul-di	?	*ŋil, sg. *ŋíl-di	*ŋal, sg. ŋal-di	*agil	*ùg-er	*kiser, sg. *kisir-ti	*koor, sg. *koor-ti	*es-ti	*kal-	*er-i
Proto-Taman	*me-ti, pl. *mVŋ	*(ŋ)usu-ti (sg)	*eme, sg. emi-ti (sg.)	*ŋesi-t(i), pl. *ŋes-oŋ	*laat	*auli	*agi	*kei-ti, pl. *kei-ŋ	*gaan; *kiɲe(-ti) (?)	*kal /*kaal	*ŋan-	*(ŋ)aat, pl. *(ŋ)ari-g
Proto-Nyima	*a̍ŋV	*ɲɔgɔr-	*(o)mud̪- (?)	*ŋil-	?	*ŋàl-	*wule	*amV	*t̪uma	*bɔ́ŋ	*t̪a̍l- / *ta̍m-
Proto-SW Surmic	*kɛɓɛrɛ (pl.)	*it̪t̪at	*ʊŋɛtʃ (?)	*ɲiggɪtta	*ʌgʌʌt	*(k)-ʊt̪t̪ʊk	*ɓɪj-	*ɛmmɛ	*kɛɛt̪	*maam	*ɗak-	*ðara
Proto-SE Surmic	*kabari	*ɲabi (?)	*giroŋ	*ɲigidda (?)	*kat	*tuk-	*ɲaɓa	*giga (?)	*kɛdo (?)	*ma		*sara
Proto-Kuliak	*ekw, pl. *ekw=ẹk	*beos, pl. *beosẹk	*nyab, pl. *nyabẹk		*ɛd-eɓ	*ak, pl. *akẹk	*seh	*ɔk	*ad, pl. *ad=is	*kywɛh		*yed, pl. *yedẹk
Shabo	sɛ	k’iti	sonɑ	k’ɑu	hɑndɑ	kɑusɛ	dɑmo	emɑhɑ; egege	k’ɔnɑ	wɔː		woŋgɑse
Ongota	ˈʔaːfa	ˈwoːwa	ˈsiːna (loan?)	ʔitiˈma	ʔɑdabo (loan?)	ˈʔiːfa		ˈmitʃa (loan?)	ˈhɑntʃa	ˈtʃaːhawa	ʔeˈdʒak	ˈmiʃa
Proto-Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi	*kamɔ; *kamu; *kama	*imbi; *EmbE; *mbili; *mbElE; *imbil-; *EmbEl-	*Samɔ; *Samu; *Somu; *kanu; *kunu; *kVnV	*kanga; *nganga	*unɖɛ(C-)	*tara	*manga; *masu; *mVsV; *nɖuma	*Kinga; *Kunga; *Kingo	*kaga	*mEnE; *mAnɛ; *mani	*OɲO; *ɔɲɔ; *VɲV	*iɭi; *ʈV
Proto-Mangbetu	*mʷɔ̀	*bɪ́	*amɔ̀	*kɪ́	*kàɖrà	*tí(kpɔ̀)	*álí	*kpɔ̀	*kɪ́rɪ́ɛ̀	*gʷò	*láɲɔ̀	*kɛ̀lʊ̀
Mangbutu	owékékí	ubí	tongi	usɛ́	kedrú	utí	koto	ikpi	okpá	uwɛ	ano	aɓé
Bale	ɲɔ̌	bí	ndǔ̱tú̱	kú	da	tso	zú	kpa	tsú	cû	wyɔ	ngbá / nzú
Ndru	nikpɔ́	ɓi(na)	ondǐ̹tsǔ̹	ku	da	tsu	âzû	kpá	ítsú	ǐɗá	ɲú	óvôná
Ma'di (Uganda)	mī	bí	ɔ̀mvɔ̄	sí	lɛ̀ɖá	ti	àrɪ́	hʷa	kʷɛ	èyí	ɲā	rú
Birri	mɛ́; mʊ́	nvö; nvu	ímɔ̀; ámɔ̀	sì	ìnɖrɔ́; ìnɖrá	tyi(di)	ɔ́tɔ́	kpɔ	kpi; kpɪ	wu	ɔnyo	iri
Kresh	mumu	mbímbi	uŋú	ʃɛ́ʃɛ̀	ndjindja	–	srama	kpɔkpɔ́	kpikpi	ùyù	ɔ́ʃɔ́	díri
Dongo	mómu	mbimbi	ʔɔŋu	cẹ̀cẹ̀	ndjándja	–	ọọs	kpọkpŏ	kpikpi	ùyù	l-ọc(ic)	díri
Aja	iɲi	mimbi	múmú	uku	ndindyi	–	usa	gbäbí	cící	ɓaɓa	aɲ	kiri
Kunama	wà	ùkùˈnà	bòbòˈnà	mà	ŋèeˈlà	ùˈdà	kòkòˈbà	sàŋˈgà	èˈlà	bìˈà	ˈìŋ(à)	ˈkíidà
Berta	aře	iile	amúŋ	ndu-fuudí	hala	n'du	k’aβa	k’aara	s’ís’ía	fɪ'ri	θɪ́ŋa	huu (= foot)
Gumuz, Northern	kʼwácá	tsʼéa	ííta	kʼósa	kʼótʼá	sa	maχá	ʒákwá	ɟá	aja	sá	tsʼéa
Proto-Koman	*D̪E	*cʼɛ	*ʃʊnʃ	*ʃE	*lEtʼ̪a	*tʼ̪wa	*sʼámá; *bàs	*ʃUImakʼ	*cwálá	*jiɗE	*ʃa; *kʼama	*D̪uga
Gule	yan	ĭgŭn	fufŭn		ŏdāīān		wāīdjo		wŏt	āī
Gule	yan	igă̄n	fufan		adad ayan	ĭten				ai
Amdang (Kouchane)	ni	dili, kiliŋgɛ	gʊrnɑ	kɑlkɑ	dɔlː	sɪˈmi	tʃoː	dʊrtu	sɔŋ	sunu	zɑm	tʃuluk
Proto-Maba	*kàSì-k		*dúrmì	*sati-k; *sàdí-k / *sadi-ɲi	*delemi-k		*fàrí-ŋ			*ta-k / *ta-si	*-aɲɔ-	*mílí-ik
Maba	kàʃì-k/-ñi	koi-k	boiñ	sati-k	delmi-k	kan-a/-tu	àríi	kàñjí-k	soŋgo-k	inji	añ	mílí-i/-síi
Mimi of Decorse	dyo	feɾ	fir	ɲain		ɲyo			su	engi	ɲyam
Kanuri	shîm	sə́mò	kə́nzà	tímì; shélì	tə́làm	cî	bû	shíllà	kə̀ská	njî	bù	cû
Zaghawa	í	kέbέ	síná	màrgiː	tàmsiː	áá	ógú	úrú	bɛ̀gìdiː	bí	sε:gì	tír
Dendi	mò	háŋŋá	nínè	hínydyè	dɛ́llɛ̀	méè	kpííʀì	bíʀí	túúʀì	hàʀí	ŋwáà	máà
Tadaksahak	mó	haŋgá	t-í-nʒar	ée-ʃan	íilǝs	míya	kud-én	biidí	tugúdu	aryén	ŋá	mân

Duba kuma

• Harsunan Sudan
• Jerin kalmomin Nilo-Saharan (Wiktionary)

Ƙarin karatu

• Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008-09-01). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent". Language and Linguistics Compass. 2 (5): 840–858. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x. ISSN 1749-818X.
• Greenberg, Joseph (1970). "The languages of Africa". International Journal of American Linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana University. 29 (1). ISBN 0-87750-115-7. OCLC 795772769.
• Mikkola, Pertti (1999). "Nilo-Saharan revisited: some observations concerning the best etymologies". Nordic Journal of African Studies. 8 (2): 108–138.

Alaƙa ta waje

•  
• Gregersen, Edgar (1972). "Kongo-Saharan". Journal of African Languages. 11 (1): 69–89.

Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

• Roger Blench: Nilo-Saharan Archived
  • Archived Nilo-Saharan An adana (Blench 2012)
• Taswirar Nilo-Saharan Archived
• Shahararriyar Bayani Kan Nilo-Saharan Archived