Harsunan Sino-Tibetan

Harsunan Sino-Tibetan
Linguistic classification	abu abstract entity (en) languoid (en) language (en) human language (en) Sino-Austronesian (en) Harsunan Sino-Tibetan
ISO 639-2 / 5	sit
Glottolog	sino1245

Sino-Tibetan (wanda kuma ake kira Trans-Himalayan) [1] [2] iyali ne na fiye da harsuna 400, na biyu ne kawai ga Indo-Turai a yawan masu magana da asali. [3] Kimanin mutane biliyan 1.4 suna magana da yaren Sino-Tibetan. Yawancin waɗannan su ne masu magana da Harsunan Sinitic biliyan 1.3 . Sauran harsunan Sino-Tibetan tare da adadi mai yawa na masu magana sun haɗa da Burmese (miliyan 33) da Harsunan Tibet (miliyan 6). Ana magana da wasu harsunan iyali a cikin Himalayas, Massif na kudu maso gabashin Asiya, da gefen gabashin Tibet. Yawancin waɗannan suna da ƙananan al'ummomin magana a yankunan tsaunuka masu nisa, kuma saboda haka ba a rubuta su sosai ba.    

An sake ginawa ƙananan rukuni da yawa, amma sake gina Harshe na asali ga iyali gaba ɗaya har yanzu yana cikin matakin farko, don haka tsarin matakin mafi girma na Sino-Tibetan bai kasance a bayyane ba. Kodayake an gabatar da iyalin a al'ada kamar yadda aka raba zuwa Sinitic (watau harsunan Sinanci) da rassan Tibeto-Burman, ba a taɓa nuna asalin harsunan da ba na Sinitic ba.

Rarrabawar farko sun haɗa da yarukan Kra-Dai da Hmong-Mien a cikin dangin yaren Sino-Tibetan. Wannan rukuni ya ci gaba da samun goyon baya daga Magana harsunan kasar Sin, amma al'ummomin duniya sun ki amincewa da shi tun daga shekarun 1940, wadanda a maimakon haka suka danganta kamanceceniya da tasirin sprachbund na haɗuwa da wuri da aro. [6] An gabatar da alaƙa da yawa zuwa wasu iyalan yarukan kudu maso gabashin Asiya, amma babu wanda ya sami karɓa mai yawa.[7]

Tarihi

An fara gabatar da Dangantakar kwayar halitta tsakanin Sinanci, Tibet, Burmese, da sauran harsuna a farkon karni na 19 kuma yanzu an yarda da ita sosai. An ƙaddamar da mayar da hankali ga harsuna na wayewa tare da al'adun adabi masu tsawo don haɗawa da harsunan da ba a yawan magana ba, wasu daga cikinsu an rubuta su kwanan nan, ko kuma ba a taɓa rubuta su ba. Koyaya, sake gina iyalin ba su da yawa fiye da iyalai kamar Indo-Turai ko Austroasiatic. Matsalar ta haɗa da bambancin harsuna, rashin juyawa a yawancin su, da kuma tasirin hulɗar harshe. Bugu da kari, ana magana da yawancin ƙananan harsuna a yankunan tsaunuka waɗanda suke da wuyar isa kuma galibi yankunan iyaka ne masu saurin ganewa.[8] Babu wata yarjejeniya game da kwanan wata da wurin asalin su.[9]

Ayyuka na farko

A cikin karni na 18, malamai da yawa sun lura da kamanceceniya tsakanin Tibet da Burmese, harsuna biyu tare da al'adun wallafe-wallafen da yawa. A farkon karni mai zuwa, Brian Houghton Hodgson da sauransu sun lura cewa yawancin harsunan da ba na wallafe-wallafen ba na tsaunuka na arewa maso gabashin Indiya da kudu maso gabashin Asiya suma suna da alaƙa da waɗannan. Sunan "Tibeto-Burman" an fara amfani da shi ga wannan rukuni a 1856 ta hanyar James Richardson Logan, wanda ya kara Karen a 1858. [10][11] Volume na uku na Binciken Harshe na Indiya, wanda Sten Konow ya shirya, an sadaukar da shi ga yarukan Tibeto-Burman na Indiya ta Burtaniya.[12]

Na harsunan "Indo-Chinese" na kudu maso gabashin Asiya daga tsakiyar karni na 19 da Logan da sauransu suka nuna cewa sun ƙunshi iyalai huɗu: Tibeto-Burman, Tai, Mon-Khmer da Malayo-Polynesian. Julius Klaproth ya lura a cikin 1823 cewa Burmese, Tibetan, da Sinanci duk sun raba ƙamus na asali amma cewa Thai, Mon, da Vietnamese sun bambanta sosai.[13][14] Ernst Kuhn ya yi la'akari da rukuni tare da rassa biyu, Sinanci-Siamese da Tibeto-Burman. Agusta Conrady ya kira wannan rukuni Indo-Chinese a cikin tasirinsa na 1896, kodayake yana da shakku game da Karen. An yi amfani da kalmar Conrady sosai, amma akwai rashin tabbas game da cire shi daga Vietnamese. Franz Nikolaus Finck a cikin 1909 ya sanya Karen a matsayin reshe na uku na Sinanci-Siamese.[15][16]

Jean Przyluski ya gabatar da kalmar Faransanci sino-Tibétain a matsayin taken babi na rukuni a cikin Meillet da Cohen's Les langues du monde a cikin 1924.[17][18] Ya raba su zuwa rukuni uku: Tibeto-Burman, Sinanci da Tai, kuma ba shi da tabbas game da alaƙar Karen da Hmong-Mien.[17][19] Fassarar Turanci "Sino-Tibetan" ta fara bayyana a cikin wani ɗan gajeren bayanin da Przyluski da Luce suka yi a cikin 1931.[20]

Shafer da Benedict

A cikin 1935, masanin ilimin ɗan adam Alfred Kroeber ya fara aikin ilimin harshe na Sino-Tibetan, wanda Gudanar da Ayyuka ke tallafawa kuma yana zaune a Jami'ar California, Berkeley.[21] Robert Shafer ne ya kula da aikin har zuwa ƙarshen 1938, sannan kuma Paul K. Benedict. A karkashin jagorancin su, ma'aikatan 30 wadanda ba masu ilimin harshe ba sun tattara duk takardun da ke akwai na yarukan Sino-Tibetan. Sakamakon ya kasance kwafin guda takwas na rubutun 15 mai taken Sino-Tibetan Linguistics . [12] Ba a taɓa buga wannan aikin ba amma ya ba da bayanai don jerin takardu ta Shafer, da kuma Shafer's five-volume Introduction to Sino-Tibetan da Benedict's Sino-Tigetan, a Conspectus.[23][24]

Benedict ya kammala rubutun aikinsa a 1941, amma ba a buga shi ba sai 1972.[25] Maimakon gina dukan itacen iyali, ya tashi don sake gina Harshen Proto-Tibeto-Burman ta hanyar kwatanta manyan harsuna biyar, tare da kwatanta lokaci-lokaci da wasu harsuna.[26] Ya sake gina bambancin hanyoyi biyu a kan sassan farko bisa ga murya, tare da burin da aka tsara ta hanyar sassan farko waɗanda aka riƙe a cikin Tibetic amma sun ɓace a wasu harsuna da yawa.[27] Don haka, Benedict ya sake gina waɗannan sunayen farko:[28]

Kodayake sassan farko na cognates suna da wuri iri ɗaya da kuma hanyar magana, murya da burin sau da yawa ba za a iya hango su ba.[29] Roy Andrew Miller ne ya kai farmaki ga wannan rashin daidaituwa, kodayake magoya bayan Benedict sun danganta shi da tasirin prefixes da suka ɓace kuma galibi ba za a iya dawo da su ba. [30][31] Batun ya kasance ba a warware shi ba a yau.[29] An ambaci shi tare da rashin sake fasalin da za a iya sake ginawa, da kuma shaidar cewa an ba da kayan da aka raba daga Sinanci zuwa Tibeto-Burman, ta hanyar Christopher Beckwith, ɗaya daga cikin 'yan malaman da ke jayayya cewa Sinanci ba shi da alaƙa da Tibeto-Birman.[32][33]

Benedict kuma ya sake gina, aƙalla ga Tibeto-Burman, prefixes kamar causative s-, da intransitive m-, da r-, b- g- da d- na rashin tabbas aiki, da kuma suffixes -s, -t da -n.[34]

Tsohon Sinanci shine mafi tsufa da aka rubuta harshen Sino-Tibetan, tare da rubutun da suka fara daga kusan 1250 BC da kuma babban tarin wallafe-wallafen daga karni na farko BC. Koyaya, rubutun Sinanci yana da alamomi kuma ba ya wakiltar sauti a hankali; saboda haka yana da wahala a sake gina ilimin harshe daga rubuce-rubucen rubuce-daban. Masana sun nemi sake gina ilimin sauti na Tsohon Sinanci ta hanyar kwatanta bayanin da ba a fahimta ba game da sautunan Sinanci na Tsakiya a cikin ƙamus na zamani tare da abubuwa na sauti a cikin haruffa Sinanci da kuma alamu na waƙoƙi na farko. Cikakken sake ginawa na farko, Grammata Serica Recensa na Bernard Karlgren, Benedict da Shafer ne suka yi amfani da shi.[35]