Ilimin likita a Faransa

Ilimin likita a Faransa
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Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na	Ilimin likita
Ƙasa	Faransa

Ilimin likita a Faransa ana gudanar da shi ta sassan da ke cikin jami'o'i da ake kira Unités de formation et de recherche de médecine (UFR) (Hotunan Kiwon Lafiya da Bincike). Horarwar tana ɗaukar akalla shekaru goma bayan baccalaureate kuma ta ƙare tare da kare rubutun asibiti. Bayan nasarar gabatar da takardar shaidarsa, ana ba wa ɗaliban likitanci difloma d'études spécialisées (DES), bisa ga ƙwarewar su. Wasu manyan masu nasara suna ba da difloma na musamman (DESC).

Horar da likitanci Faransanci yana daya daga cikin hanyoyin makaranta mafi tsawo a cikin ilimi mafi girma na Faransanci. Ya ƙunshi horo na ka'idoji da na aiki, farawa daga kasancewa mafi ka'idojin, yana motsawa zuwa fannoni masu amfani yayin da horo ke ci gaba.

Tarihi

Rennakewa

Koyarwar likita a Faransa da farko ta bunkasa a waje da kowane tsarin ma'aikata, amma a cikin karni na 13 jami'o'i a Paris, Toulouse da Montpelier sun fara wani nau'i na horo a fannin kiwon lafiya.^[1] Montpelier ita ce tsohuwar jami'ar kiwon lafiya da ke ci gaba da gudana a duniya.^[2]

Karni na 18

A karkashin Tsohon Tsarin Mulki, magani yana ɗaya daga cikin fannoni huɗu kuma gabaɗaya ana iya isa ne kawai ta hanyar Faculté des Arts de Paris . Koyarwa galibi ta hanyar ka'idoji ne kuma ta haɗa da laccoci da karatun matani masu iko. Har zuwa Juyin Juya Halin Faransa a shekara ta 1789, an dauki likitoci da likitoci a matsayin sana'o'i daban-daban. Kwarewar likitoci ta fi fahimta, ta koya daga laccoci da littattafai, kuma ta dogara ne akan ka'idodin Galen. Kwarewar Likitocin tiyata ta kasance mai amfani kuma an san su da likitocin aski. ^[3]^[4]

An soke tsarin jami'a a shekara ta 1793 kuma an maye gurbinsa a shekara mai zuwa da makarantun kiwon lafiya guda huɗu a Paris, Montpelier, Bordeaux da Strasbourg.^[5]

Karni na 19

A cikin 1802 ya kafa tsarin tallafin karatu ga ɗalibai daga kowane ɓangare na Faransa waɗanda suka cancanci ta hanyar jarrabawar gasa. Wadannan dalibai za su fara karatunsu a jami'o'i, amma za su zauna kuma su yi aiki a asibitoci daga wannan lokacin kuma su ci gaba da zama likitocin likita.^[6]^[7] Dalibai sun fara watsi da jarrabawar jami'a don ba da kansu ga shirye-shiryen jarrabawar horarwa saboda wannan ita ce kawai kwarewar asibiti da za su iya samu. A wannan lokacin, asibitoci sun zama masu daraja fiye da makarantun likita.^[8]

Dokar 19 Ventôse année XI (Maris 10, 1803) ta sake tsara wannan sana'a kuma ta kayyade cewa "babu wanda zai iya yin aikin likita ko tiyata ba tare da likita ba" sai dai jami'an kiwon lafiya (Officier de santé [fr]) a yankunan karkara, wuraren da ba a yi musu magani ba. Jami'an de santé sun kasance kamar mataimakan likita [2] ko likitoci marasa takalmi kuma sun cancanta ta hanyar koyan shekaru 6 tare da likita, koyan shekaru 5 a asibiti ko shekaru 3 a makarantar likitanci. An ba su lasisin yin aiki ta juriyoyin likitocin kiwon lafiya a yankinsu.[3] An iyakance su ga asali da matakai na tsakiya, doka ta hana su yin aikin likitanci na gaba. Tare da ƙirƙirar Jami'ar Faransa a cikin 1808, makarantun likitanci sun sake buɗe ikonsu kuma sun faɗaɗa cikin Faransanci.[5] A wannan lokacin, asibitin ya fi makarantar likita daraja. Likitoci, suna aiki na ɗan lokaci a matsayin masu aikin sa kai, suna da babban yancin kai kuma sun yi amfani da aikin don haɓaka ayyukansu na sirri. Sannu a hankali, matsayi ya samo asali tare da manyan likitocin da ke jagorantar ayyuka masu mahimmanci a saman ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ayyuka na sirri, tare da manyan likitocin a tushe.^[8]

Karni na 20

Sauye-sauyen asibiti a shekara ta 1958 sun haɗu da ayyukan koyarwa na asibitoci da jami'o'i, suna samar da matsayin Farfesa na Jami'a da Ma'aikacin Asibiti Farfesa na jami'o-Prace-Hospital (PUPH), malamin asibiti / jami'a na cikakken lokaci, da kuma koyar da asibitocin. Ɗaya daga cikin burin sake fasalin shine rage yawan masu karatun digiri da ke motsawa zuwa aikin sirri.

Bayan abubuwan da suka faru na zanga-zangar Mayu 1968 a Faransa, an cire ƙuntatawa na shiga horo: duk ɗaliban likitanci sun sami horo mai amfani. A ƙarshe an haɗa horo mai amfani da ka'idoji a cikin hanya ɗaya, bisa ga manufa ta 1958 na Cibiyar Hospitalier Universitaire en France ^[9] Bayan sake fasalin Faure, an haɗa kwalejojin likita a cikin jami'o'i a matsayin UER (daga 1984, cibiyoyin bincike da koyarwa "UFR").

This reform, along with the general population increase, led to a large surge in student numbers . In 1971 this resulted in a fixed number of training places in exams at the end of the first year of medical studies, a Numerus clausus system.^[10]

Har zuwa 1990s, kowane likita zai iya zama ƙwararre, ko dai ta hanyar ɗaukar hanyar mazaunin asibiti, ko kuma ta hanyar buɗe hanyar shiga jami'a wanda ke haifar da ƙaramin takardar shaidar karatu na musamman (THESE). Sakamakon ya kasance tsarin likita mai sauri guda biyu, wanda aka raba tsakanin WADANNAN da suka kammala karatun digiri da "tsoffin ƙwararru" da "tsoffin manyan masu rejista na asibiti". A gyara ya ragu da wadannan takaddun shaida na likitancin, ya koma ga wajibi horo "ƙwararrun cancantar" ta hanyar samar da diflomassi na kwararru. Ana buƙatar ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ’yan Adam da su yi amfani da wani ɓangare na horon su a wani “asibitin na gefe” wanda ba na ilimi ba na cibiyar asibitin yanki (CHR).

Canje-canje na baya-bayan nan

Har zuwa shekara ta 2004, likitoci na gaba ba su dauki jarrabawar shiga don horarwa ba. An bi zagaye na biyu da shekara biyu da rabi "residanat" (shekaru uku ga mazauna farawa a ko bayan 2001). A shekara ta 2004, an yi amfani da sabon gyare-gyare, yana mai cewa duk daliban likitanci dole ne su wuce jarrabawar rarraba ta kasa. An maye gurbin residanat tare da horarwa a cikin magani na gaba ɗaya, yana taimakawa wajen haɓaka matsayin aikin gaba ɗaya a matsayin sana'a.

Tun daga shekara ta 2010 ta ilimi, an shirya karatun shekara ta farko ta likita a matsayin shekara ta farko na karatun kiwon lafiya tare da kantin magani, likitan hakora da kuma haihuwa. Wannan shekarar ana kallon ta a matsayin "mai wahala sosai".^[11]

Wannan tsarin ya canza a cikin 2019 ta hanyar babban garambawul zuwa samfurin gauraye. A gefe guda, ɗalibai za su iya samun damar shiga shekara ta biyu a cikin nazarin kiwon lafiya ta hanyar ingantaccen sigar ƙirar shekarar farko ta gargajiya (parcours accès santé - PASS). A yin haka, dole ne su zaɓi ƙarami a wani maudu'in da za su ci gaba a cikinsa, idan sun gaza aiwatar da zaɓin zuwa shekara ta biyu. A gefe guda, jami'o'i yanzu suna ba da digiri na farko (lasisi accès santé - LAS) a cikin darussa da yawa waɗanda suka haɗa da ƙarami a cikin kiwon lafiya, ba su damar ɗaukar jarrabawar zaɓaɓɓu waɗanda ke ba da damar shiga shekara ta biyu na karatun kiwon lafiya..^[12]

Ƙungiya

Nazarin kiwon lafiya yana ci gaba a cikin zagaye uku a cikin jami'a da ke da sashin bincike da horo na likita (wani lokacin haɗuwa da magani da ilimin magunguna), wanda ke da alaƙa da ɗayan asibitocin jami'a 29. Jimlar lokacin su ya bambanta daga shekaru tara (magungunan gama gari) zuwa shekaru goma sha ɗaya (wani ƙwarewa tare da ƙwarewa).

Tsarin farko na karatun likita

Tsarin farko na karatun likita (wanda aka fi sani da PCEM) yana ɗaukar shekaru biyu, tare da "ƙwarewa" (ƙwarewar ƙarshe) a ƙarshen shekara ta farko da ke zaɓar ɗaliban da aka shigar don ci gaba da karatun likita ko haƙori.

Dokar ƙasa ta ƙayyade cewa umarnin sake zagayowar farko da shekara ta farko na sake zagayowarsa ta biyu dole ne su haɗa da horo ko sassan horo masu zuwa:

kimiyyar lissafi, kimiyyar halittu, da sarrafa hoto;
ilmin sunadarai, ilmin sunayensu, ilmin halitta, da ilmin halitta.
anatomy, embryology, ci gaba, da ilmin halitta na haihuwa;
cytology, histology, da cututtukan jikin mutum;
ilmin Kwayoyin cuta, ilmin ƙarancin cuta, da ilmin Kwayar cuta;
mahimman ilimin Hematology, immunology, da oncology;
kwayoyin halitta da fasahar halittu;
ilimin lissafi da Abinci mai gina jiki;
ilimin magunguna da manyan magunguna;
ilmin yaduwar cututtuka da Biostatistics;
semiotics na asibiti da na halitta da kuma hoton likita;
taimakon farko;
Demography, tattalin arzikin kiwon lafiya, da tsarin kiwon lafiya.

Koyarwa dole ne ya hada da harsunan kasashen waje, ilimin lissafi, ilimin halayyar dan adam, ka'idojin kiwon lafiya da ilimin halayya.^[13]

Shekara ta farko (har zuwa 2009)

Shekarar farko ta karatun daliban likitanci ta zama ruwan dare tare da likitanci mai haihuwa.

Abubuwan da ake buƙata a cikin shekara ta farko sun haɗa da: kimiyyar lissafi, ilmin sunadarai, ilmin kimiyyar halittu da ilmin halitta, ilmin halitta na salula, ilimin lissafi, anatomy, histology, da embryology.

Shekara ta farko (tun daga 2010)

Shekarar farko ta karatun kiwon lafiya (tsohon PACES, a halin yanzu ana kiranta PASS) ya zama ruwan dare ga karatun likita, haƙori, magunguna da kuma mai haihuwa ^[14] (wani lokacin kuma kinesitherapy). An raba shi zuwa watanni shida biyu.

Don a ba da izinin yin rajista a shekara ta farko na karatun kiwon lafiya, dole ne 'yan takara su sami ɗaya daga cikin cancanta masu zuwa:

digiri na farko;
difloma na "samun dama ga ayyukan ilimi";
difloma ta Faransa ko difloma ta kasashen waje wanda za'a iya la'akari da shi daidai da baccalauréat bisa ga ka'idojin kasa;
cancanta ko nasarorin da aka dauka sun isa.^[15]

Amma ga kowane tsari na tsarin LMD, an raba shekara a cikin watanni shida biyu da "ƙungiyoyin koyarwa" (EU) waɗanda ake gani suna ba da wasu kudade na ECTS.

A farkon rabin shekara, darasi ya zama ruwan dare ga dukkan fannoni. Ana shirya gwaje-gwaje a ƙarshen wannan; ana iya sake daidaita ɗaliban da ba su da kyau a wasu fannonin jami'a.

Tare da rabin shekara na biyu, ɗalibai sun zaɓi ɗaya ko ɗaya daga cikin takamaiman EU (S) zuwa filin, ban da tsari na yau da kullun. Dalibai sun wuce gasar a ƙarshen shekara wanda ya kai ga rarrabuwa huɗu.

Shekarar farko za a iya maimaitawa sau ɗaya kawai. Sakamakon shine na karshe idan ɗalibin ya kasa wucewa sau biyu.

A ƙarshe, wani al'amari na kiwon lafiya, semiotics, wanda aka koyar da shi a shekara ta uku, a halin yanzu ana canja shi a shekara na biyu a yawancin jami'o'i, don inganta kewayon darussan horo na asibiti na shekaru na biyu da na uku (yawanci ana kiransa "koyaswar horo na lissafin bincike" ko "koyasar horo na semiotics").

Tsarin farko na karatun likita ya bi tsarin kasa, amma ƙungiyar tsakanin shekaru biyu ta bambanta tsakanin jami'o'i. Hakazalika, akwai nau'ikan koyarwa guda uku:

koyarwar layi: kowane al'amari ana koyar da shi daban (anatomy, histology, biophysics, da dai sauransu). Irin wannan koyarwa ba ya buƙatar daidaitawa mai yawa tsakanin farfesa, amma yana iya haifar da babban raguwa, koda tare da saɓani.
hadadden koyarwa: ɗalibai suna da ɗakunan tattara darasi na fannoni daban-daban a kusa da na'urar ɗaya. Misali, wani sashi na neurosciences ya hada da / ya fahimci jikin mutum da histology na tsarin juyayi, ji na biophysics da neurobiochimy. Ɗalibin ya bi tsarin zuciya da huhu, tsarin narkewa, da sauransu.
coeducation: an gabatar da wasu fannoni a cikin koyarwa mai mahimmanci, wasu a cikin koyarwar layi.

Tsarin karatun likita na biyu

A cikin shekaru huɗu, ɗalibin yana karɓar horo na al'ada da kuma amfani a kan cututtuka daban-daban da aka raba cikin ɗakunan: ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta (mafi ko ƙasa da ƙwayoyin) ko ƙwayoyin jiki. Wadannan sassan sune shirin rarraba hukuma na jarrabawar kasa (duba ƙasa), kuma sun haɗa da jerin abubuwa da suka dace da cututtuka, ko kuma tare da yanayin asibiti ko warkewa.

Shekara ta uku ta magani

Shekara ta uku na magani (a cikin taƙaitaccen DCEM 1 ko D1) shekara ce ta canji inda ɗalibin ya koyi ilimin kimiyyar halittu (pharmacology, bacteriology, virology, parasitology, da dai sauransu) wanda ke yin hulɗar tsakanin mahimman ilimin kimiyya na farkon sake zagayowar da darasi na ilimin cututtuka. Har ila yau, suna koyon yadda ake aiwatar da anamnèse ( tarihin likitanci) da kuma gwajin asibiti na majiyyaci a lokacin darussan horo na asibiti (wanda ake kira " horon darussan bincike ", saboda linzamin linzamin likitanci kuma an tsara shi, tare da kwalaye wanda daya notches) hade da koyarwa tare da ilimin kimiyya. Suna farawa da na'urorin farko.

Wasu jami'o'i sun fara karatun horar da asibiti a shekara ta uku, sannan aka ci gaba da karatun horarwar asibiti na shekara ta biyu.

Wannan shekarar ta dace da musayar Erasmus.

Shekaru uku masu zuwa sun zama "na waje". Wannan kalmar amfani da yau da kullun (wanda shine tsira daga tsohuwar gasa ta waje da aka cire bayan zanga-zangar 1968) ba ta wanzu a hukumance. Littattafan hukuma da matani na ciki na CHU da jami'o'i suna magana game da "ɗaliban asibiti", saboda ɗaliban suna biyan su ne daga asibitin da jami'ar ke haɗe da shi. Ana biyan su ne a karkashin kwangilar lokaci, a haɗe da ofishin tsaro na jama'a.

Dalibi, a ƙarƙashin alhakin mai ba da horo (ba bisa hukuma ba) ko kuma babban jami'in (babban mai rajista ko likitan asibiti), ya koyi yadda za a gane alamun Cutar daban-daban. Dalibi a wannan matakin ba shi da alhakin warkarwa, ko kuma haƙƙin ba da umarni. Dalibi duk da haka yana da alhakin ayyukansu (hakkin jama'a, wanda ke buƙatar biyan kuɗi na inshora mai dacewa).

Externat gabaɗaya ya ƙunshi darussan horo huɗu a kowace shekara, watanni uku a cikin kowane sabis na musamman, waɗanda grids suka zaɓa a farkon kowace shekara ko kwata, ko dai ta hanyar rarrabuwa tare da cancanta, ko ta hanyar rarrabuwar haruffa. Darussan horo sun ƙunshi safiya biyar a kowane mako a cikin ayyukan. Wasu darussan horo suna wajaba daga rubuce-rubucen doka (likitan lafiyar yara, tiyatar gynecology na mahaifa, likitancin ciki da likitancin gaggawa.), Sannan zai iya haɗa koyarwar ka'idar (dalibi yana nan a asibiti duk rana). Sabanin haka, wasu ayyuka ba su da na waje, wanda ya danganta da yarjejeniyar da aka yi da jami'a.

Wasu jami'o'i sun maye gurbin rabin lokaci (safiya) na dindindin da cikakken lokaci guda ta hanyar sauyawa: na waje suna nan duk rana amma kawai makonni 6 a cikin watanni 3, sauran makonni 6 ana ba da su ga darasi, jarrabawa, shirye-shiryen ECN.

A lokacin waje, ana maye gurbin laccoci da yawa ta hanyar aiki mai ba da umarni; ana gudanar da laccoci a sauyawa tare da darussan horo na asibiti: wannan koyarwar ita ce ta ƙungiyar kasuwanci ta gaskiya, inda wanda ke waje ke kusantar da "al'amuran asibiti" na yanayin gaskiya da ke zaune a cikin ayyukan.

Dole ne na waje, a cikin shekaru uku na waje, don gudanar da zaman 36 na awanni 12, 18, ko 24 (bisa ga sabis ɗin da ranar mako), wato kusan zaman ɗaya a kowane wata, ana biyan 26 Yuro.

Albashi na darussan horo shine "tsarin alama" (kimanin albashi: Yuro 122 a kowane wata a shekara ta huɗu, Yuro 237 a shekara ta biyar, Yuro 265 a shekara ta shida), ^[16] amma ɗalibin waje yana da matsayin ma'aikacin da aka biya kuma yana ba da gudummawa ga yanayin biyan kuɗi na tsaro na jama'a, da kuma asusun fansho. Asusun fansho wanda ya dace da na waje shine IRCANTEC, kamar yadda yake ga masu aiki da masu aikin asibiti. Wadanda ke waje, kamar kowane ma'aikaci, suna da makonni biyar na hutun da aka biya.

Tun daga shekara ta 2004, zagaye na biyu na karatun likita an ba da izini ta hanyar difloma (wanda aka amince da shi a Tarayyar Turai). ^[17] Module 11 na sake zagayowar ta biyu shine tsohuwar takardar shaidar asibiti da warkewa, mahimmin kira don maye gurbin likita.

Tsarin na uku na karatun likita

Dalibai da za su iya kaiwa zagaye na uku na karatun likita (TCEM):

sun kammala zagaye na biyu na karatun likita a Faransa;
suna da alaƙa da jihar Turai ko al'umma, Tarayyar Switzerland, Kasashen membobin Andorra sun bar yarjejeniyar kan Yankin Tattalin Arziki na Turai, wasu da Faransa, masu riƙe da difloma na ƙarshen sake zagayowar biyu na karatun likita ko kuma daidai da taken daga ɗayan waɗannan jihohin.^[18]

Dangane da rarrabuwa, ɗalibin ya zaɓi asibitin jami'ar su (kuma ta haka ne birni) na aikin. Wannan zaɓin ana aiwatar da shi da farko ta hanyar Intanet (mataki na zaɓin da aka yi da kuma kwaikwayon), zaɓin ƙarshe yana faruwa a lokacin "gidan wasan kwaikwayo na garuruwa" wanda ke tattara dukkan ɗalibai ta sassan rarrabuwa. Wannan hanya tana ba da damar ɗalibin ya zaɓi tashar su ta hanyar sanar da shi cikakke game da wuraren da ke akwai.

Yankunan 11 da ke akwai a cikin 2008 sune, tare da yawan wuraren da ake da su, ko wurare 5704 gabaɗaya:

Magunguna na gaba ɗaya: tashoshin 3200
Kwarewar kiwon lafiya: tashoshin 885
Kwarewar tiyata: tashoshin 550
Magungunan kwakwalwa: tashoshin 280
Anaesthesia-reanimation: tashoshin 260
Gidan yara: tashoshin 200
Gynecology-obstetrics: tashoshin 155
Lafiyar jama'a: tashoshin 60
Ilimin halittu na kiwon lafiya: tashoshin 40
Magungunan aiki: tashoshin 54
Kiwon lafiya na mata: tashoshin 20

Kodayake suna da ka'idar dalibi da kulawa, mai ba da horo ƙwararre ne mai cin gashin kansa, tunda suna iya tsarawa da aiwatar da maye gurbin a cikin majalisun masu sassaucin ra'ayi (idan dai sun tabbatar da wasu lokuta na watanni shida, kuma sun sami "lasisin maye gurbin" daga majalisar likitoci). Suna aiki fiye da ɗaya na farko da aka rubuta cewa ainihin karatu (musamman kamar yadda Faransa ke ɗaya daga cikin ƙasashe masu ban sha'awa don ɗaukar masu karatun a matsayin ɗalibai). Ma'aikata ne da ake biyan su.

Horarwa a cikin magani na gaba ɗaya yana ɗaukar shekaru uku, kuma an tabbatar da shi lokacin da aka gudanar da dukkan darussan horo na watanni shida da ake buƙata (diploma na nazarin ƙwarewar magani na gabaɗaya) kuma ana biye da shi ta hanyar gabatar da rubutun likita. Ya ƙunshi darussan horo na watanni shida a lokacin da ake biyan su, wanda ke da alaƙa da asibiti, amma kuma yana da alaƙa tare da likita, ko kuma tsarin kulawa na asibiti. Dalibi yana kula da marasa lafiya, amma har yanzu yana ƙarƙashin alhakin "babban" (duba sama): wannan ya haɗa da gwajin asibiti, tsara ƙarin gwaje-gwaje da magani. Koyarwa da farko yana da amfani a wannan matakin.

Horar da ƙwarewa na tsawon shekaru huɗu ko fiye. Dangane da ƙwarewar da aka zaɓa, ɗalibin dole ne ya ɗauki mafi ƙarancin darussan horo a cikin ayyukan asibiti inda rawar da suke takawa ta yi kama da waɗanda aka biya a cikin maganin da aka bayyana a sama. Horarwar ta cika lokacin da dan takarar ya yi kowane darasi na horo na watanni shida. Har ila yau, yana buƙatar rubutun likita gabaɗaya dangane da batun ƙwarewar da aka zaɓa, gabaɗaya a cikin shekarar ƙarshe ta horo. Kwarewar ta sami izini ta hanyar difloma na karatun ƙwarewa, bayan kare rahoton, wanda wani lokacin ana rikitar da rubutun (ra'ayi-ra'ayi, lokacin da wannan ya kasance a cikin shekara ta ƙarshe ta horo kuma yana da alaƙa da batun ƙwarewar).

Ana ba da difloma na Jihar likitan likita bayan nasarar karewa ta hanyar motsa jiki.^[19]

Ga wasu ƙwarewa, musamman tiyata, ana buƙatar ƙarin horo: ko dai a asibitin jami'a na shekaru biyu zuwa huɗu, ko kuma mataimakin ƙwarewa na akalla shekara ɗaya. Saboda haka jimlar horo ga waɗannan ƙwarewa ya kasance daga shekaru 12 zuwa 16.

↑ Comiti, Vincent-Pierre (2007). "Histoire des universités de médecine : quelques jalons". Les tribunes de la santé (in Faransanci). 3 (16): 19–24. doi:10.3917/seve.016.0019.
↑ "Montpellier, France: The Oldest Medical School in Europe". MedicalEconomics (in Turanci). 2010-04-16. Archived from the original on January 17, 2024. Retrieved 2024-01-17.
↑ Crosland, Maurice (April 1, 2004). "The Officiers de Santé of the French Revolution: A Case Study in the Changing Language of Medicine". Medical History. 48 (2): 229–244. doi:10.1017/s0025727300007407. PMC 546340. PMID 15151105.
↑ Himmelmann, Lars (2007). "From barber to surgeon- the process of professionalization". Svensk Medicinhistorisk Tidskrift. 11 (1): 69–87. PMID 18548946.
↑ Heller, M.D., Robert (1978). "Officiers De Santé: The Second-Class Doctors of Nineteenth-Century France". Medical History. 22 (1): 25–42. doi:10.1017/s0025727300031732. PMC 1082158. PMID 345022.
↑ Pinell, Patrice (2011). "The Genesis of the Medical Field: France, 1795–1870". Revue français de sociologie. 52 (5): 117–151. doi:10.3917/rfs.525.0117 – via CAIRN.
↑ Weisz, M. D., George (October 1986). "Constructing the Medical Elite in France: The Creation of the Royal Academy of Medicine 1814-20". Medical History. 30 (4): 419–443. doi:10.1017/s0025727300046032. PMC 1139952. PMID 3534490.
1 2 Faure, Olivier (1993). "Les Francais et leur medecine au XIXe siecle". search.worldcat.org (in Faransanci). Belin. Retrieved 2024-01-17.
↑ "Naissance de l'hôpital moderne (1941 - 1983)". www.vie-publique.fr (in Faransanci). 30 August 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
↑ "Merchant-Antonin, Benoit. The numerus clausus: its side effects, its place in the globalisation of medicine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20.
↑ Pierre. "La première année de médecine : une difficulté pour les étudiants" (in Faransanci). Retrieved 2021-03-05.
↑ Brunn, Matthias; Genieys, William (2022-11-30). "Admission into healthcare education in France: half-baked reform that further complicates the system". Medical Teacher. 45 (6): 610–614. doi:10.1080/0142159X.2022.2151885. ISSN 0142-159X. PMID 36448642 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 254095433 Check |s2cid= value (help).
↑ "Decree of March 18, 1992 relating to the organization of the first cycle and the first year of the second cycle of the medical studies, article 12".
↑ "L631-1 Article of the Code of education". www.legifrance.gouv.fr (in Faransanci). Retrieved 1 July 2016.
↑ "Decree of October 28, 2009 relative to the first year common to the studies of health, article 2". www.legifrance.gouv.fr (in Faransanci). Retrieved 1 July 2016.
↑ "External: the updated statute (2005)". Archived from the original on 2010-12-13. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
↑ "Access to European Union Law".
↑ "Decree n°2004-67 of January 16, 2004 relating to the organization of the third cycle of the medical studies [archive], article 1".
↑ "Code of education, L632-4 article".

[1] Comiti, Vincent-Pierre (2007). "Histoire des universités de médecine : quelques jalons". Les tribunes de la santé (in Faransanci). 3 (16): 19–24. doi:10.3917/seve.016.0019.

[2] "Montpellier, France: The Oldest Medical School in Europe". MedicalEconomics (in Turanci). 2010-04-16. Archived from the original on January 17, 2024. Retrieved 2024-01-17.

[:0-3] Crosland, Maurice (April 1, 2004). "The Officiers de Santé of the French Revolution: A Case Study in the Changing Language of Medicine". Medical History. 48 (2): 229–244. doi:10.1017/s0025727300007407. PMC 546340. PMID 15151105.

[4] Himmelmann, Lars (2007). "From barber to surgeon- the process of professionalization". Svensk Medicinhistorisk Tidskrift. 11 (1): 69–87. PMID 18548946.

[:1-5] Heller, M.D., Robert (1978). "Officiers De Santé: The Second-Class Doctors of Nineteenth-Century France". Medical History. 22 (1): 25–42. doi:10.1017/s0025727300031732. PMC 1082158. PMID 345022.

[:2-6] Pinell, Patrice (2011). "The Genesis of the Medical Field: France, 1795–1870". Revue français de sociologie. 52 (5): 117–151. doi:10.3917/rfs.525.0117 – via CAIRN.

[7] Weisz, M. D., George (October 1986). "Constructing the Medical Elite in France: The Creation of the Royal Academy of Medicine 1814-20". Medical History. 30 (4): 419–443. doi:10.1017/s0025727300046032. PMC 1139952. PMID 3534490.

[:3-8] 1 2 Faure, Olivier (1993). "Les Francais et leur medecine au XIXe siecle". search.worldcat.org (in Faransanci). Belin. Retrieved 2024-01-17.

[9] "Naissance de l'hôpital moderne (1941 - 1983)". www.vie-publique.fr (in Faransanci). 30 August 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2016.

[10] "Merchant-Antonin, Benoit. The numerus clausus: its side effects, its place in the globalisation of medicine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20.

[11] Pierre. "La première année de médecine : une difficulté pour les étudiants" (in Faransanci). Retrieved 2021-03-05.

[12] Brunn, Matthias; Genieys, William (2022-11-30). "Admission into healthcare education in France: half-baked reform that further complicates the system". Medical Teacher. 45 (6): 610–614. doi:10.1080/0142159X.2022.2151885. ISSN 0142-159X. PMID 36448642 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 254095433 Check |s2cid= value (help).

[13] "Decree of March 18, 1992 relating to the organization of the first cycle and the first year of the second cycle of the medical studies, article 12".

[14] "L631-1 Article of the Code of education". www.legifrance.gouv.fr (in Faransanci). Retrieved 1 July 2016.

[15] "Decree of October 28, 2009 relative to the first year common to the studies of health, article 2". www.legifrance.gouv.fr (in Faransanci). Retrieved 1 July 2016.

[16] "External: the updated statute (2005)". Archived from the original on 2010-12-13. Retrieved 2010-12-12.

[17] "Access to European Union Law".

[18] "Decree n°2004-67 of January 16, 2004 relating to the organization of the third cycle of the medical studies [archive], article 1".

[19] "Code of education, L632-4 article".

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