Ilimin zamantakewar muhalli

Ilimin zamantakewar muhalli shine nazarin hulɗar tsakanin al'ummomi da kuma yanayin su na halitta. yana jaddada abubuwan zamantakewa waɗanda ke tasiri ga kula da albarkatun muhalli kuma suna haifar da matsalolin muhalli, hanyoyin da ake gina waɗannan matsalolin muhallar ta hanyar zamantakewa kuma suna bayyana su a matsayin Batutuwan zamantakewa, da kuma martani na al'umma ga waɗannan matsalolin.^[1]

ilimin zamantakewa muhalli ya fito ne a matsayin wani bangare na ilimin zamantakewa a ƙarshen shekarun 1970s don mayar da martani ga fitowar Yunkurin muhalli a cikin shekarun 1960.^[2] Yana wakiltar sabon yanki na bincike wanda ke mai da hankali kan fadada ilimin zamantakewa na baya ta hanyar hada mahallin jiki kamar yadda ya danganta da abubuwan zamantakewa.^[3]

Ma'anar

Ana bayyana ilimin zamantakewar muhalli a matsayin nazarin zamantakewar mujallar muhalli, kodayake wannan ma'anar nan da nan tana gabatar da matsalar haɗa al'adun ɗan adam tare da sauran muhalli.^[4] Bangarori daban-daban na hulɗar ɗan adam tare da yanayin halitta suna nazarin su ta hanyar masu ilimin zamantakewar muhalli ciki har da yawan jama'a da yawan jamaʼa, ƙungiyoyi da cibiyoyi, kimiyya da fasaha, kiwon lafiya da rashin lafiya, amfani da ayyukan dorewa, al'adu da ainihi, da rashin daidaito na zamantakewa da Adalci na muhalli.^[5]^[6] Kodayake mayar da hankali ga filin shine dangantakar da ke tsakanin al'umma da muhalli gabaɗaya, masu ilimin zamantakewar muhalli galibi suna mai da hankali kan nazarin abubuwan zamantakewa da ke haifar da matsalolin muhalli, tasirin zamantakewar waɗannan matsalolin, da ƙoƙarin warware matsalolin. Bugu da ƙari, ana mai da hankali sosai ga hanyoyin zamantakewa wanda wasu yanayin muhalli suka zama masu bayyanawa a matsayin matsaloli. Yawancin bincike a cikin ilimin zamantakewar muhalli yana nazarin al'ummomin zamani.

Tarihi

ilimi zamantakewar muhalli ya fito ne a matsayin wani bangare na bincike bayan Yunkurin muhalli na shekarun 1960 da farkon shekarun 1970. Ayyukan William R. Catton, Jr. da Riley Dunlap, ^[7] da sauransu, sun kalubalanci ƙuntataccen ilimin zamantakewa na gargajiya. A ƙarshen shekarun 1970s, sun yi kira ga sabon tsarin gaba ɗaya, ko tsarin tsarin tsarin, wanda ke haifar da canji mai mahimmanci a fagen. Tun daga shekarun 1970s, ilimin zamantakewa na gaba ɗaya ya canza sosai don haɗawa da ikon muhalli a cikin bayanin zamantakewa. Ilimin zamantakewar muhalli yanzu ya karfafa a matsayin abin girmamawa, fannin karatu a fannin ilimi.^[8]

Ra'ayoyi

Dualism na rayuwa

Dual na yanayin ɗan adam ya dogara da bambancin al'adu da halaye na juyin halitta. Daga wani hangen nesa, mutane suna shiga cikin yanayin halittu kuma suna haɗuwa tare da wasu nau'o'in. Mutane suna da alaƙa iri ɗaya da sauran mazauna yanayi. Daga sauran ra'ayoyi, mutane sun bambanta da sauran jinsuna saboda sabbin damar su, al'adu daban-daban da cibiyoyi daban-daban. Halitta na ɗan adam suna da ikon sarrafawa, hallakawa, da kuma wuce iyakokin yanayin halitta.^[9]

A cewar Buttel (2004), akwai manyan bayanai guda biyar a cikin ilimin zamantakewar muhalli a yau: ƙwararrun masana'antu da sauran abubuwan da suka shafi muhallin halittu, sabunta yanayin muhalli da sauran zamantakewar zamantakewar gyare-gyaren muhalli, zamantakewar al'adu-muhalli, sabon-Malthusianisms, da sabon yanayin muhalli. A aikace, wannan yana nufin ra'ayoyi daban-daban guda biyar na abin da za a zargi don lalata muhalli, watau, abin da za a bincika ko la'akari da mahimmanci. An jera waɗannan ra'ayoyin a ƙasa a cikin tsarin da aka ƙirƙira su. Ra'ayoyin da suka fito daga baya sun ginu bisa ra'ayoyin farko, kuma suka saba musu.^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Neo-Malthusianism

Ayyuka irin su Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons" (1969) sun sake fasalin tunanin Malthusian game da karuwar yawan jama'a wanda ke haifar da yunwa a cikin samfurin son kai na mutum a manyan ma'auni wanda ke haifar le lalacewar albarkatun tafki na yau da kullun kamar iska, ruwa, teku, ko yanayin muhalli gaba ɗaya. Hardin ya ba da mallakar albarkatu ko ka'idojin gwamnati a matsayin mafita ga lalacewar muhalli wanda ya haifar da bala'in yanayin jama'a. Sauran masana zamantakewa da yawa sun raba wannan ra'ayi na mafita sosai a cikin shekarun 1970 (duba Ophuls). Akwai zargi da yawa game da wannan ra'ayi musamman masanin kimiyyar siyasa Elinor Ostrom, ko masanan tattalin arziki Amartya Sen da Ester Boserup . ^[10] Masana ilimin zamantakewa sun samar da wani muhimmin abu ga rubutun Hardin da ake kira The Tragedy of the Commodity .

Kodayake yawancin aikin jarida na yau da kullun suna ɗaukar Malthusianism shine kawai ra'ayi game da muhalli, yawancin masu ilimin zamantakewa ba za su yarda da Malthusiansism ba tunda batutuwan ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa na lalacewar muhalli sun fi nunawa don haifar da matsalolin muhalli fiye da yawan jama'a ko son kai. Don misalai na wannan zargi, Ostrom a cikin littafinta Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (1990) ta yi jayayya cewa maimakon son kai koyaushe yana haifar da ƙasƙanci, wani lokacin yana iya motsa mutane su kula da albarkatun dukiyarsu. Don yin wannan dole ne su canza ka'idojin tsari na amfani da albarkatu. Binciken ta yana ba da shaida ga tsarin kula da albarkatun mai ɗorewa, a kusa da albarkatunan tafki na yau da kullun waɗanda suka daɗe da ƙarni a wasu yankuna na duniya.

Amartya Sen ya yi jayayya a cikin littafinsa Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (1980) cewa fadada yawan jama'a ya kasa haifar da yunwa ko lalacewa kamar yadda Malthusians ko Neo-Malthusians ke jayayya. Maimakon haka, a cikin rubuce-rubuce rashin haƙƙin siyasa ga albarkatun da ke cikin yalwa, yana haifar da yunwa a wasu al'ummomi. Ya rubuta yadda yunwa za ta iya faruwa har ma a tsakiyar wadata ko a cikin mahallin ƙananan jama'a. Ya yi jayayya cewa yunwa (da lalacewar muhalli) za ta faru ne kawai a cikin mulkin demokraɗiyya da ba ya aiki ko jihohin da ba su da wakilci.

Ester Boserup ta yi jayayya a cikin littafinta The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (1965) daga bincike, bincike na gwaji cewa ra'ayin Malthus na ra'ayi na dangantaka daya-da-daya tare da sikelin noma da yawan jama'a a zahiri ya juya. Maimakon fasahar noma da sikelin ƙayyadewa da iyakance yawan jama'a kamar yadda Malthus yayi ƙoƙari ya yi jayayya, Boserup ya yi jayyana cewa duniya tana cike da shari'o'in akasin haka: cewa yawan jama'ar suna canzawa da fadada hanyoyin noma.

Masanin ilimin Eco-Marxist Allan Schnaiberg (a ƙasa) yana jayayya da Malthusianism tare da hujja cewa a ƙarƙashin tattalin arzikin jari-hujja mafi girma, lalacewar ɗan adam ya tashi daga yanki, lalacewarsa ta yawan jama'a zuwa ƙungiya ta haifar da lalacewar tattalin arzikin siyasa na jari-huadda. Ya ba da misali na lalacewar da aka tsara na yankunan gandun daji wanda jihohi da masu jari-hujja suka kori mutane daga ƙasar kafin a lalata ta hanyar ƙungiya. Don haka, marubutan da yawa suna sukar Malthusianism, daga masana zamantakewa (Schnaiberg) zuwa masana tattalin arziki (Sen da Boserup), zuwa masana kimiyyar siyasa (Ostrom), kuma duk suna mai da hankali kan yadda tsarin zamantakewar ƙasa na fitar da shi zai iya lalata yanayin da ba shi da alaƙa da yawan jama'a.

Sabon Tsarin Muhalli

A cikin shekarun 1970s, sabon tsarin muhalli (NEP) ya soki rashin mai da hankali ga mutum da muhalli a cikin masana zamantakewa na gargajiya da abubuwan da suka fi dacewa da mabiyan su. An soki wannan a matsayin Tsarin Tsayawa na Mutum (HEP). Ra'ayi na HEP ya yi iƙirarin cewa dangantakar ɗan adam da muhalli ba ta da mahimmanci ga zamantakewar al'umma saboda 'yan adam 'ba su da' yankan' daga ikon muhalli ta hanyar canjin al'adu. Wannan ra'ayi ya samo asali ne daga Ra'ayi na Yammacin Duniya na lokacin da kuma sha'awar ilimin zamantakewa don kafa kansa a matsayin horo mai zaman kansa game da Ƙaddamar da muhalli na wariyar launin fata a lokacin inda muhalli ya kasance duka. A cikin wannan ra'ayi na HEP, an ji cewa rinjayar ɗan adam ta dace da bambancin al'ada, wanda aka yi jayayya da zama mafi dacewa fiye da halaye na halitta. Bugu da ƙari, al'ada tana da ikon tarawa da kirkiro, yana mai da shi damar warware duk matsalolin halitta. Sabili da haka, kamar yadda ba a ɗauke mutane kamar yadda yanayin halitta ke mulki ba, an ji suna da cikakken iko da nasu makomar. Duk wani iyaka da duniya ta haifar an ji cewa za a wuce ta ta amfani da ƙwarewar ɗan adam. Bincike ya ci gaba daidai ba tare da nazarin muhalli ba.

A cikin shekarun 1970s, masanan ilimin zamantakewa Riley Dunlap da William R. Catton, Jr. sun fara fahimtar iyakokin abin da za a kira Human Excemptionalism Paradigm. Catton da Dunlap (1978) sun ba da shawarar sabon hangen nesa wanda ya ɗauki masu canjin muhalli cikin cikakken lissafi. Sun kirkiro sabon ra'ayi na ilimin zamantakewa, Sabon Tsarin Muhalli, tare da zato da ya saba wa HEP.

NEP ta fahimci ikon kirkirar mutane, amma ta ce mutane har yanzu suna dogara da juna kamar yadda yake tare da wasu nau'o'in. NEP ta lura da ikon zamantakewa da al'adu amma ba ta da'awar ƙaddamar da zamantakewa. Maimakon haka, mutane suna da tasiri ta hanyar dalilin, sakamako, da kuma ra'ayoyin ra'ayoyi na yanayin halittu. Duniya tana da iyakantaccen matakin albarkatun halitta da wuraren ajiyar sharar gida. Don haka, yanayin halittu na iya sanya ƙuntatawa ga ayyukan ɗan adam. Sun tattauna wasu 'yan jarida game da wannan NEP a cikin 'haɗe-haɗe' game da batutuwan da ba su da cikakkiyar bayani game da zamantakewa ko muhalli game da yanayin muhalli. Ya kuma kasance mai sukar ra'ayoyin Malthusian na shekarun 1960 da 1970.

Ayyukan Dunlap da Catton nan da nan sun sami zargi daga Buttel wanda ya yi jayayya da akasin haka cewa ana iya samun tushe na zamantakewar muhalli na al'ada don ilimin zamantakewar mujalli, musamman a cikin aikin Weber akan tsohuwar "al'adun noma" da ra'ayin Durkheim game da rarraba aiki kamar yadda aka gina shi a kan tushen kayan aiki na ƙwarewa / ƙwarewa don mayar da martani ga ƙarancin kayan aiki. Wannan bangare na muhalli na Durkheim an tattauna shi ta hanyar Schnaiberg (1971).

Treadmill na ka'idar samarwa

Treadmill of Production wata ka'ida ce da Schnaiberg ya kirkira kuma ya shahara a matsayin hanyar amsawa ga karuwar lalacewar muhalli na Amurka bayan yakin duniya na biyu . A mafi sauki, wannan ka'idar ta bayyana cewa an halicci karin samfur ko kayayyaki, za a yi amfani da karin albarkatu, kuma mafi girman tasirin zai kasance.^[11] Gudun tafiya kwatanci ne na kamawa a cikin sake zagayowar ci gaba da girma wanda ba ya tsayawa, yana buƙatar ƙarin albarkatu kuma a sakamakon haka yana haifar da ƙarin lalacewar muhalli.

A tsakiyar muhawarar HEP/NEP, an yi amfani da ra'ayoyin neo-Marxist akan ilimin zamantakewar rikice-rikice akan rikice-rikicen muhalli. Saboda haka, wasu masana ilimin zamantakewa sun so su shimfiɗa ra'ayoyin Marxist na rikice-rikice na zamantakewa don nazarin ƙungiyoyin zamantakewar muhalli daga tsarin jari-hujja na Markisanci maimakon fassara su a matsayin "Sabon Social Movement" na al'ada, daban da damuwa na kayan aiki. Don haka an samar da "Eco-Marxism" bisa amfani da ka'idodin rikice-rikice na Neo-Marxist na 'yancin cin gashin kai na jihar da kuma amfani da su ga rikicin muhalli..^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Mutane biyu da suka biyo bayan wannan makarantar sune James O'Connor (The Fiscal Crisis of the State, 1971) kuma daga baya Allan Schnaiberg .

Daga baya, wani yanayi daban-daban ya bunkasa a cikin eco-Marxism ta hanyar kulawa da aka kawo ga muhimmancin nazarin metabolism a cikin tunanin Marx na John Bellamy Foster. Sabanin tunanin da aka yi a baya cewa masu ilimin gargajiya a cikin ilimin zamantakewa duk sun fada cikin Tsarin Dan Adam, Foster ya yi jayayya cewa son abin duniya na Marx ya kai shi ga yin la'akari da aiki a matsayin tsarin metabolism tsakanin bil'adama da sauran yanayi.^[12] A cikin fassarorin Promethean na Marx wanda Foster ya soki, akwai zaton bincikensa yayi kama da ra'ayoyin anthropocentric da masana ilimin muhalli na farko suka soki. Maimakon haka, Foster ya yi jayayya cewa Marx da kansa ya damu game da rabuwa ta Metabolic da al'ummar jari-hujja ta haifar, musamman a aikin gona na masana'antu - Marx ya gano "rabuwa da ba za a iya gyarawa ba a cikin tsarin metabolism na zamantakewa, " wanda aikin gona na jari-huadda ya haifar da yawan amfanin ƙasa kuma ya haifar da sharar gida a cikin birane waɗanda suka kasa sake shiga cikin ƙasa kuma ta haifar da lalata ma'aikatan kiwon lafiya na birane a lokaci guda. Da yake nazarin gudummawar wannan zaren na eco-marxism ga ilimin zamantakewar muhalli na yanzu, Pellow da Brehm sun kammala, "Rashin jituwa na metabolism ci gaba ne mai amfani a fagen saboda yana haɗa bincike na yanzu zuwa ka'idar gargajiya kuma yana haɗa ilimin zamantakewa tare da jerin litattafan kimiyya da ke mai da hankali kan yanayin muhalli".^[8]

Foster ya jaddada cewa gardamarsa ta nuna "aikin koyarwa" na Paul Burkett, wanda ya haɓaka hangen nesa mai alaƙa da "ja-kore" wanda ya samo asali ne daga binciken kai tsaye na ka'idar darajar Marx. Burkett da Foster sun ci gaba da rubuta labarai da yawa tare game da ra'ayoyin muhalli na Marx, suna nuna ra'ayinsu na ra'ayi ^[13]

Kwanan nan, Jason W. Moore, wanda aka yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar nazarin darajar Burkett game da ilimin muhalli na Marx kuma yana jayayya cewa aikin Foster bai isa ba, ya nemi ya haɗa ra'ayin rabuwa da metabolism tare da ka'idar tsarin duniya, yana haɗa ra'ayoyin da suka shafi darajar Marxian.^[14] Ga Moore, tsarin duniya na zamani shine ilimin muhalli na duniya, yana shiga cikin tarawa na babban birnin, neman iko, da samar da yanayi a cikin hadin kai. Tsakanin hangen nesa na Moore shine sake karanta falsafar ka'idar darajar Marx, ta hanyar da aikin zamantakewa mai mahimmanci da yanayin zamantakewa mai zurfi ke da alaƙa. Moore ya yi jayayya cewa dokar darajar da ta fito, daga karni na sha shida, ta kasance a bayyane a cikin canji mai ban mamaki a cikin sikelin, iyaka, da saurin canjin muhalli. Abin da ya ɗauki wayewar zamani na ƙarni don cimma - kamar rushewar gandun daji na Turai a zamanin da - jari-hujja da aka samu a cikin shekaru da yawa kawai. Wannan fashewar tarihi na duniya, in ji Moore, ana iya bayyana shi ta hanyar dokar darajar da ke la'akari da yawan aiki a matsayin ma'auni mai mahimmanci na wadata da iko a duniyar zamani. Daga wannan ra'ayi, basirar ci gaban jari-hujja ta kasance don dacewa da dabi'un da ba a canza su ba - gami da dabi'ar ɗan adam da ba a gyara su ba - a matsayin hanyar inganta yawan aiki a cikin tsarin kayan masarufi.^[15]

Harkokin zamantakewa da muhalli

A shekara ta 1975, aikin Allan Schnaiberg mai tasiri sosai ya canza ilimin zamantakewar muhalli, yana ba da shawarar ilimin zamantakewar al'umma da muhalli na muhalli. Wannan ra'ayi na rikice-rikice yana da mahimmancin siyasa. Na farko, haɗin tattalin arziki ya bayyana cewa sha'awar fadada tattalin arziki za ta mamaye damuwa game da muhalli. Manufofin za su yanke shawarar kara bunkasa tattalin arziki nan take a kan kudin rushewar muhalli. Abu na biyu, ƙaddamar da ƙarancin sarrafawa ya kammala cewa gwamnatoci za su yi ƙoƙari su sarrafa mafi munin matsalolin muhalli kawai don hana kiwon lafiya da bala'o'in tattalin arziki. Wannan zai ba da alama cewa gwamnatoci suna aiki da hankali ga muhalli fiye da yadda suke yi. Na uku, kira na muhalli yana haifar da wani lamari inda lalacewar muhalli ya yi tsanani sosai har dakarun siyasa za su amsa da manufofi masu ɗorewa. Dalilin motsawa zai zama lalacewar tattalin arziki da aka haifar da lalacewar muhalli. Injin tattalin arziki zai dogara ne akan albarkatun sabuntawa a wannan lokacin. Hanyoyin samarwa da amfani za su bi ka'idojin dorewa.^[16]

Wadannan rikice-rikice na rikice-rikicen suna da sakamako masu yawa. Ɗaya shi ne cewa mafi ƙarfin tattalin arziki da siyasa za su kiyaye halin da ake ciki kuma su karfafa rinjayar su. A tarihi, wannan shine abin da ya fi faruwa. Wani sakamako mai yuwuwa shine don fafatawa da jam'iyyun da ke da iko don fadawa cikin matsala. A ƙarshe, abubuwan da suka faru na zamantakewa na iya haifar da sake rarraba albarkatun tattalin arziki da siyasa.

A cikin 1980, aikin Allan Schnaiberg mai tasiri sosai mai taken The Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity (1980) ^[17] babban gudummawa ne ga wannan taken na zamantakewar muhalli.

Sabunta yanayin muhalli da sabuntawa

A cikin 1980s, ana zargi na eco-Marxism ya kasance a cikin kashewa, da aka ba da bayanai masu ma'ana daga ƙasashe (mafi yawa a Yammacin Turai kamar Netherlands, Jamus ta Yamma da kuma ɗan Birtaniya) waɗanda ke ƙoƙarin auren kare muhalli tare da ci gaban tattalin arziki maimakon ganin su a matsayin daban. Anyi hakan ta hanyar sake fasalin jihohi da babban birnin kasar. Manyan masu goyon bayan wannan makarantar na bincike sune Arthur P.J. Mol da Gert Spaargaren. Shahararrun misalan zamanantar da muhalli za su kasance “zama don shimfiɗar jariri” zagayowar samarwa, ilimin kimiyyar masana’antu, manyan ayyukan noma, biomimicry, permaculture, agroecology da wasu sassan ci gaba mai ɗorewa—duk suna nuna cewa haɓakar tattalin arziƙi yana yiwuwa idan an tsara wannan ci gaban da kyau tare da la’akari da yanayin..^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Zamantakewa na Sauƙaƙe Littattafai da yawa na masanin ilimin zamantakewa na Jamus Ulrich Beck ya fara jayayya tun daga ƙarshen 1980s cewa ƙungiyoyin zamantakewar muhalli na duniya na iya canza al'ummarmu masu haɗari zuwa sauye-sauyen tsari ba tare da watsi da fa'idodin zamani da masana'antu ba. Wannan yana haifar da wani nau'i na 'nau'i na zamani' tare da duniya na raguwar haɗari da mafi kyawun tsarin zamani a cikin tattalin arziki, siyasa, da ayyukan kimiyya kamar yadda aka rage su zuwa ga sake zagayowar kare haɗari daga gyara (wanda ya kira rashin aikin yi na jihar mu) - siyasa yana haifar da ecodisasters, sa'an nan kuma da'awar alhaki a cikin wani hatsari, duk da haka babu abin da ya rage da ci gaban da tattalin arziki da kuma ci gaban da aka gyara saboda da tsarin da aka gyara. misali. Tunanin Beck na zamani mai juyi yana sa ido ga yadda rikicin mu na muhalli da zamantakewa a ƙarshen karni na 20 ke haifar da sauye-sauye na cibiyoyin tsarin siyasa da na tattalin arziki, yana mai da su mafi "ma'ana" tare da ilimin halittu a hankali.^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Neoliberalism ya haɗa da deregulation, 'yan kasuwa masu cin gashin kansu, kuma yana da niyyar rage kashe kuɗin gwamnati. Wadannan manufofi na neoliberal suna shafar ilimin zamantakewar muhalli sosai. Tunda neoliberalism ya haɗa da deregulation da kuma ainihin ƙarancin shigar gwamnati, wannan yana haifar da sayarwa da keɓancewa na ba mallakar ba, mallakar gwamnati, ko albarkatun dukiya na kowa. Diana Liverman da Silvina Vilas sun ambaci cewa wannan yana haifar da biyan kuɗi don ayyukan muhalli; deregulation da rage kuɗin jama'a don gudanar da muhalli؛ buɗe kasuwanci da saka hannun jari; da canja wurin gudanar da mujalli ga cibiyoyin gida ko marasa gwamnati.^[18] Kasuwancin waɗannan albarkatun suna da tasiri ga al'umma, tattalin arziki, da kuma muhalli. Misali wanda ya shafi al'umma sosai shine mallakar ruwa.

Tsarin zamantakewa na muhalli

Bugu da ƙari, a cikin shekarun 1980s, tare da haɓakar postmodernism a makarantar kimiyya ta yamma da godiya ga magana a matsayin nau'i na iko, wasu masana zamantakewa sun juya zuwa nazarin ikirarin muhalli a matsayin nau-ci na gine-ginen zamantakewa fiye da buƙata 'kayan aiki'. Masu goyon bayan wannan makarantar sun hada da John A. Hannigan, musamman a cikin ilimin zamantakewar muhalli: Halin Ginin Jama'a (1995). Hannigan ya yi jayayya game da 'ginin gini mai laushi' (matsalar muhalli ta zahiri ce duk da cewa suna buƙatar a lura da gine-ginen zamantakewa) a kan 'ginin gine-gine mai wuya' (da'awar cewa matsalolin muhalli gaba ɗaya gine-ginan zamantakewa ne).

Ko da yake akwai wani lokaci acrimonious muhawara tsakanin constructivist da kuma ainihin "sansanoni" a cikin muhalli zamantakewa zamantakewa a cikin 1990s, ɓangarorin biyu sun sami babba gama gari kamar yadda duka biyu ƙara yarda cewa yayin da mafi yawan muhalli matsalolin da wani abu gaskiya amma duk da haka zama sani kawai ta hanyar mutum tafiyar matakai kamar ilimin kimiyya, kokarin 'yan gwagwarmaya, da kuma kafofin watsa labarai da hankali. A wasu kalmomi, yawancin matsalolin muhalli suna da matsayi na ainihi na ontological duk da saninmu / fahimtar su daga hanyoyin zamantakewa, hanyoyin da aka gina yanayi daban-daban a matsayin matsaloli ta hanyar masana kimiyya, masu gwagwarmaya, kafofin watsa labaru da sauran 'yan wasan kwaikwayo na zamantakewa. Hakazalika, dole ne a fahimci matsalolin muhalli duka ta hanyoyin zamantakewa, duk da duk wani tushe na zahiri da suke da shi na waje ga mutane. Wannan hulɗar yanzu an yarda da ita sosai, amma yawancin bangarori na muhawara suna ci gaba da bincike na zamani a fagen,,.^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Muhalli na zamani

Shekaru na 1960 sun gina ƙarfin al'adu mai ƙarfi don abubuwan muhalli, suna haifar da yunkurin muhalli na zamani da kuma manyan tambayoyi a cikin masu ilimin zamantakewa da ke sha'awar nazarin motsi. Yaduwar lamirin kore ya motsa tsaye a cikin al'umma, wanda ya haifar da jerin canje-canje na manufofi a fadin jihohi da yawa a Amurka da Turai a cikin shekarun 1970s. A Amurka, an san wannan lokacin da "Shekaru goma na muhalli" tare da kirkirar Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka da kuma wucewar Dokar Dabbobi Masu Hadari, Dokar Ruwa Mai Tsabtace, da gyare-gyare ga Dokar Ruwa mai Tsabtacewa. Ranar Duniya ta 1970, wanda miliyoyin mahalarta suka yi bikin, ya wakilci zamanin zamani na tunanin muhalli. Yunkurin muhalli ya ci gaba da abubuwan da suka faru kamar Love Canal .

Yayin da yanayin tunani na yanzu da aka bayyana a cikin ilimin zamantakewar muhalli bai kasance ba har zuwa 1970s, yanzu ana amfani da aikace-aikacensa wajen nazarin mutanen da. Ƙungiyoyin da suka haɗa da tsibirin Easter, Anaszi, da Mayas an yi jayayya cewa sun ƙare ba zato ba tsammani, saboda rashin kula da muhalli. An ƙalubalanci wannan a cikin aiki na baya duk da haka a matsayin keɓantaccen dalili (ƙwararren Jared Diamond's Rushewa (2005); ko ƙarin aikin zamani akan tsibirin Ista). Rushewar Mayans ya aika da saƙon tarihi cewa hatta al'adun da suka ci gaba suna da rauni ga kisan kai na muhalli - ko da yake Diamond yayi jayayya a yanzu ya kasance ƙasa da kashe kansa fiye da canjin yanayi wanda ya haifar da rashin ikon daidaitawa - da rashin yarda da manyan mutane don daidaitawa ko da lokacin fuskantar alamun da yawa a baya na kusanci matsalolin muhalli. A lokaci guda, nasarorin da al'umma suka samu na Diamond sun haɗa da New Guinea da tsibirin Tikopia waɗanda mazaunansu suka rayu har tsawon shekaru 46,000.^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

John Dryzek et al. argue in Green States and Social Movements: Environmentalism in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Norway (2003)cewa za a iya zama gama-gari na duniya koren muhalli motsi na zamantakewa, ko da yake takamaiman sakamakonsa ne na kishin kasa, fadowa cikin hudu 'ma'ana iri' hulda tsakanin muhalli motsi da kuma jihar ikon. Suna amfani da matsayinsu na nazarin ƙungiyoyin zamantakewar muhalli da hulɗar jihohi daga Norway, United Kingdom, Amurka, da Jamus. Suna nazarin shekaru 30 da suka gabata na muhalli da kuma sakamakon daban-daban da motsin kore ya dauka a cikin yanayi da al'adu daban-daban na jihohi.^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Kwanan nan kuma kusan a cikin tsari na lokaci a ƙasa, yawancin nazarin tarihin tarihin lalacewar muhalli ana samun su ta hanyar masu ilimin zamantakewa. Akwai abubuwa biyu na gaba ɗaya: mutane da yawa suna amfani da ka'idar tsarin duniya - nazarin batutuwan muhalli na dogon lokaci da sarari; kuma wasu suna amfani da hanyoyin kwatanta tarihi. Wasu suna amfani da hanyoyin biyu a lokaci guda, wani lokacin ba tare da ambaton ka'idar tsarin duniya ba (kamar Whitaker, duba ƙasa).

Stephen G. Bunker (d. 2005) da Paul S. Ciccantell sun hada kai a kan littattafai biyu daga ra'ayi na Ka'idar tsarin duniya, suna bin sarkar kayayyaki ta hanyar tarihin tsarin duniya na zamani, suna tsara sauye-sauyen muhimmancin sarari, lokaci, da sikelin cirewa da kuma yadda waɗannan masu canji suka rinjayi siffar da wurin manyan nodes na tattalin arzikin duniya a cikin shekaru 500 da suka gabata. Ra'ayinsu game da duniya ya samo asali ne daga tattalin arzikin hakar ma'adinai da siyasa na jihohi daban-daban waɗanda ke neman mamaye albarkatun duniya da juna ta hanyar samun iko mai mahimmanci na manyan albarkatun ko sake fasalin kwararar duniya a cikinsu don amfanin wuraren su.

Ayyuka guda uku na ka'idar tsarin muhalli na duniya ta Sing C. Chew sun bincika yadda "Halitta da Al'adu" ke hulɗa a tsawon lokaci, farawa da Rashin Muhalli na Duniya (2001) A cikin littattafai na baya, Chew ya yi jayayya cewa akwai "Dark Ages" guda uku a cikin tarihin muhalli wanda ke nuna lokutan rushewar jihohi da sake daidaitawa a cikin tattalin arzikin duniya tare da ƙarin tsarin yanki na al'umma, tattalin arziki, da kuma ainihi da ke zuwa mamaye alaƙar da ke taimakawa wajen lalata muhalli da sauran siffofi. Ta haka ne aka kafa al'ummomin da aka sake ginawa a cikin waɗannan da ake kira 'Dark Ages', addinan da aka saba da su, kuma watakila mafi mahimmanci a gare shi yanayin yana da ƙarni da yawa don murmurewa daga lalacewar da ta gabata. Chew ya yi jayayya cewa siyasar kore ta zamani da Bioregionalism shine farkon irin wannan motsi na yau da kullun wanda zai iya haifar da canjin tsarin. Sabili da haka, muna iya kasancewa a gefen wani "dark age" na duniya wanda yake da haske maimakon duhu a matakai da yawa tunda yana jayayya ga al'ummar ɗan adam da ke dawowa tare da warkar da muhalli yayin da daular suka rushe.

Masanin ilimin zamantakewar muhalli na tarihi Mark D. Whitaker ya gudanar da ƙarin nazarin shari'a yana nazarin China, Japan, da Turai sama da shekaru 2,500 a cikin littafinsa Ecological Revolution (2009). Ya jaddada cewa maimakon ƙungiyoyin muhalli su kasance "Sabon ƙungiyoyin Jama'a" na musamman ga al'ummomin yanzu, ƙungiyoyin mujallu sun tsufa sosai - ana nuna su ta hanyar ƙungiyoyin addini a baya (ko a yanzu kamar a cikin ilimin muhalli) waɗanda suka fara mayar da hankali kan damuwa game da kiwon lafiya, muhalli na gida, da zanga-zangar tattalin arziki game da manufofin jihar da kuma fitar da ita. Ya yi jayayya cewa baya ko yanzu yayi kama da haka: cewa mun shiga cikin mummunan tsarin wayewa na yau da kullun na lalacewar muhalli, karfafa tattalin arziki, da rashin wakilcin siyasa na dubban shekaru wanda ke da sakamakon da za a iya hangowa. Ya yi jayayya cewa ana buƙatar wani nau'i na bioregionalism, jihar bioregional, don magance cin hanci da rashawa na siyasa a yanzu ko a cikin al'ummomin da suka gabata da ke da alaƙa da lalacewar muhalli.

Bayan kallon tarihin duniya na lalacewar muhalli daga hanyoyi daban-daban, duka masu ilimin zamantakewa Sing Chew da Mark D. Whitaker sun zo ga irin wannan kammalawa kuma suna goyon bayan (nau'o'i daban-daban na) bioregionalism.

Jaridu masu alaƙa

Daga cikin manyan mujallu a wannan fagen sune:

Ilimin zamantakewar muhalli
Ilimin Muhalli na Dan Adam
Binciken Muhalli na Dan Adam
Yanayi da Al'adu
Ƙungiya & Muhalli
Yawan jama'a da muhalli
Ilimin zamantakewa na karkara
Al'umma da albarkatun kasa

↑ E. R. Catton, Jr., Riley, Dunlap and William (1979). "Environmental Sociology". Annual Review of Sociology. 5: 243–273. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.05.080179.001331. JSTOR 2945955.
↑ https://ha.eferrit.com/fahimta-da-subfield-na-muhalli-na-zamantakewa/
↑ https://www-bbc-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.bbc.com/hausa/rahotanni-57608986.amp?amp_gsa=1&amp_js_v=a9&usqp=mq331AQIUAKwASCAAgM%3D#amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&aoh=17534504496577&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fhausa%2Frahotanni-57608986
↑ Lockie, Stewart (3 July 2015). "What is environmental sociology?". Environmental Sociology. 1 (3): 139–142. Bibcode:2015EnvSo...1..139L. doi:10.1080/23251042.2015.1066084. S2CID 145548969.
↑ Boström, Magnus (2 July 2020). "The social life of mass and excess consumption". Environmental Sociology. 6 (3): 268–278. Bibcode:2020EnvSo...6..268B. doi:10.1080/23251042.2020.1755001. S2CID 219064588.
↑ Malin, Stephanie A.; Ryder, Stacia S. (2 January 2018). "Developing deeply intersectional environmental justice scholarship". Environmental Sociology. 4 (1): 1–7. Bibcode:2018EnvSo...4....1M. doi:10.1080/23251042.2018.1446711. S2CID 148913239.
↑ Catton, William R.; Dunlap, Riley E. (1978). "Environmental Sociology: A New Paradigm". The American Sociologist. 13 (1): 41–49. JSTOR 27702311.
1 2 Pellow, David N.; Nyseth Brehm, Hollie (30 July 2013). "An Environmental Sociology for the Twenty-First Century". Annual Review of Sociology. 39 (1): 229–250. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145558. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Pellow & Nyseth Brehm 2013" defined multiple times with different content
↑ Buttel & Humphrey 2002.
↑ Hardin, Garrett (1968-12-13). "The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality". Science (in Turanci). 162 (3859): 1243–1248. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17756331.
↑ Gould, Kenneth A.; Pellow, David N.; Schnaiberg, Allan (September 2004). "Interrogating the Treadmill of Production: Everything You Wanted to Know about the Treadmill but Were Afraid to Ask". Organization & Environment. 17 (3): 296–316. doi:10.1177/1086026604268747. S2CID 67793819. ProQuest 219872323.
↑ Foster, John Bellamy (September 1999). "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology". American Journal of Sociology. 105 (2): 366–405. doi:10.1086/210315. S2CID 53608115.
↑ Foster, John Bellamy (4 September 2000). "Marx's Ecological Value Analysis". Monthly Review. 52 (4): 39. doi:10.14452/MR-052-04-2000-08_4.
↑ Moore, Jason W. (2000). "Environmental Crises and the Metabolic Rift in World-Historical Perspective". Organization & Environment. 13 (2): 123–157. doi:10.1177/1086026600132001. S2CID 145416455.
↑ Moore, Jason W. (January 2011). "Transcending the metabolic rift: a theory of crises in the capitalist world-ecology". Journal of Peasant Studies. 38 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1080/03066150.2010.538579. S2CID 55640067.
↑ Fuchs, Christian (1970-01-01). "The Dialectic of the Nature-Society-System". TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. 4 (1): 1–39. doi:10.31269/vol4iss1pp1-39. ISSN 1726-670X.
↑ Foster, John Bellamy (March 2005). "The Treadmill of Accumulation: Schnaiberg's Environment and Marxian Political Economy". Organization & Environment. 18 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1177/1086026604270442. JSTOR 26161945. S2CID 144231099.
↑ Liverman, Diana M.; Vilas, Silvina (1 November 2006). "Neoliberalism and the Environment in Latin America". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 31 (1): 327–363. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.29.102403.140729.

[1] E. R. Catton, Jr., Riley, Dunlap and William (1979). "Environmental Sociology". Annual Review of Sociology. 5: 243–273. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.05.080179.001331. JSTOR 2945955.

[2] ttps://ha.eferrit.com/fahimta-da-subfield-na-muhalli-na-zamantakewa/

[3] ttps://www-bbc-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.bbc.com/hausa/rahotanni-57608986.amp?amp_gsa=1&amp_js_v=a9&usqp=mq331AQIUAKwASCAAgM%3D#amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&aoh=17534504496577&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fhausa%2Frahotanni-57608986

[4] Lockie, Stewart (3 July 2015). "What is environmental sociology?". Environmental Sociology. 1 (3): 139–142. Bibcode:2015EnvSo...1..139L. doi:10.1080/23251042.2015.1066084. S2CID 145548969.

[5] Boström, Magnus (2 July 2020). "The social life of mass and excess consumption". Environmental Sociology. 6 (3): 268–278. Bibcode:2020EnvSo...6..268B. doi:10.1080/23251042.2020.1755001. S2CID 219064588.

[6] Malin, Stephanie A.; Ryder, Stacia S. (2 January 2018). "Developing deeply intersectional environmental justice scholarship". Environmental Sociology. 4 (1): 1–7. Bibcode:2018EnvSo...4....1M. doi:10.1080/23251042.2018.1446711. S2CID 148913239.

[7] Catton, William R.; Dunlap, Riley E. (1978). "Environmental Sociology: A New Paradigm". The American Sociologist. 13 (1): 41–49. JSTOR 27702311.

[Pellow_&_Nyseth_Brehm_2013-8] 1 2 Pellow, David N.; Nyseth Brehm, Hollie (30 July 2013). "An Environmental Sociology for the Twenty-First Century". Annual Review of Sociology. 39 (1): 229–250. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145558. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Pellow & Nyseth Brehm 2013" defined multiple times with different content

[FOOTNOTEButtelHumphrey2002-9] Buttel & Humphrey 2002.

[10] Hardin, Garrett (1968-12-13). "The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality". Science (in Turanci). 162 (3859): 1243–1248. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17756331.

[11] Gould, Kenneth A.; Pellow, David N.; Schnaiberg, Allan (September 2004). "Interrogating the Treadmill of Production: Everything You Wanted to Know about the Treadmill but Were Afraid to Ask". Organization & Environment. 17 (3): 296–316. doi:10.1177/1086026604268747. S2CID 67793819. ProQuest 219872323.

[12] Foster, John Bellamy (September 1999). "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology". American Journal of Sociology. 105 (2): 366–405. doi:10.1086/210315. S2CID 53608115.

[13] Foster, John Bellamy (4 September 2000). "Marx's Ecological Value Analysis". Monthly Review. 52 (4): 39. doi:10.14452/MR-052-04-2000-08_4.

[14] Moore, Jason W. (2000). "Environmental Crises and the Metabolic Rift in World-Historical Perspective". Organization & Environment. 13 (2): 123–157. doi:10.1177/1086026600132001. S2CID 145416455.

[15] Moore, Jason W. (January 2011). "Transcending the metabolic rift: a theory of crises in the capitalist world-ecology". Journal of Peasant Studies. 38 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1080/03066150.2010.538579. S2CID 55640067.

[16] Fuchs, Christian (1970-01-01). "The Dialectic of the Nature-Society-System". TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. 4 (1): 1–39. doi:10.31269/vol4iss1pp1-39. ISSN 1726-670X.

[17] Foster, John Bellamy (March 2005). "The Treadmill of Accumulation: Schnaiberg's Environment and Marxian Political Economy". Organization & Environment. 18 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1177/1086026604270442. JSTOR 26161945. S2CID 144231099.

[18] Liverman, Diana M.; Vilas, Silvina (1 November 2006). "Neoliberalism and the Environment in Latin America". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 31 (1): 327–363. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.29.102403.140729.

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