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Indiyawan Mardi Gras

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Infotaula d'esdevenimentIndiyawan Mardi Gras

Iri Carnival (en) Fassara
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Indiyawan Mardi Gras a Algiers Riverfest New Orleans 2009 suna nuna kayan adonsu

Indiyawan Mardi Gras (wanda kuma aka sani da Black Masking Indiyas ko Black Maskers ) [lower-alpha 1] ƴan Afirka ne na bukin bukin bukin a New Orleans, Louisiana, waɗanda aka san su da ƙayyadaddun kwat da shiga cikin Mardi Gras . Ƙarshen al'adun Indiyawan Mardi Gras sun fito ne a lokacin bauta daga Afirka ta Yamma, Afro-Caribbean da al'adun 'yan asalin Amirka . Al'adar Indiyawan Mardi Gras ana ɗaukarta wani ɓangare na kayan ado na ƙawayen Afirka, kuma sigar fasaha ce ta Ba'amurke . [3]

Al'adar Indiyawan Mardi Gras ta samo asali ne a matsayin wani nau'i na juriya na al'adu lokacin da aka hana addinan gargajiya na Afirka kuma baƙar fata ba za su iya taruwa a bainar jama'a ko sanya abin rufe fuska ba. [1] Kyawun su yana nuna al'adunsu da addininsu da ruhinsu . Al'adar "masking" ta samo asali ne daga bikin masquerade na yammacin Afirka, wanda mutum ya dauki nauyin wani allah ko ruhu. [4] Wasu 'yan Indiyawan Mardi Gras suna rufe fuska a matsayin 'yan asalin Amurkawa waɗanda suka kare kakanninsu a lokacin bauta; [5] wasu suna rufe kamar ruhohin orisha daga addinin Yarbawa, [6] ko kuma a matsayin ruhohin matattu, irin su ƙungiyoyin Kwankwan Kai da Kasusuwa. [7] [8] Mardi Gras Indians' suits (regalia) da wasan kwaikwayo suna ba da sharhi kan batutuwan adalci na zamantakewa, ƴancin siyasa, da canji. Manufofin bikinsu sun haɗa da waraka, kariya daga abin da ba a sani ba, da tarayya da ruhohi . [6] [7] [9]

Indiyawan Mardi Gras suna kiran krewes "ƙabilu" ko "ƙungiyoyi",  : 3 [5] wanda bai kamata a rikita shi da kabilun Amirkawa . Ƙabilu suna ɗaukar sunayensu daga sunayen tituna, zuriyarsu da manyan al'adu. [6] [10] Akwai fiye da kabilu 40 masu aiki, waɗanda girmansu ya kai daga rabin dozin zuwa mambobi goma sha biyu. [5] Ƙungiyoyi suna da 'yancin kai, amma ƙungiyoyin laima guda biyu suna daidaitawa Indiyawan Uptown da Indiyawan cikin gari. Ana baje kolin su a gidajen tarihi a Louisiana da Smithsonian . Kyawawan ƙira na waɗannan kwat ɗin sun keɓanta ga al'ummar fasahar Indiya ta Mardi Gras. [10]

Baya ga ranar Mardi Gras, yawancin kabilun kuma sun yi fareti a ranar Saint Joseph (Maris 19) da Lahadi mafi kusa da ranar Saint Joseph ("Super Lahadi"). A al'adance, waɗannan lokuta ne kawai aka ga Indiyawan Mardi Gras a bainar jama'a cikin cikakkiyar riga. The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival ya fara aikin hayar kabilu don bayyana a bikin kuma. A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, ya zama ruwan dare ganin Indiyawan Mardi Gras a wasu bukukuwa da faretin a cikin birni. A cewar Joyce Marie Jackson ta Jami'ar Tulane, hadewar Indiyawan Indiyawan Mardi Gras da kide-kide da kade-kade na Indiyawan Amurka da Afirka ta Yamma ya haifar da "al'adar al'ada da wasan kwaikwayo na titi na musamman ga New Orleans". [11]

Tarihi

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Rawa a Dandalin Kongo, 1886

Indiyawan Mardi Gras suna yin al'adarsu a New Orleans tun aƙalla karni na 18. Faransawa ne suka kafa mulkin mallaka na New Orleans a shekara ta 1718, a ƙasar da ƙabilar Chitimacha ke zaune, kuma a cikin shekaru goma na farko an yi safarar ƴan Afirka 5,000 da suke bauta zuwa mulkin mallaka. [lower-alpha 2] Ƙungiyoyin ƙabilun Yammacin Tsakiyar Afirka da aka ɗauka zuwa Louisiana a lokacin cinikin bayi na transatlantic sune Bambara, Gambiya, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, [13] da mutanen Kongolese . Daga 1719 zuwa 1743, kusan kashi 30 na mutanen Afirka da ake shigo da su zuwa New Orleans sun fito ne daga Ouidah, tashar jiragen ruwa a Dahomey da ke gabar Tekun Benin . Ƙungiya mafi girma ta fito ne daga Senegambia . [14] Waɗannan ƙungiyoyin ƙabilun sun yi tasiri ga al'adun Louisiana a cikin abinci, kiɗa, harshe, addini, da kayan ado na ado. Masu bautar Faransawa sun ba wa Baƙar fata bayi da 'yanta damar taruwa a ranar Lahadi da yamma a dandalin Kongo, inda suke yin kaɗe-kaɗe da ayyukan addini. [15] [16] [17]

An san New Orleans don al'adun Creole, tare da al'adun da suka fito daga 'yan asalin Amirkawa, 'yan Afirka, da Turawa. Jama'a masu gauraye masu 'yanci masu launi sun ba da gudummawa ga tarihi da al'adun Mardi Gras a cikin birni. Al'adun 'yan Afirka da aka bautar sun haɗu da Afro-Caribbean, 'yan asalin Amirka da al'adun Turai waɗanda suka daidaita a dandalin Kongo kuma aka yi su a lokacin Mardi Gras. [18] [19] [20] Al'adar Indiyawan Mardi Gras ta samo asali ne daga haduwar farko tsakanin ƴan asalin yankin (wataƙila Chitimacha) da al'ummomin Baƙar fata. Yawancin mutanen da aka bautar a Louisiana baƙar fata ne, amma kashi 20% na bayin sun kasance ko dai 'yan ƙasa ne ko kuma gauraye-kashen Afro-Indigenous kafin a shafe su. [12] [21]  : 75-90 

Baƙar fata-Ƙungiyoyin ƴan asali

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Maroons suna shirin yi wa ayarin motocin kwanton bauna

Lokacin da ’yan Afirka da aka bautar suka tsere, sun ci karo da ’yan asalin Jihar Louisiana waɗanda suka raba fasaha da albarkatu tare da su. An kewaye New Orleans da fadama, bayous, da koguna inda aka kafa ƙauyuka masu yawa . A Louisiana, Ƙarƙashin Ƙasar Railroad ya tafi kudu zuwa sansanonin maroon saboda yankunan arewa da Kanada sun yi nisa. [1] Waɗannan sansanonin maroon sun kai hari ga turawa, suna sace shanu daga gonaki da ke kusa don abinci, kuma sun ‘yantar da wasu bayi. Mariyawan suna zama a cikin bukkoki kuma suna noma abincinsu na masara, dawa, shinkafa, da ganyaye. Al'adun Afirka sun bunƙasa a cikin al'ummomin maroon, kuma 'yan asalin ƙasar Amirka sukan taimaka musu ta hanyar ba da abinci da makamai don kare kansu daga farar fata da masu kama bayi

A cikin mulkin mallaka na Louisiana, akwai ƙauye da aka sani da Natanapalle na maroons masu ɗauke da makamai da ƴan asalin asali. A irin waɗannan wurare, ƴan Afirka da aka 'yanta da kuma tserewa sun saba da wasu al'adun ƴan asalin Amirkawa. Fararen fata a Louisiana sun ji tsoron haɗin gwiwar 'yan Afirka da 'yan asalin ƙasar.

A shekara ta 1729, ’yan Afirka 280 da aka bautar da su ne suka haɗa kai da mutanen Natchez a lokacin “ Tawayen Natchez ” don hana Faransawa ‘yan mulkin mallaka karɓe ƙasar ƴan asalin ƙasar don samar da taba. Rundunar ta Natchez ta kashe kusan dukkan Faransawa 150 a Fort Rosalie, kuma kusan 20 ne kawai suka yi nasarar tserewa, wasu kuma sun gudu zuwa New Orleans. [22] Natchez ya ceci ’yan Afirka da aka bautar, [23] wataƙila saboda alaƙar da ke tsakanin Natchez da mutanen Afirka. Wasu bayi sun shiga Natchez, yayin da wasu suka yi amfani da damar don tserewa zuwa 'yanci. [22] [22]

Har zuwa tsakiyar 1760s, yankunan maroon sun mamaye gabar tafkin Borgne, kusa da kogin New Orleans. Maroons sun mallaki yawancin magudanar ruwa da hanyoyin baya daga tafkin Pontchartrain zuwa Gulf of Mexico, gami da Rigolets . Al'ummar San Malo al'umma ce mai cin gashin kanta. [24] Daga karshe mayakan Sipaniya karkashin jagorancin Francisco Bouligny sun kawar da wadannan matsugunan. [25] Duk da haka, mutanen da suka tsere daga bautar a Amurka ante-bellum sun ci gaba da samun mafaka da 'yanci a yankunan da ke kusa da New Orleans. [26] [27]

Mardi Gras na farko

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"Wani Bangare na Mardi Gras Indians" - New Orleans 1903

An fara rubuta tarihin rawa da bayi bakake suka yi a gonaki a Louisiana a shekara ta 1732, kamar yadda Faransawa suka bayyana. A shekara ta 1746, an samu rahoto daga tarihi cewa wasu bayi daga Afirka sun sa kaya irin na 'yan asalin ƙasar (Indiyawa) suna rawa da murnar bukukuwan da ake kira *Mardi Gras*.

A shekarar 1771, 'yan asalin launin fata masu 'yanci sun gudanar da bukin Mardi Gras a sansanonin maroon da kuma a bayan gari. Wasu daga cikinsu suna saka takunkumi da hulunan gashi zuwa bukukuwa, wanda hakan ya sa gwamnatin Sifaniya ta hana baƙar fata shiga bukukuwan balle su sa takunkumi da gashi. Saboda haka, masu shagulgula bakake sun takaita shagulgulan su zuwa Congo Square da unguwannin bakake kawai.

Marubuci kuma mai ɗaukar hoto, Michael P. Smith, ya nakalto Brassea yana cewa: "A shekarar 1781, a lokacin mulkin Sifaniya, lauyan gwamnati ya gargadi hukumar birni akan matsalolin da ke faruwa daga 'yawan bakaken fata masu 'yanci da bayi da suke amfani da damarsu na lokacin Carnival don saka takunkumi da yin dandazo a tituna suna neman guraben rawa."

A shekaru 1804 da 1813, wasu baƙi daga Jamus da Switzerland sun ga bakaken fata sanye da kaya na 'oriental' da na Indiyawa, suna sanye da hula irin ta Turkiyya masu launuka daban-daban.

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 18, jami’an Sifaniya sun ƙara yawan shigowa da fatauci a Kogin Mississippi ta hanyar bai wa ’yan kasuwa na Faransa damar shigo da bayi daga Saint-Domingue da sauran tsibirai na Caribbean. ’Yan kasuwa na Amurka a New Orleans sun zuba jari ta hanyar shigo da bayi daga mallakar Birtaniya kamar Jamaica.

Bayan dokar hana shigo da bayi daga ƙasashen waje a 1807, tashar jirgin ruwa ta New Orleans ta zama cibiyar kasuwancin bayi a Amurka kafin yakin basasa. Ana kawo bayi daga sauran jihohin Kudancin Amurka domin cike buƙatar aiki a gonaki.

Hakanan, a lokacin da kuma bayan juyin juya halin Haiti, masu bayi sun gudu daga tsibirin Hispaniola tare da bayi su zuwa New Orleans.

A shekarar 1810, ’yan gudun hijira daga Haiti – duka masu ’yanci da bayi – sun isa New Orleans daga Cuba, wanda hakan ya ninka yawan bayi da kuma ninka sau uku yawan ’yan launin fata masu ’yanci. Tashar jirgin ta karɓi baki daga Cuba, Jamus, Ireland, da sauran tsibirai na Caribbean.

Al’adun Carnival daga Haiti, Jamaica, da sauran yankunan Caribbean sun haɗu da shagulgulan gargajiya na bakaken fata na cikin gida. Tasirin al’adun Jonkonnu, Rara, Gaga, Canboulet da sauran su daga West Indies sun zo da waɗannan sabbin halaye.

Warewa da Ƙalubalanci

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Indiyawan Mardi Gras na New Orleans, 1915

A shekarar 1857, ƙungiyar The Pickwick Club, ƙungiya ce ta fararen fata kaɗai, ta kafa Mystick Krewe of Comus, wata ƙungiya ta bukin Carnival da ke da membobi fararen fata kaɗai. Ba da jimawa ba wasu ƙungiyoyi makamanta su suka biyo baya a cikin birnin, waɗanda su ma maza ne kaɗai kuma fararen fata. Waɗannan ƙungiyoyin sukan sa baƙin fenti a fuskarsu (blackface) da ja (redface), su kuma shiga cikin shagulgula na jama'a da kuma manyan bukukuwa masu zaman kansu.[28][29] Baƙar fata an hana su sanya takunkumi a lokacin Carnival tun farko; don haka, wasu samari Baƙar fata suka fara amfani da fenti irin na yaƙi domin ɓoye ganinsu. Bayan majalisar dokoki ta jihar ta amince da sanya takunkumi daga fitowar rana zuwa faduwar rana, Baƙar fata suka fara amfani da tsarin bukin maskarade na Afirka ta Yamma wajen rufe fuskarsu.[30][1]

A cikin shekarun 1880s, Becate Batiste, wani saurayi Creole ɗan asalin Afirka, Faransa da Choctaw, ya kafa ƙungiyar *Creole Wild West* a unguwar Seventh Ward.[1] Wasu ma ba da jimawa ba suka kafa ƙungiyoyinsu na kansu da ake kira "kabilu". Salon kamanninsu wanda ya samo asali daga al'adun Afirka da na ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka, ya zama hanyar ba da amsa ga wasan kwaikwayo na wariyar launin fata da ƙungiyoyin fararen fata ke yi. Haka kuma ya ba da dama ga Baƙar fata — waɗanda dokokin bautar da Code Noir suka hana su gudanar da al'adunsu — su sake rayar da su a fili.[1][30][5]

Guguwar Katrina

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A shekarar 2005, guguwar Katrina ta lalata unguwannin Baƙar fata a New Orleans.[31] Tremé ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin tsohon unguwar Baƙar fata mafi dadewa a Amurka, kuma bayan Katrina har yanzu yana fuskantar matsin lamba na gentrification. Tun daga ƙarnuka na 18 da 19, Baƙar fata 'yan kansu suna da kasuwanci a Tremé, tare da haɗuwa da ƴan hijira daga Haiti. Ana ƙiyasta cewa Baƙar fata sun mallaki kashi tamanin cikin dari na wannan unguwa. Bayan guguwar Katrina, gidaje fiye da 1,000 na Baƙar fata a kusa da Clairborne Avenue sun salwanta, kuma an maye gurbinsu da gidaje 120 na fararen fata. Bisa ga binciken marubuciya Shearon Roberts, sauyin yanayin ƙabilanci bayan Katrina yana shafar ci gaba da gudanar da al'adu ga wasu mazaunan Baƙar fata. Mamaye wuraren da fararen fata suka yi — wanda da can Baƙar fata ne suka mallaka kuma suka rika gudanar da al'adunsu kamar rufe fuska da shagulgula — ya haifar da abubuwa uku: "...asarar tattalin arziƙi ta hanyar kwace iko, karuwar tsangwama da ɗaukar su a matsayin masu laifi, da kuma tarwatsa wuraren aminci da al'umma ta Baƙar fata ke da su." Mazaunan Baƙar fata na New Orleans na fuskantar katsalandan da karɓar al'adu daga waje wanda ke shafar ma'ana da tarihin al'adunsu.[32]

Al'adu

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'Yan Indiya na Mardi Gras a shekarar 2007 suna kaɗa ganguna na Afirka da tambarin a "Ranar Lahadi Mai Girma."

Masana gabaɗaya sun yarda cewa al'adun Mardi Gras Indian haɗe-haɗe ne na tasirin Afirka, Caribbean, ƴan asali, da na Turai, wanda ya fuskanci tsarin creolization da syncretism a New Orleans. Misali, aikin gyaran beads, bugun ganguna, da apron ɗin da Mardi Gras Indiya ke sawa suna kama da al'adun Yammacin Afirka da Afirka ta Tsakiya.[33] Masana'antar rufe fuska ta Mardi Gras Indiya tana kama da bukukuwan rufe fuska na Yammacin Afirka da raye-rayen mayaƙa, amma kuma tana ɗaukar alamu na ƴan asali.[34][30][35]: Kwatancen mafi kusa shine tsakanin al'adun bikin carnival na Caribbean—wasu masana ma sun ba da shawarar cewa New Orleans ya kamata a ɗauke shi a matsayin wani ɓangare na yankin pan-Caribbean saboda haɗin gwiwar al'adunsa.[36][37][lower-alpha 3]

Baƙaƙen al'adun rufe fuska sun ci gaba da Afirka Amirka duk da mulkin mallaka, bauta, Black Codes, da wariyar launin fata.[38][39][34] Bayan Faransawa sun buƙaci Baƙaƙe su tuba zuwa Katolika, an haɗa al'adun addini na Afirka da Kirista don ci gaba da al'adun gargajiya daga addinan Afirka ba tare da an lura da su ba.[40][41][42] Ga bayi da ƴan Afirka masu ƴanci a cikin Amurka, wannan ya haɗa da waƙa, rawa, buga ganga, da sanya riguna da kayan ado a bikin carnival.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag[43] Yayin da Baƙaƙe suka ci gaba da yin al'adunsu na gargajiya, sun kuma haɗa abubuwa na ƴan asalin Amurka da Caribbean, bi da bi suna ƙirƙirar al'adun bikin carnival na Baƙaƙen rufe fuska daban-daban a cikin diaspora da a New Orleans.[44][45][46]

Masana Fehintola Mosadomi da Joyce M. Jackson sun lura da irin abubuwan al'adu na bukukuwan Yoruba Egungun da Mardi Gras Indiya—dukkansu ana yin su a tituna da kiɗa da al'adun gargajiya, suna da kayan ado masu launuka masu yawa, kuma maza ne ke mamaye su. Al'adun rufe fuska na Indiya hanya ce ta balaga ga Baƙaƙen maza kuma tana ba da horo na namiji da aboki. Matan da ke cikin wannan al'ada, a tarihi, su ne ado amma tsawon shekaru, mata sun fara shiga ma.

Baƙaƙen mutane a cikin ƙasashen waje sun yi amfani da bukukuwan rufe fuska don nuna adawa da zalunci a al'adance. Bukukuwan carnival na Baƙaƙe suna ba da dama ga Afirka Amirka su haɗu, ba tare da cin zarafi daga fararen Amirka ba. Al'adun Mardi Gras Indian wani nau'i ne na adawa da kirkire-kirkire na Baƙaƙe ga fifikon fararen fata na mulkin mallaka kuma yana wakiltar kin amincewa da ka'idodin carnival na fararen fata.

Harshe

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Mardi Gras Indians a yau suna da nasu alamomin sirri, waƙoƙi da harshe waɗanda waɗanda suka shiga cikin al'umma ne kaɗai suka sani. A ƙarni na 19, yarukan Creole sun haɓaka daban-daban a kowane unguwa saboda bambancin harsunan Afirka da ake magana da su, kowannensu yana da nasa syntax da phonetics. Wannan ya ba da gudummawa ga bambancin yarukan da Baƙaƙen rufe fuska na Indiya suka raira.[47]

Kiɗa

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Second line a New Orleans

Kiɗa da rawa ta Mardi Gras Indians na da tushe daga ƙwarewar bakaken fata na New Orleans. A shekara ta 1740, Congo Square a New Orleans ta kasance cibiyar al'adu ta kiɗan Afirka da rawa; birnin kuma babbar tashar kasuwanci ce a kudu wadda ta zama makwabtaka mai haɗakar al'adu. A ranakun Lahadi, bayi daga Afirka suna taruwa don raira waƙoƙin gargajiya, yin kiɗa da kuma rawa. Shaidun daga arewa sun bayyana wadannan bukukuwa da cewa "ba za a iya fassarawa ba... Ba za ka taba ganin farin ciki da murna irin wannan ba, inda mutane suka manta da baya da gaba, suka kuma sadaukar da kansu gaba ɗaya ga farin cikin da ke a gaban su."

Hoton yana nuna al'adun Angola da yadda ake sanya kaya. Tarihin Jeroen Dewulf ya bayyana cewa kayan sawa da kiɗan mutanen Kongo na Afirka ta Tsakiya sun yi tasiri ga Mardi Gras Indians.

A irin wadannan lokuta, Mardi Gras Indians suna kunna kiɗan gargajiya ta amfani da ƙararrawa a hannu da ƙafa, conga, da tambari. Kiɗan Mardi Gras Indians da aka kunna a Congo Square ya taimaka wajen haifar da jazz. Kiɗan nasu ya samo asali daga salon kiɗan Afirka mai amfani da polyrhythm da bugun da bai daidaita ba, tare da haɗin harsunan Afirka da Creole, da kuma tasirin kiɗan Faransa da Turai. Wadannan sautuka na Afirka, irin su Bamboula, har yanzu ana ci gaba da amfani da su.

Waƙar Black Masking Indian ta gargajiya ta New Orleans da ake kira Iko Iko, wacce ta bayyana a wannan lokaci, ana ganin ta samo asali ne daga haɗakar harsunan asalin Amurka irin su Choctaw da Chickasaw, Louisiana Creole, Faransanci, da harsunan Yammacin Afirka.

Faretin Black Masking Indian yawanci yana da "second line" wato jerin masu rawa da masu kunna kayan kiɗa a titi. Wadannan ƙungiyoyin second line na kiɗa suna halartar jana’izar jazz don yin kiɗa a lokacin rakiyar gawa. Tarihin Richard Brent Turner ya bayyana cewa al’adun Afirka ta Tsakiya daga mutanen Bakongo, bukukuwan Carnival na Haiti, da al’adun bakaken fata na Amurka waɗanda suka haɗu a Congo Square, su ne ake bayyana cikin kayan ado da kiɗan Mardi Gras Indians.

Daga cikin mawakan Mardi Gras Indians akwai ƙungiyar funk mai suna Cha Wa, mawaki kuma "Babban Shugaba" Monk Boudreau, da kuma ƙungiyar The Wild Tchoupitoulas.

Ruhaniya

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Addinin Louisiana Voodoo da al’adunsa sun hade da al’adar masu sanya maski a lokacin Mardi Gras na Baƙar fata.

Dokar *Code Noir a cikin mulkin mallaka na Faransa ta haramta duk wasu addinai da ba Katolika ba, ta kuma tilasta wa bayi da 'yan uwa su rungumi Katolika. Kurata kuma marubuciya Paulette Richards ta bayyana cewa, nune-nunen masu sanya maski a cikin Black Atlantic a lokacin da bayan mulkin mallaka — inda aka hada al’adun Afirka da na Kiristanci — sun kasance wata hanya ta ci gaba da girmama ruhohin kakanni da aka hana su bauta wa a fili.

Masu sanya maski da dama suna bayyana cewa, manufarsu ita ce "su shiga duniyar ruhohi ta hanyar mallakar jiki." A yayin jana'izar jazz, ruhohi sukan mallaki jikin masu rawa domin a ba da damar fitar ruhin mamaci lafiya. A lokacin Mardi Gras, maski na nuna ruhaniya da 'yanci.

Mardi Gras Indians sukan shiga cikin second line a jana’izar jazz a unguwannin Baƙar fata, suna yin gangami a bayan akwatin gawa da masu makoki. Wakoki sukan kasance masu taushin rai kafin shiga coci, amma su rikide su zama na farin ciki bayan fita. Wadannan jana’izu na dauke da al’adun Afirka kamar busar ganga da karfi, rawa, da kiran-jama'a da amsa.

Ana samun irin wadannan jerin gawan a kasashen Yammacin Afirka, yankunan Caribbean, da kuma Afro-Brazil. Mardi Gras Indians sukan gudanar da al’adar warkarwa a yayin wasannin titinsu domin hadin kai da warkar da al’umma.

Kafin fara bikin Mardi Gras Indian, ana fara da addu’a ko waka a harshen Louisiana Creole. Ana rera waƙar Madi cu defio, en dans day, wacce ke da asali daga wakar Voodoo ta Creole M'alle couri dans deser, wacce aka danganta da rawar Caribbean mai suna Calinda.

Calinda (ko Kalinda) ta samo asali ne daga yankin Caribbean, kuma bayi daga San Domingo da Antilles suka kawo ta New Orleans. A New Orleans, Calinda ta zama “rawar Congo Square,” kuma aka hada ta da al’adun Mardi Gras Indians.

Gwagwarmayar Coci Mai Ruhaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Addinin Voodoo ya yi tasiri ga cocin Spirit na Baƙar fata da kuma al’adun Mardi Gras Indians.

Mardi Gras Indians sukan halarci cocin Spirit saboda suna sha'awar tarihin gwagwarmayar 'yan asalin ƙasar Amurka da kuma mallakar jiki da ruhi. Suna kuma jawo hankalin masu zuwa coci lokacin da suke yin rawar ring shout da ganguna a cikin gidajen rawa na birane.

A New Orleans, gwagwarmayar cocin Spirit ta samo tasiri daga Louisiana Voodoo, Katolika na gargajiya, Protestantism, Spiritualism, al’adun Bakongo da Nkisi, da kuma wasu addinan diaspora na Afirka irin su Espiritismo da Palo Mayombe.

Hotunan ’yan asalin ƙasar Amurka sun fara bayyana a cikin al’adun cocin Spirit na New Orleans tun daga shekarar 1852.

Kabilu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mardi Gras Indians suna tsarawa a cikin kungiyoyi da aka sani da "kabilu" (ko "gangs"). Yawanci, suna nuna kansu da sunayen kabilun, maimakon "Mardi Gras Indians" ko "Black Masking Indians".[1] Masana sun bayyana kabilun Mardi Gras Indian a matsayin kungiyoyin sirri na ruhaniya, kungiyoyin taimakon juna, da kungiyoyin zamantakewa.[48] Sunayen kungiyoyi suna samun tasiri daga sunayen tituna, zuriya da muhimman mutane masu al'adu.[49][35]:[5] Misali, wasu Baƙaƙen Amurkawa a New Orleans sun fito daga Senegalese ko Mandinka a Yammacin Afirka; wasu kuma suna da zuriyar ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka.[50]: Kabilu masu Seminole a sunansu suna nuna labaran bayin da suka tsere daga bauta kuma suka sami mafaka a cikin Seminole Nation.[51] Sunayen Plains Indian na iya samun wahayi daga nuna ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka a cikin shahararren al'adu.[36] Lokacin bukin faretin, wasu kabilu ana gano su ta hanyar abin rufe fuska.[39]

  • 7th Ward Creole Hunters
  • 7th Ward Hard Headers
  • 7th Ward Hunters
  • 9th Ward Hunters
  • Algiers Warriors 1.5
  • Apache Hunters
  • Black Cherokee
  • Black Eagles
  • Black Feather
  • Black Hatchet
  • Black Hawk Hunters
  • Black Mohawks
  • Black Seminoles
  • Burning Spears
  • Carrollton Hunters
  • Cheyenne Hunters
  • Chippewa Hunters
  • Choctaw Hunters
  • Comanche Hunters
  • Congo Nation
  • Creole Apache
  • Creole Osceola
  • Creole Wild West
  • Flaming Arrows
  • Geronimo Hunters
  • Golden Arrows
  • Golden Blades
  • Golden Comanche
  • Golden Eagles
  • Golden Feather Hunters
  • Golden Star Hunters
  • Guardians of the Flame
  • Hard Head Hunters
  • Louisiana Star Choctaw Nation
  • LoyalBreed Apache Warriors
  • Mandingo Warriors
  • Mohawk Hunters
  • Monogram Hunters
  • Morning Star Hunters
  • Northside Skull and Bones Gang
  • Red Hawk Hunters
  • Red Flame Hunters
  • Red White and Blue
  • Seminole Hunters
  • Seminole (Mardi Gras Indian Tribe)
  • Spirit of FiYiYi (aka Fi-Yi-Yi)
  • Timbuktu Warriors
  • Trouble Nation
  • Unified Nation
  • Uptown Warriors
  • Washitaw Nation
  • White Cloud Hunters
  • White Eagles
  • Wild Apache
  • Wild Bogacheeta
  • The Wild Tchoupitoulas
  • The Wild Magnolias
  • Wild Mohicans
  • Yellow Pocahontas
  • Yellow Jackets
  • Young Navaho
  • Young Brave Hunters
  • Young Monogram Hunters
  • Young Cheyenne[52]
  • Young Seminole Hunter

Kungiyoyi suna da 'yancin kansu, amma kungiyoyin jagora biyu suna hada kai tsakanin Uptown Indians da Downtown Indians. Mardi Gras Indian Council yana hada kai tsakanin kabilu sama da 40 masu aiki, wadanda girman su ya bambanta daga 'yan dozin zuwa dozin da yawa.[5] Kayansu an nuna su a cikin gidajen tarihi a Louisiana da Smithsonian.[10][53]

A al'adance, Mardi Gras Indians ana ganin su a fili a cikin cikakken kayan ado ne kawai a ranar Mardi Gras, ranar Saint Joseph (Maris 19) da Lahadi mafi kusa da ranar Saint Joseph ("Super Sunday"). A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, ya zama ruwan dare a ga Mardi Gras Indians a sauran bukukuwa da faretin a birnin ma. Misali, New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival ya dauki kabilu hayar su bayyana a bikin su.[54]

Tsarin fareti da ka'idoji

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

File:Jazz Fest - New Orleans 2012 Mardi Gras Indian Parade.jpg|thumb|Jazz Fest a New Orleans a 2012 a wani fareti na Mardi Gras Indian

Mardi Gras Indians suna taka muhimman matsayi daban-daban. Yawancin tubalan da ke gaba da Indians sune masu ba da bayanai marasa tufafi waɗanda ke kula da duk wata haɗari. Faretin yana farawa da "spyboys", waɗanda aka yi musu ado da kayan "gudu" masu haske waɗanda ke ba su 'yancin motsawa da sauri idan akwai gaggawa.[50] Na gaba shine "tutar farko", wani Indiya mai kayatarwa yana ɗauke da alamar tutar a cikin launukan gangunsu.[50] Mafi kusa da "Big Chief" shine "Wildman" wanda yawanci yana ɗauke da makami na alama.[50] A ƙarshe, akwai Babban Shugaba, wanda ke yanke shawara inda za a je da kuma wace kabilu za a hadu (ko a yi watsi da su). Dukan rukunin suna biye da "layi na biyu" na masu buga ganga da masu nishaɗi.[50] A al'adance, layin na biyu kuma dole ne ya kare layin farko na faretin daga tashin hankali.[55]

Lokacin tafiya, Indiyawa suna rawa da waka waƙoƙin gargajiya na kabilunsu daban-daban.[56] Suna amfani da yarukan creole ko patois, waɗanda aka dogara ne akan yarukan Afirka da Turai daban-daban.[57][58] Babban Shugaba ne ke yanke shawarar inda rukunin za su yi fareti; hanyar fareti tana bambanta kowane lokaci. Lokacin da kabilu biyu suka ci karo da juna, ko dai su wuce juna ne ko kuma su hadu don fadan alama. Kowace kabila tana jere kuma Manyan Shugabannin suna yi wa juna ba'a game da kayansu da kabilunsu. Bugun gangar kabilu biyu suna haduwa, kuma fadan ya cika. Kabilu biyu suna ci gaba da tafiyarsu.[57]

Kungiyoyin Kwanyar Kai da Kashi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

File:Mardi Gras Morning in Treme 2018 28.jpg|thumb|Northside Skull and Bones gang, Mardi Gras Morning in Treme a 2018

Kungiyar Northside Skull and Bones da sauran al'adun rufe fuska suna ci gaba a Treme lokacin Mardi Gras. Dangane da tarihin baka na gida, kungiyoyin Skull and Bones sun fara ne a 1819 a Treme. Masu rufe fuska baƙaƙe suna sanye da baƙaƙen kayayyaki masu fentin fararen kashin kwarangwal don girmama matattu da kuma gargadin masu rai cewa mutuwa ba makawa ce.[59][7] Mahalarta suna bayyana cewa al'adar ta zo New Orleans ta hanyar al'adun Caribbean da Afirka inda ake girmama matattu a cikin addinin Haitian Vodou. Mai rufe fuska na Skull and Bones Bruce "Sunpie" Barnes ya yi tafiya zuwa Afirka kuma ya ce ya ga ruhohi masu kama da kwarangwal da kasuwannin Voodoo. Lokacin Mardi Gras, Barnes yana gane Guédé, dangin ruhohi a cikin Haitian Vodou waɗanda sune masu gadi na makabarta. Kungiyoyin Skull and Bones suna aiki a matsayin masu gadin ruhaniya na gari da masu shela na gari. Masanin tarihin Jazz John McCusker ya gano cewa an ambaci masu rufe fuska na kwarangwal a cikin tarihin da suka fara tun 1875. Wata jarida ta gida ta 1902, Times-Democrat, ta ambaci matasa masu rufe fuska baƙaƙe a kan titunan North Claiborne Avenue, North Robertson da Annette.[60][8][61]

Rikici

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Image:Indian30.jpg|thumb|right|Mardi Gras Indian yana shiryawa

A farkon kwanakin Mardi Gras Indians, rufe fuska da yin fareti kuma lokaci ne na warware rikice-rikice.[57] An ambaci wannan ɓangare na tarihin Mardi Gras Indian a cikin waƙar James Sugar Boy Crawford, "Jock-A-Mo" (wanda aka fi sani da kuma sau da yawa ana rufe shi da "Iko Iko"), bisa ga chants ɗin su.[62] Tashin hankali ya fara raguwa daga shekarun 1950,[63] kuma a cikin shekarun 1960, "Chief of Chiefs" Allison Montana ya yi aiki don kawo karshen tashin hankali na yau da kullun tsakanin kabilun Mardi Gras Indian.[62] Ya ce, "Zan sa su daina fada da bindiga da wuka su fara fada da allura da zaren."[64] A yau, Mardi Gras Indians suna warware rikice-rikicen su ta hanyar "kyawun" kayansu maimakon tashin hankali.[65][57]

Wariyar Launin fata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

File:Egungun Allada au Bénin 09.png|thumb|Wani bikin Egungun a Benin - Kayayyakin Mardi Gras Indians suna da tasiri daga kayayyakin al'adun Afirka ta Yamma.[11]

Ayyukan al'adu na Mardi Gras Indians sun samo asali ne daga tarihin wariyar launin fata a New Orleans.[29][66] Fararen mazauna New Orleans sun hana baƙaƙen fata 'yantattu da bayi halartar Mardi Gras. Madadin haka, al'ummomin Afirka-Amurka sun yi bikin Mardi Gras ta hanyar haɗa waƙoƙin Yammacin Afirka, buga ganga, rawa, da al'adun rufe fuska a cikin bukukuwansu, kuma sun rufe fuska a matsayin Indiyawa don ba da labarin yadda bayi suka tsere daga bauta kuma suka sami mafaka a cikin al'ummomin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka.[67][68][59] Rufe fuska ya ba Baƙaƙen Amurkawa damar yin bikin al'adunsu na Afirka a ƙarƙashin tsari mai karɓuwa a matsayin "Indiyawa", yayin da suke nuna haɗin kai ga, da kuma girmamawa ga, kakannin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka da abokan gaba.[lower-alpha 4]

Mardi Gras Indians sun ci gaba da fuskantar warewa da cin zarafin 'yan sanda har zuwa ƙarni na 21.[69]:[70][71] Dangane da haka, Mardi Gras Indian Council ya kafa a 1985 don sauƙaƙa haɗin kai tsakanin kabilu 32 da membobinsu.[1]

Kafawar Al'adu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

File:Westindiandayparadepartier.jpg|thumb|Faretin West Indian sun yi tasiri a kan bukukuwan carnival a New Orleans.

Yawancin masana sun yarda cewa al'adun Mardi Gras Indian suna kawo cikas ga ra'ayoyin kabilanci da fararen mazauna New Orleans ke amfani da su a cikin ƙarni na 18, 19 da 20.[1][72][73] A lokacin, fararen masu sha'awa galibi suna amfani da hotunan ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka da baƙaƙen fata.[35][30][36] Bayanan farko na baƙaƙen masu sha'awa sun nuna cewa baƙaƙen fata 'yantattu da bayi sun yi hotunan waɗannan al'adun Turai a bi da bi, amma kuma sun dogara ga al'adun Afirka, Caribbean da ƴan asalin ƙasar.[1][72][73]

Hotunan ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka suna ci gaba da bayyana a cikin kayayyaki da rigunan Mardi Gras Indians kuma wasu kabilu an sanya musu suna bayan ƙungiyoyin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka, kodayake yawancin kayayyaki da kiɗa sun samo asali ne daga al'adun Caribbean tare da tsoffin tushen Afirka ta Yamma da ta Tsakiya.[36] Don haka wasu masana da masu fafutuka sun ba da shawarar cewa amfani da waɗannan hotunan ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka wani nau'i ne na mallakar al'adu. Har ila yau, masana sun yi muhawara kan ko amfani da "fentin yaƙi" da kayan kai na gashin tsuntsu ya dogara ne akan ra'ayoyin da ba su da kyau game da ƴan asalin ƙasar ko al'adun Afro-Caribbean waɗanda bayi daga Haiti da Dominican suka kawo.[30][35]:[36]

Mai fafutuka Adrienne Keene (Cherokee Nation) ta ce ba ta da tabbas ko al'adar Mardi Gras Indian mallakar al'adu ce, amma tana sa yawancin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka jin daɗi. Ta ba da shawarar cewa saboda "Tarihin Mardi Gras Indians ya samo asali ne daga tarihin zalunci da wariya tsakanin baƙaƙen fata da mazauna ƴan asalin ƙasar", al'adar na iya samo asali "bayan yankin mallakar al'adu zuwa al'ada da al'umma daban-daban."[12]

Mai shirya fina-finai na New Orleans Jonathan Isaac Jackson ya ce Mardi Gras Indians suna da al'adarsu ta musamman, wacce ta samo asali ne daga haɗakar al'adun Afirka ta Yamma da na ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka, amma ya ba da shawarar cewa fararen fata da baƙi sun fara amfani da al'adun Mardi Gras Indian ba tare da waɗannan alaƙar gargajiya da al'ada ba. Ya ce:

Mutane suna barin New Orleans, kuma mutane suna shiga New Orleans waɗanda ba su da alaƙa da al'ada. Ɗaya daga cikin manyan abubuwan da nake kallo kuma nake tunani akai shine ra'ayin cewa, a wani lokaci, za mu ga kabilu farare. Ina ƙoƙarin gano yadda zan rubuta ko ba da labari inda aka fahimci yadda wannan al'adar take da alaƙa da kakanninmu. Hanyar ce ta cewa, 'Ba ma son ku daina yin ado a matsayin Mardi Gras Indian saboda ba ku baƙi ba ne. Muna son ku mutunta cewa kada ku so yin ado a matsayin Mardi Gras Indian saboda yana da alaƙa da al'adar baƙaƙen fata kuma asalinsa ya koma Afirka gaba ɗaya.'[74]

Mardi Gras Indians sun yi aiki tare da lauyoyi don samun haƙƙin mallakar kayayyakin su da kuma hana mutane samun riba daga zanen su.[75]

Hotunan Ban Dariya Na Fito Filo

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masanin al'adu Michael P. Smith da masanin tarihi Ann Dupont sun ba da shawarar cewa masu rufe fuska baƙaƙe na farko sun iya "sake farfado da" haɗin kai na tarihi da ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka a wani ɓangare a matsayin martani ga ganin hotunan ban dariya na wariyar launin fata na ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka da baƙaƙen fata a cikin Carnival da al'adun gargajiya.[1][72] Masana Shane Lief da John McCusker sun ba da shawarar cewa al'adun Mardi Gras Indian sun sami tasiri, aƙalla a wani ɓangare, ta hanyar mummunan nuna baƙaƙen fata da ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka a cikin wasan kwaikwayo na minstrel da kuma wasan kwaikwayo na Wild West na ƙarni na 19 da farkon ƙarni na 20. Wasannin kwaikwayo na Wild West wani lokaci suna da baƙaƙen masu wasan kwaikwayo waɗanda ke aiki tare da Asiyawa, Mexicans, da ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka.[lower-alpha 5]

Smith da sauran sun kuma ba da shawarar cewa Mardi Gras Indians sun rufe fuska a matsayin ƴan asalin ƙasar kafin irin waɗannan hotunan wariyar launin fata su zama sananne.[1][72] Masana kamar Maurice Martinez, Jeroen Dewulf, da Kalamu ya Salaam sun ba da shawarar cewa a ƙarshe al'adun Caribbean sun yi tasiri a kan al'adar Mardi Gras Indian, suna lura da al'adun rufe fuska baƙaƙe da aka samu a sassan Caribbean da Kudancin Amurka waɗanda suka riga sabbin fassarorin Eurocentric na ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka. A waɗannan yankuna, baƙaƙen fata sun "rufe fuska" a matsayin ƴan asalin ƙasar saboda tarihin zalunci na haɗin gwiwa.[76][77]

Dalilan Rufe Fuska

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masanin kimiyya Nikesha Elise Williams ta ba da shawarar dalilai biyu da ya sa Baƙaƙen Amurkawa ke rufe fuska a matsayin ƴan asalin ƙasar:

Rufe fuska a matsayin ƴan asalin ƙasar ya yi amfani da aƙalla dalilai biyu masu muhimmanci. Hanya ce ta girmama kakanninsu da abotarsu da kabilun ƴan asalin ƙasar waɗanda suka ɓoye su 'yayinda kuma suke girmama al'adun jarumai na kabilun Afirka waɗanda aka bautar a nahiyar kuma aka kawo su sabuwar duniya...'[34]

David Guss ya ce lokacin da Baƙaƙen Amurkawa ke "rufe fuska" a matsayin ƴan asalin ƙasar ba su ƙoƙarin zama ƴan asalin ƙasar; suna ba da labari a gani na yadda bayi 'yan Afirka suka tsere daga bauta a Louisiana kuma suka sami mafaka a ƙauyukan ƴan asalin ƙasar da ke kusa. Ya ce baƙaƙen fata ba sa yin ba'a ko izgili ga ƴan asalin ƙasar. Guss ya bayyana Mardi Gras Indians, ƴan asalin Andean waɗanda ke sanye da kayan mulkin mallaka na Turai, da sauran misalan wata kabila da ke sanye ko rufe fuska a matsayin wata kabila a matsayin masu aiwatar da "canjin jinsi na kabila".[78]

Kalmomi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Donald Harrison Jr., memba na kungiyar Congo Nation, ya ce kungiyarsa ta canza sunansu saboda "wasu ƴan asalin ƙasar na iya yin fushi game da hakan", kuma sun zaɓi sunan Afirka saboda su "kabila ce ta Afirka-Amurka ta New Orleans".[71][79]

Demond Melancon, memba na Young Seminole Hunters, ya ba da shawarar cewa sunan wannan al'adar al'adu ya kamata a canza: "Ya kasance al'ada ce boye tsawon shekaru 250 kuma dole ne ku san inda ta fito." Ya ce saboda al'adar rufe fuska ta samo asali ne daga Afirka, ya kamata a kira ƙungiyar "Black Maskers".[2] Marubucin Michael P. Smith ya ba da shawarar kiran su "Maroons of Urban New Orleans".[72]

Wasu Mardi Gras Indians sun kuma yanke shawarar cire kalmomin "Indian Red" daga waƙar mai wannan sunan don kauce wa ɓata wa ƴan asalin ƙasar rai. Waƙar "Indian Red" an kira ta "addu'a" don al'adar Black Masking, kuma an yi amfani da ita tun aƙalla shekarun 1940.[80]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 Dupont, Ann (1996). "Ceremonial Textiles of the Mardi Gras Indians". Textile Society of America: 96–97. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 McCash, Doug (March 26, 2021). "Should we call them Mardi Gras Indians, or should we be calling them something else?". NOLA. Retrieved 13 October 2024.
  3. ↑ Becker, Cynthia (2023). "Review: Mystery in Motion: African American Masking and Spirituality in Mardi Gras, co-curated by Kim Vaz-Deville and Ron Bechet". Nova Religio. 26 (4): 132–135. doi:10.1525/nr.2023.26.4.132. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  4. ↑ Viddal, Grete (2020). "Fire in the Hole: The Spirit Work of Fi Yi Yi and the Mandingo Warriors ed. by Rachel Breunlin (review)". African Arts. 53 (1): 95–96. doi:10.1162/afar_r_00522. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "Mardi Gras (Black Masking) Indians". New Orleans and Company. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Mystery in Motion: African American Masking and Spirituality in Mardi Gras". Louisiana State Museums. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Rivera, Victoria. "Beware the Northside Skull and Bone Gang". The Atlantic. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Reckdahl, Katy (March 3, 2019). "New generation of North Side Skull and Bone Gang keeps 200-year Mardi Gras tradition alive in Treme". NOLA. Retrieved 21 October 2024.
  9. ↑ Meade, Natelie (February 9, 2022). "The Undersung Histories of Mardi Gras's Black Indians". Arthur Roger Gallery. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Saxon, Jamie; Kelly, Morgan. "New Orleans' Black Masking Indian chiefs discuss art, community". High Meadows Environmental Institute. Princeton University. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Jackson, Joyce; Mosadomi, Fehintola. "The Masking Traditions of the Nigerian Yoruba Egungun and the New Orleans Black Mardi Gras Indians". The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Boyanton, Megan. "What You Should Know About the Mardi Gras Indians". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 19 November 2024.
  13. ↑ "Enslaving Colonial North America". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  14. ↑ "Early Colonial Formation, Cultural Transformations and Creolization". Music Rising at Tulane. Tulane University. Retrieved 11 October 2024.
  15. ↑ "New Orleans history starter pack: a beginner's guide to understanding the Crescent City". The Historic New Orleans Collection. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  16. ↑ Adderly, Laura. "New Orleans and the African Diaspora". American Historical Association. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  17. ↑ Reid, Ann J. "A history of Mardi Gras Indians in New Orleans". The Grio. Retrieved 11 October 2024.
  18. ↑ "New Orleans history starter pack: a beginner's guide to understanding the Crescent City". The Historic New Orleans Collection Museum. Retrieved 13 October 2024.
  19. ↑ Williams, Nikesha (February 14, 2023). "New Orleans and Mardi Gras Indian Culture". Louisiana State University Press. Louisiana State University. Retrieved 13 October 2024.
  20. ↑ Salami, Gitti. "Festivals in West Africa". Oxford Bibliographies. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
  21. ↑ "Lewis Center for the Arts' Program in Visual Arts presents Big Chief Wears a Golden Crown: Art of the New Orleans Black Masking Indians". Lewis Center Princeton Arts. Princeton University. March 15, 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Barnett 2007.
  23. ↑ Le Page du Pratz 1774.
  24. ↑ Monuments, Paper; Frisbie-Calder, Pippin; artist; Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo; narrative. "San Malo Maroons". New Orleans Historical (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  25. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  26. ↑ Beaver, Jessica; Gillette, Jessica; Mason, Kate; O'Dwyer, Kathryn. "Maroons in Antebellum New Orleans: Independence at Any Cost - Stop 8 of 9 on the Urban Slavery and Everyday Resistance tour". New Orleans Historical (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  27. ↑ "More Than A Runaway: Maroons In Louisiana". WWNO (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  28. ↑ Morgan-Owens, Jessie (20 February 2020). "Catch up, Choctaw krewe, 'redface' is racist". The Advocate. Retrieved 21 September 2024.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Dreilinger, Danielle; Price, Todd (2024). "Elite, white New Orleans: Mardi Gras has not freed itself from vestiges of racism". The Tennessean. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Gibson, Annie (2013). "Parading Brazil through New Orleans: Brazilian Immigrant Interaction with Casa Samba". Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana. 34 (1): 17. JSTOR 43282540. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  31. ↑ Sexton, Richard; Delehanty, Randolph (2023). New Orleans Elegance and Decadence. Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 9781507303221.
  32. ↑ Roberts, Shearon (2023). "Post-Katrina Intrusions on African American Cultural Traditions in New Orleans". The Power of the Story: Writing Disasters in Haiti and the Circum-Caribbean. 6: 78–79, 82–83, 87–88. ISBN 978-1-80073-956-7. Retrieved 13 October 2024.
  33. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named tulane contagion
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Podcast: The subversive history of Black Mardi Gras". America the Jesuit Review Magazine. February 21, 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named jockomo
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named tulane musicrising
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "The Wild Magnolias". Kennedy Center. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
  38. ↑ Wesselman, Barbara. "Feathers and Beads: Exploring Heritage through the Mardi Gras Indians". Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute. Yale University. Retrieved 18 October 2024.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Pier, Meg (February 5, 2020). "Insights on Culture of Mardi Gras Indians from Standard-Bearer". People Are Culture. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
  40. ↑ Richards, Paulette (July 28, 2023). Object Performance in the Black Atlantic the United States. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000919899.
  41. ↑ {{cite journal |last1=Daniel |first1=Yvonne |date=2017 |title=Parading the Carnivalesque: Masking Circum-Caribbean Demands: With Catherine Evleshin |url=https://academic.oup.com/illinois-scholarship-online/book/30289/chapter-abstract/257286957?redirectedFrom=fulltext |publisher=Oxford Academic |volume=1 |doi=10.5406/illinois/9780252036538.003.0006 |access-date=5 October 2024 |website=Illinois Scholarship Online|url-access=subscription
  42. ↑ Bilby, Kenneth (2010). "Surviving Secularization: Masking the Spirit in the Jankunu (John Canoe) Festivals of the Caribbean". NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids. 84 (3/4): 215. JSTOR 41850585. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  43. ↑ Wyndham Nicholls, Robert (2012). The Jumbies' Playing Ground Old World Influences on Afro-Creole Masquerades in the Eastern Caribbean. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 154–156. ISBN 9781617036118.
  44. ↑ Williams, Nikesha (2022). Mardi Gras Indians. Louisiana State University Press. p. 1962. ISBN 9780807179123.
  45. ↑ Flint (2020). "Carnival!: A Black Diasporic Tradition". The Hilltop. Retrieved 5 October 2024.
  46. ↑ "Carnival Exhibit Introduction". Northeastern University. Early Caribbean Digital Archive. Retrieved 5 October 2024.
  47. ↑ Smith, Michael (1994). Mardi Gras Indians. Arcadia Publishing. p. 129. ISBN 9781455608386.
  48. ↑ Dewulf, Jeroen (2017). From the Kingdom of Kongo to Congo Square : Kongo dances and the origins of the Mardi Gras Indians. University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press. p. 124. ISBN 9781935754961.
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  52. ↑ Moser, Margaret. "My Gang Don't Bow Down: Mardi Gras Indian Chief Kevin Goodman leads his tribe to Texas," Austin Chronicle (May 5, 2006).
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  56. ↑ Radway, Janice (2009). American Studies An Anthology. Wiley. p. 295. ISBN 978-1-4051-1351-9.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 Gaudet, Garcia; McDonald, James (2011). Mardi Gras, Gumbo, and Zydeco: Readings in Louisiana Culture. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 23–25. ISBN 9781604736427.
  58. ↑ "'The Wild Tchoupitoulas': The Story Of A New Orleans Classic". U Discover Music. February 13, 2024. Retrieved 17 November 2024.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Chenier, Ceirra (February 12, 2024). "The Real Mardi Gras: Black New Orleanians Reclaim Their Space Through Carnival Traditions". Essance Magazine. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  60. ↑ "Louisiana Voodoo Mystery in Motion: African American Spirituality in Mardi Gras". Louisiana State Museum. Retrieved 21 October 2024.
  61. ↑ "St Pauls Carnivals". Port Cities Bristol. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Salaam, Kalamu (1997). "He's the Prettiest": A Tribute to Big Chief Allison "Tootie" Montana's 50 years of Mardi Gras Indian Suiting. New Orleans: New Orleans Museum of Art. Print.
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  64. ↑ Baum, Dan (2010). Nine Lives (Print ed.). New York: Spiegal Paperbacks.
  65. ↑ Viddal, Grete (January 23, 2023). "Pretty, Pretty, Pretty The craft of creating a Black Masking Indian suit". Country Roads Magazine. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
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  67. ↑ Ramsey, Jan. "Louisiana Music: Mardi Gras Indians and Zulu". Explore Louisiana. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  68. ↑ "A Brief History of Mardi Gras Indians". Explore Louisiana. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
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  70. ↑ Lowe, Kaitlin (March 15, 2023). "What You May Not Know About Mardi Gras". Tulane Magazine. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named npr.org
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  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Kight, Jaime (2011). "'We won't bow down': Mardi Gras Indian performance and cultural mediation (Thesis)". Florida State University Digital Library. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  74. ↑ "Mardi Gras' Masking Indians: Filmmaker Jonathan Isaac Jackson on the Culture of New Orleans". World Channel. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
  75. ↑ "Mardi Gras Indians seek to put copyrights on their costumes". 4WWL TV. 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  76. ↑ Dewulf, Jereon (2017). From the Kingdom of Kongo to Congo Square Kongo Dances and the Origins of the Mardi Gras Indians. University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press. p. xiii. ISBN 9781935754961.Samfuri:PbWindham, Ben (2008). "'Indians' add mystery to Mardi Gras". Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved 6 November 2024.Samfuri:PbFritz, Timothy (2018). "From the Kingdom of Kongo to Congo Square: Kongo Dances and the Origins of the Mardi Gras Indians by Jeroen Dewulf (review)". Journal of Southern History. 84 (4): 966–967. doi:10.1353/soh.2018.0252. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
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  78. ↑ Guss, David (2014). "Whose Skin Is This, Anyway? The Gran Poder and Other Tales of Ethnic Cross-Dressing". Revista. 13 (3). Retrieved 25 October 2024.[permanent dead link]
  79. ↑ "Mardi Gras Indian chief prepares for Fat Tuesday and Grammys". Independent. March 3, 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
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