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Jerin mafi girman fashewar aman wuta

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Jerin mafi girman fashewar aman wuta
jerin maƙaloli na Wikimedia
A tower of grey ash erupts above a mountain
Fashewar Dutsen Pinatubo a shekarar 1991, mafi girman fashewa tun 1912, ya ragu da fashewar a cikin wannan jerin.

A cikin ffashewa dutsen mai aman wuta, ana fitar da lava, na dutsen mai aman wuta. Duk da yake fashewa da yawa suna haifar da haɗari ne kawai ga yankin da ke kewaye da su, fashewar mafi girma na Duniya na iya samun babban tasiri na yanki ko ma na duniya, tare da wasu da ke shafar yanayi kuma suna ba da gudummawa ga halakawar jama'a.[1][2] Ana iya kwatanta fashewar dutsen wuta gabaɗaya a matsayin fashewar fashewa, fashewar duwatsu da toka, ko fashewar faduwa, fasalin fashewar laka mai sauƙi.[3] An ba da jerin daban-daban a ƙasa don kowane nau'in.

Wataƙila akwai irin wannan fashewa da yawa a lokacin Tarihin Duniya fiye da waɗanda aka nuna a cikin waɗannan jerin. Koyaya rushewa da tectonics na farantin sun ɗauki nauyin su, kuma fashewa da yawa ba su bar isasshen shaida ga masu ilimin ƙasa don tabbatar da girman su ba. Ko da ga fashewar da aka lissafa a nan, kimantawa na ƙarar da ta fashe na iya zama ƙarƙashin rashin tabbas.[4]

Fashewar Abubuwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin fashewar Abubuwa, fashewar magma yana motsawa ta hanyar saurin sakin matsa lamba, sau da yawa ya haɗa da fashewar iskar gas da aka narkar da a cikin kayan. Shahararrun fashewar tarihi da barna sun fi irin wannan. Wani lokaci mai fashewa zai iya ƙunshi fashewa guda ɗaya, ko jerin fashewa da yawa ya bazu cikin kwanaki da yawa, makonni ko watanni. Fashewar fashewa yakan haɗa da kauri, mai ɗanɗano sosai, silicic ko magma felsic, mai girma cikin maras ƙarfi kamar tururin ruwa da carbon dioxide. Abubuwan Pyroclastic sune samfurin farko, yawanci a cikin nau'i na tuff. Fashewar girman wancan a tafkin Toba shekaru 74,000 da suka gabata, aƙalla kilomita 2,800 cubic (670 cu mi), ko fashewar Yellowstone shekaru 620,000 da suka gabata, kusan kilomita 1,000 cubic (240 cu mi), yana faruwa a duk duniya kowace shekara 50,000 zuwa 1000,000,[1]  

Volcano—eruption[5] Age (millions of years) Location Volume (km3) Notes Ref.
Guarapuava —Tamarana—Sarusas 132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 8,600 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. Additionally, the Sarusas quartz latite may have been erupted by multiple eruptions.[4] [4]
Santa Maria—Fria ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 7,800 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Lake Toba Caldera—Youngest Toba Tuff 0.073 Sunda Arc, Indonesia 2,000–13,200 Largest known eruption on earth in at least the last million years with most estimates placing it at 2800 cubic kilometers, possibly responsible for a population bottleneck of the human species (see Toba catastrophe theory) [8][9][10]

[11][12][13]

Guarapuava —Ventura ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 7,600 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Flat Landing Brook Eruption 466-465Samfuri:Pad Flat Landing Brook Formation 2,000–12,000 One of the largest and oldest supereruptions. Existence as a single eruption is controversial. Possibly a multiple 2,000+ km3 event under a million years. [14][15]
Sam Ignimbrite and Green Tuff 29.5Samfuri:Pad Yemen 6,797–6,803 Volume includes 5550 km3 of distal tuffs. This estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3. [16]
Goboboseb–Messum volcanic centre—Springbok quartz latite unit 132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil and Namibia 6,340 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [17]
Wah Wah Springs Tuff 30.06Samfuri:Pad Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex 5,500–5,900 The largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex, and includes flows over 4,000 meters thick at the most. [18][10]
Caxias do Sul—Grootberg ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 5,650 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
La Garita Caldera—Fish Canyon Tuff 27.8Samfuri:Pad San Juan volcanic field, Colorado 5,000 Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma. [19][20]
Lund Tuff 29.2  Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex 4,400 Formed the White Rock Caldera, one of the largest eruptions of the Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite flareup. [18]
Jacui—Goboboseb II ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 4,350 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Ourinhos—Khoraseb ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 3,900 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Jabal Kura'a Ignimbrite 29.6Samfuri:Pad Yemen 3,797–3,803 Volume estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3. [16]
Windows Butte tuff 31.4Samfuri:Pad William's Ridge, central Nevada 3,500 Part of the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up [21][22]
Anita Garibaldi—Beacon ~132Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 3,450 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Oxaya ignimbrites 19Samfuri:Pad Chile 3,000 Really a regional correlation of many ignimbrites originally thought to be distinct [23]
Gakkel Ridge Caldera 1.1Samfuri:Pad Gakkel Ridge 3,000 It is the only known supervolcano located directly on the mid-ocean ridge.
Grey's Landing Supereruption 8.72Samfuri:Pad Located in southern Idaho >2,800 One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot Supereruptions; Largest Yellowstone eruption. [24]
Pacana Caldera—Atana ignimbrite 4Samfuri:Pad Chile 2,800 Forms a resurgent caldera. [25]
Mangakino Caldera—Kidnappers ignimbrite 1.01Samfuri:Pad Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 2,760 [26]
Iftar Alkalb—Tephra 4 W 29.5Samfuri:Pad Afro-Arabian 2,700 [4]
Yellowstone Caldera—Huckleberry Ridge Tuff 2.059 Yellowstone hotspot 2,450–2,500 One of the largest Yellowstone eruptions on record [27][9]
Nohi Rhyolite—Gero Ash-Flow Sheet 70Samfuri:Pad Honshū, Japan 2,200 Nohi Rhyolite total volume over 7,000 km3 in 70 to 72 Ma, Gero Ash-Flow Sheet being the largest [28]
Whakamaru 0.254 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 2,000 Largest in the Southern Hemisphere in the Late Quaternary [29]
Palmas BRA-21—Wereldsend 29.5Samfuri:Pad Paraná and Etendeka traps 1,900 The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4] [4]
Kilgore tuff 4.3Samfuri:Pad Near Kilgore, Idaho 1,800 Last of the eruptions from the Heise volcanic field [30]
McMullen Supereruption 8.99Samfuri:Pad Located in southern Idaho >1,700 One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot eruptions. [24]
Sana'a Ignimbrite—Tephra 2W63 29.5Samfuri:Pad Afro-Arabian 1,600 [4]
Deicke and Millbrig 454Samfuri:Pad England, exposed in Northern Europe and Eastern US 1,509[n 1] One of the oldest large eruptions preserved [5][31][32]
Blacktail tuff 6.5Samfuri:Pad Blacktail, Idaho 1,500 First of several eruptions from the Heise volcanic field [30]
Mangakino Caldera—Rocky Hill 1Samfuri:Pad Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 1,495 [26]
Aso Caldera 0.087 Kyushu, Japan 930–1,860 Aso-4 ignimbrite [13]
Emory Caldera—Kneeling Nun tuff 33Samfuri:Pad Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,310 [33]
Omine-Odai Caldera—Murou pyroclastic flow 13.7Samfuri:Pad Honshū, Japan 1,260 A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma. [34]
Timber Mountain tuff 11.6Samfuri:Pad Southwestern Nevada 1,200 Also includes a 900 cubic km tuff as a second member in the tuff [35]
Paintbrush tuff (Tonopah Spring Member) 12.8Samfuri:Pad Southwestern Nevada 1,200 Related to a 1000 cubic km tuff (Tiva Canyon Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff [35]
Bachelor—Carpenter Ridge tuff 28Samfuri:Pad San Juan volcanic field 1,200 Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Bursum—Apache Springs Tuff 28.5Samfuri:Pad Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,200 Related to a 1050 cubic km tuff, the Bloodgood Canyon tuff [36]
Taupō Volcano—Oruanui eruption 0.027 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 1,170 Most recent VEI 8 eruption [37]
Mangakino Caldera—Ongatiti–Mangatewaiiti 1.21Samfuri:Pad Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 1,150 [26]
Huaylillas Ignimbrite 15Samfuri:Pad Bolivia 1,100 Predates half of the uplift of the central Andes [38]
Bursum—Bloodgood Canyon Tuff 28.5Samfuri:Pad Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,050 Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff, the Apache Springs tuff [36]
Okueyama Caldera 13.7Samfuri:Pad Kyūshū, Japan 1,030 A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma. [34]
Yellowstone Caldera—Lava Creek Tuff 0.639 Yellowstone hotspot 1,000 Last large eruption in the Yellowstone National Park area estimated energy yield 875,000 megatons of tnt [39][9][10]
Awasa Caldera 1.09Samfuri:Pad Main Ethiopian Rift 1,000 [40]
Cerro Galán 2.2Samfuri:Pad Catamarca Province, Argentina 1,000 Elliptical caldera is ~35 km wide [41]
Paintbrush tuff (Tiva Canyon Member) 12.7Samfuri:Pad Southwestern Nevada 1,000 Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff (Topopah Spring Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff [35]
San Juan—Sapinero Mesa Tuff 28Samfuri:Pad San Juan volcanic field 1,000 Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Uncompahgre—Dillon & Sapinero Mesa Tuffs 28.1Samfuri:Pad San Juan volcanic field 1,000 Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Platoro—Chiquito Peak tuff 28.2Samfuri:Pad San Juan volcanic field 1,000 Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Mount Princeton—Wall Mountain tuff 35.3Samfuri:Pad Thirtynine Mile volcanic area, Colorado 1,000 Helped cause the exceptional preservation at Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument [42]
Aira Caldera 0.03Samfuri:Pad Kyushu, Japan 940–1,040 Osumi pumice fall deposit, Ito ignimbrite, and Aira-Tanzawa ash fall deposit [13]

Fashewar fashewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A red-hot lava flow streams out of a fuming vent, meandering past the viewer under a low cloudy sky.
Fashewar dutse daga Krafla, Iceland

Fashewar Abubuwa ya ƙunshi ɗan ƙarami mai sauƙi, kwararar lava maimakon manyan fashe. Za su iya ci gaba har tsawon shekaru ko shekarun da suka gabata, suna samar da ruwa mai yawa na mafic lava. Misali, Kīlauea a kan Hawai'i ta ci gaba da fashewa daga 1983 zuwa 2018, tana samar da lava mai nisan kilomita 2.7 (1 cu mi) wanda ya mamaye fiye da murabba'in kilomita 100 (sq mi). Duk da kamannun kamanninsu, fashewar fashewar na iya zama mai haɗari kamar fashewar fashewa: ɗaya daga cikin fashewar fashewar mafi girma a tarihi ya faru a Iceland lokacin fashewar Laki na 1783-1784, wanda ya samar da kusan kilomita 15 cubic (4 cu mi) na lava kuma ya kashe kashi ɗaya cikin biyar na al'ummar Iceland. Rikicin da ya biyo baya ga yanayin yana iya kuma ya kashe miliyoyi a wasu wurare Har yanzu mafi girma shine fashewar Icelandic na Katla (fashewar Eldgjá) kusan 934, mai nisan kilomita 18 (4 cu mi) na fashewar lava, da fashewar Þjórsárhraun na Bárðarbunga kusan 67025 BCE, tare da murabba'in kilomita 67025 BCE. fashewa, na karshen shine fashewa mafi girma a cikin shekaru 10,000 da suka gabata. Filayen lava na waɗannan fashewar sun auna 565 km2 (Laki), 700 km2 (Eldgjá) da 950 km2 (Þjórssárhraun).

Fitarwa Shekaru (Miliyoyin shekaru) Wurin da yake Girma (km3)
Bayani Refs
Mahabaleshwar-Rajahmundry Traps (Upper) 64.8 Rashin jituwa na Deccan, Indiya 9,300 [4]
Wapshilla Ridge yana gudana ~15.5 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 5,000–10,000 Membin ya ƙunshi 8-10 gudana tare da jimlar ~50,000 km3  [43]
Gudun McCoy Canyon 15.6 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 4,300 [43]
Gudun Umtanum ~15.6 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 2,750 Ruwan ruwa guda biyu tare da jimlar 5,500 km3  [4]
Gudun Sand Hollow 15.3 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 2,660 [4]
Pruitt Draw kwarara 16.5 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 2,350 [43]
Gudun gidan kayan gargajiya 15.6 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 2,350 [43]
Moonaree Dacite 1591 Samfuri:Pad Gawler Range Volcanics, Ostiraliya 2,050 Ɗaya daga cikin tsofaffin manyan fashewar da aka adana [4]
Ruwan Rosalia 14.5 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 1,900 [4]
Ruwan Kogin Joseph 16.5 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 1,850 [43]
Ginkgo Basalt 15.3 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 1,600 [4]
California Creek-Airway Heights kwarara 15.6 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 1,500 [43]
Gudun ruwa na Stember 15.6 Kungiyar Basalt ta Kogin Columbia, Amurka 1,200 [43]

Manyan larduna masu cin wuta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
The Siberian Traps underlie much of Russia, from the Lena River west to the Ural Mountains (around 3,000 km), and stretching south from the Arctic coast almost to Lake Baikal (around 2,000 km).
Yankin Siberiya Traps babban lardin igneous (map a cikin Jamusanci)

Lokaci mai yawa na dutsen wuta a cikin abin da ake kira manyan larduna masu zafi sun samar da manyan tsaunuka na teku da ambaliyar ruwa a baya. Wadannan na iya kunshe da daruruwan manyan fashewa, suna samar da miliyoyin cubic kilomita na laka gabaɗaya. Babu wani babban fashewar ambaliyar ruwa da ya faru a tarihin ɗan adam, mafi kwanan nan ya faru sama da shekaru miliyan 10 da suka gabata. Sau da yawa ana danganta su da rushewar manyan nahiyoyi kamar Pangea a cikin rikodin ilimin ƙasa, [44] kuma suna iya ba da gudummawa ga yawancin halaka. Yawancin manyan larduna masu cin wuta ko dai ba a yi nazari sosai ba don tabbatar da girman fashewar su, ko kuma ba a kiyaye su da kyau don yin hakan ba. Yawancin fashewar da aka lissafa a sama sun fito ne daga manyan larduna biyu kawai: tarkon Paraná da Etendeka da Columbia River Basalt Group. Wannan shi ne mafi girman lardin da ke cikin wuta, kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin mafi ƙanƙanta.[45] Jerin manyan larduna masu zafi ya biyo baya don samar da wasu alamun yawan manyan fashewa da za su iya ɓacewa daga jerin da aka bayar a nan.

Igneous province Age (Millions of years) Location Volume (millions of km3) Notes Refs
Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi Plateau 121  Southwest Pacific Ocean 59–77 Largest igneous body on Earth, later split into three widely separated oceanic plateaus, with a fourth component perhaps now accreted onto South America. Possibly linked to the Louisville hotspot. [46][47][48]
Kerguelen Plateau–Broken Ridge 112  South Indian Ocean, Kerguelen Islands 17[n 2] Linked to the Kerguelen hotspot. Volume includes Broken Ridge and the Southern and Central Kerguelen Plateau (produced 120–95 Ma), but not the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (produced after 40 Ma). [49][50]
North Atlantic Igneous Province 55.5 North Atlantic Ocean 6.6 Linked to the Iceland hotspot. [5]
Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up 32.5 Southwest United States: mainly in Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico 5.5 Mostly andesite to rhyolite explosive (.5 million km3) to effusive (5 million km3) eruptions, 25–40 Ma. Includes many volcanic centers, including the San Juan volcanic field. [51]
Caribbean large igneous province 88  Caribbean–Colombian oceanic plateau 4 Linked to the Galápagos hotspot. [52]
Siberian Traps 249.4 Siberia, Russia 1–4 A large outpouring of lava on land, believed to have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction ever. [53]
Karoo-Ferrar 183  Mainly Southern Africa and Antarctica. Also South America, India, Australia and New Zealand 2.5 Formed as Gondwana broke up [54]
Paraná and Etendeka traps 133  Brazil/Angola and Namibia 2.3 Linked to the Tristan hotspot [55][56]
Central Atlantic magmatic province 200  Laurasia continents 2 Believed to be the cause of the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. Formed as Pangaea broke up [57]
Deccan Traps 66  Deccan Plateau, India 1.5 A large igneous province of west-central India, believed to have been one of the causes of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Linked to the Réunion hotspot. [58]
Emeishan Traps 256.5 Southwestern China 1 Possible cause of Capitanian mass extinction event, later may have contributed to the Permian–Triassic extinction event along with Siberian Traps. [59]
Coppermine River Group 1267  Mackenzie Large Igneous Province/Canadian Shield 0.65 Consists of at least 150 individual flows.
Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts 28.5 Ethiopia/Yemen/Afar, Arabian-Nubian Shield 0.35 Associated with silicic, explosive tuffs [60][61]
Columbia River Basalt Group 16  Pacific Northwest, United States 0.18 Well exposed by Missoula Floods in the Channeled Scablands. [62]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Roy Britt, Robert (8 March 2005). "Super Volcano Will Challenge Civilization, Geologists Warn". LiveScience. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2010. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "live-2005" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ Self, Steve. "Flood basalts, mantle plumes and mass extinctions". Geological Society of London. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
  3. ↑ "Effusive & Explosive Eruptions". Geological Society of London. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 Scott E. Bryan; Ingrid Ukstins Peate; David W. Peate; Stephen Self; Dougal A. Jerram; Michael R. Mawby; J.S. Marsh; Jodie A. Miller (2010). "The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth" (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 102 (3–4): 207. Bibcode:2010ESRv..102..207B. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2020-03-11. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Bryan et al 2010" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 (Data in this table are from Ward (2009) unless noted otherwise) Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. Elsevier B. V. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Supplementary Table II: "Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "ward" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Rossetti, Lucas; Lima, Evandro F.; Waichel, Breno L.; Hole, Malcolm J.; Simões, Matheus S.; Scherer, Claiton M.S. (2018-04-15). "Lithostratigraphy and volcanology of the Serra Geral Group, Paraná-Etendeka Igneous Province in Southern Brazil: Towards a formal stratigraphical framework". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (in Turanci). 355: 98–114. Bibcode:2018JVGR..355...98R. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.05.008. ISSN 0377-0273. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 BENITES, SUSANA; SOMMER, CARLOS A.; LIMA, EVANDRO F. DE; SAVIAN, JAIRO F.; HAAG, MAURICIO B.; MONCINHATTO, THIAGO R.; TRINDADE, RICARDO I.F. DA (2020). "Characterization of volcanic structures associated to the silicic magmatism of the Paraná-Etendeka Province, in the Aparados da Serra region, southern Brazil". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 92 (2): e20180981. doi:10.1590/0001-3765202020180981. ISSN 1678-2690. PMID 32187251. S2CID 214583807. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2021-06-15. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  8. ↑ Ambrose, Stanley H. (June 1998). "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. Elsevier B. V. 34 (6): 623–651. Bibcode:1998JHumE..34..623A. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219. PMID 9650103. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "What is a supervolcano? What is a supereruption?". www.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 2019-09-25. Retrieved 2019-09-12.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Volcanic Explosivity Index: Measuring the size of an eruption". geology.com. Archived from the original on 2019-06-01. Retrieved 2019-09-12.
  11. ↑ Antonio Costa; Victoria C. Smith; Giovanni Macedonio; Naomi E. Matthews (2014). "The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption". Frontiers in Earth Science. 2: 16. Bibcode:2014FrEaS...2...16C. doi:10.3389/feart.2014.00016.
  12. ↑ "VOGRIPA". www2.bgs.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Takarada, Shinji; Hoshizumi, Hideo (2020-06-23). "Distribution and Eruptive Volume of Aso-4 Pyroclastic Density Current and Tephra Fall Deposits, Japan: A M8 Super-Eruption". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8: 170. Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..170T. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00170. ISSN 2296-6463.
  14. ↑ "Lexique du substrat rocheux". dnr-mrn.gnb.ca. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
  15. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-09-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Ingrid Ukstins Peate; Joel A. Baker; Mohamed Al-Kadasi; Abdulkarim Al-Subbary; Kim B. Knight; Peter Riisager; Matthew F. Thirlwall; David W. Peate; Paul R. Renne; Martin A. Menzies (2005). "Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen". Bulletin of Volcanology. Springer. 68 (2): 135–156. Bibcode:2005BVol...68..135P. doi:10.1007/s00445-005-0428-4. S2CID 140160158.
  17. ↑ Ewart, A.; Milner, S.C.; Armstrong, R.A.; Duncan, A.R. (1998). "Etendeka Volcanism of the Goboboseb Mountains and Messum Igneous Complex, Namibia. Part II: Voluminous Quartz Latite Volcanism of the Awahab Magma System". Journal of Petrology. 39 (2): 227–253. Bibcode:1998JPet...39..227E. doi:10.1093/petrology/39.2.227.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Tingey, David G.; Hart, Garret L.; Gromme, Sherman; Deino, Alan L.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Best, Myron G. (2013-08-01). "The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions". Geosphere (in Turanci). 9 (4): 864–950. Bibcode:2013Geosp...9..864B. doi:10.1130/GES00902.1.
  19. ↑ Ort, Michael (22 September 1997). "La Garita Caldera". Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Lipman, Peter W. (2007-11-02). "Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster, Southwestern Colorado". USGS Investigations Series I-2799. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 6 August 2010. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ↑ Cannon, Eric. "4. Petrology – The Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite Flare-Up". University of Colorado at Boulder. Archived from the original on 2012-10-13. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  22. ↑ Best, Myron G.; Scott R. B.; Rowley P. D.; Swadley W. C.; Anderson R. E.; Grommé C. S.; Harding A. E.; Deino A. L.; Christiansen E. H.; Tingey D. G.; Sullivan K. R. (1993). "Oligocene–Miocene caldera complexes, ash-flow sheets, and tectonism in the central and southeastern Great Basin". Field Trip Guidebook for Cordilleran/Rocky Mountain Sections of the Geological Society of America. Crustal Evolution of the Great Basin and the Sierra Nevada: 285–312.
  23. ↑ Wörner, Gerhard; Konrad Hammerschmidt; Friedhelm Henjes-Kunst; Judith Lezaun; Hans Wilke (2000). "Geochronology (40Ar/39Ar, K-Ar and He-exposure ages) of Cenozoic magmatic rocks from Northern Chile (18–22°S): implications for magmatism and tectonic evolution of the central Andes". Revista Geológica de Chile. 27 (2). Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Knott, Thomas; Branney, M.; Reichow, Marc; Finn, David; Tapster, Simon; Coe, Robert (June 2020). "Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning?". Geology. 48 (9): 934–938. Bibcode:2020Geo....48..934K. doi:10.1130/G47384.1. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  25. ↑ Lindsay, J. M.; S. de Silva; R. Trumbull; R. Emmermann; K. Wemmer (April 2001). "La Pacana caldera, N. Chile: a re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and volcanology of one of the world's largest resurgent calderas". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Elsevier B. V. 106 (1–2): 145–173. Bibcode:2001JVGR..106..145L. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00270-5.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "Mangakino". VOGRIPA. Archived from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  27. ↑ Topinka, Lyn (25 June 2009). "Description: Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming". USGS. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
  28. ↑ Takahiro, Sonehara; Satoru, Harayama (1 November 2007). "Petrology of the Nohi Rhyolite and its related granitoids: A Late Cretaceous large silicic igneous field in central Japan". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 167 (1–4): 57–80. Bibcode:2007JVGR..167...57S. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.05.012.
  29. ↑ Froggatt, P. C.; Nelson, C. S.; Carter, L.; Griggs, G.; Black, K. P. (13 February 1986). "An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand". Nature. 319 (6054): 578–582. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..578F. doi:10.1038/319578a0. S2CID 4332421.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Morgan, Lisa A.; McIntosh, William C. (March 2005). "Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA". GSA Bulletin. Geological Society of America. 117 (3–4): 288–306. Bibcode:2005GSAB..117..288M. doi:10.1130/B25519.1.
  31. ↑ Stetten, Nancy. "Plate Tectonics from the Middle of the Plate". Archived from the original on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  32. ↑ Huff, W.D.; Bergstrom, S.M.; Kolata, D.R. (October 1992). "Gigantic Ordovician volcanic ash fall in North America and Europe: Biological, tectonomagmatic, and event-stratigraphy significance". Geology. Geological Society of America. 20 (10): 875–878. Bibcode:1992Geo....20..875H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0875:GOVAFI>2.3.CO;2.
  33. ↑ Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Daisuke, Miura; Yutaka, Wada (2007). "Middle Miocene ash-flow calderas at the compressive margin of southwest Japan arc: Review and synthesis". The Journal of the Geological Society of Japan. 113 (7): 283–295. doi:10.5575/geosoc.113.283. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Bindeman, Ilya N.; John W. Valley (May 2003). "Rapid generation of both high- and low-δ18O, large-volume silicic magmas at the Timber Mountain/Oasis Valley caldera complex, Nevada". GSA Bulletin. Geological Society of America. 115 (5): 581–595. Bibcode:2003GSAB..115..581B. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2003)115<0581:RGOBHA>2.0.CO;2.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ratté, J. C.; R. F. Marvin; C. W. Naeser; M. Bikerman (27 January 1984). "Calderas and Ash Flow Tuffs of the Mogollon Mountains, Southwestern New Mexico". Journal of Geophysical Research. American Geophysical Union. 89 (B10): 8713–8732. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8713R. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08713. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
  37. ↑ Wilson, Colin J. N.; Blake, S.; Charlier, B. L. A.; Sutton, A. N. (2006). "The 26.5 ka Oruanui Eruption, Taupo Volcano, New Zealand: Development, Characteristics and Evacuation of a Large Rhyolitic Magma Body". Journal of Petrology. 47 (1): 35–69. Bibcode:2005JPet...47...35W. doi:10.1093/petrology/egi066.
  38. ↑ Thouret, J. C.; Wörner, G.; Singer, B.; Finizola, A. (April 6, 2003). "EGS-AGU-EUG Joint Assembly, held in Nice, France; chapter: Valley Evolution, Uplift, Volcanism, and Related Hazards in the Central Andes of Peru" (PDF): 641–644. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  39. ↑ Morgan, Lisa (30 March 2004). "The floor of Yellowstone Lake is anything but quiet: Volcanic and hydrothermal processes in a large lake above a magma chamber". National Park Service and United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  40. ↑ "Corbetti Caldera". VOGRIPA. Archived from the original on 2018-12-09. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  41. ↑ "How Volcanos Work: Cerro Galan". San Diego State University. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  42. ↑ "Wall Mountain Tuff". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 43.6 Martin, B. S.; Petcovic, H. L.; Reidel, S. P. (May 2005). "Goldschmidt Conference 2005: Field Trip Guide to the Columbia River Basalt Group" (PDF). doi:10.2172/15016367. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2010. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  44. ↑ Coffin, Millard F.; Millard F. Coffin; Olav Eldholm (1994). "Large igneous provinces: Crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences". Reviews of Geophysics. 32 (1): 1–36. Bibcode:1994RvGeo..32....1C. doi:10.1029/93RG02508. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
  45. ↑ amp. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  46. ↑ T. Worthington; Tim J. Worthington; Roger Hekinian; Peter Stoffers; Thomas Kuhn; Folkmar Hauff (30 May 2006). "Osbourn Trough: Structure, geochemistry and implications of a mid-Cretaceous paleospreading ridge in the South Pacific". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier B. V. 245 (3–4): 685–701. Bibcode:2006E&PSL.245..685W. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.03.018.
  47. ↑ Taylor, Brian (31 January 2006). "The single largest oceanic plateau: Ontong Java-Manihiki-Hikurangi" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier B. V. 241 (3–4): 372–380. Bibcode:2006E&PSL.241..372T. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.11.049. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
  48. ↑ Kerr, Andrew C.; Mahoney, John J. (2007). "Oceanic plateaus: Problematic plumes, potential paradigms". Chemical Geology. 241 (3–4): 332–353. Bibcode:2007ChGeo.241..332K. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.01.019.
  49. ↑ Weis, D.; Frey, F. A. "Kerguelen Plateau—Broken Ridge: A Major Lip Related to the Kerguelen Plume" (PDF). Seventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  50. ↑ Coffin, M.F.; Pringle, M.S.; Duncan, R.A.; Gladczenko, T.P.; Storey, M.; Müller, R.D.; Gahagan, L.A. (2002). "Kerguelen Hotspot Magma Output since 130 Ma". Journal of Petrology. 43 (7): 1121–1137. Bibcode:2002JPet...43.1121C. doi:10.1093/petrology/43.7.1121.
  51. ↑ Cannon, Eric. "Introduction – The Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite Flare-Up". Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
  52. ↑ Hoernle, Kaj; Folkmar Hauff; Paul van den Bogaard (August 2004). "70 m.y. history (139–69 Ma) for the Caribbean large igneous province". Geology. Geological Society of America. 32 (8): 697–700. Bibcode:2004Geo....32..697H. doi:10.1130/G20574.1.
  53. ↑ Goodwin, Anna; Wyles, Jon & Morley, Alex (2001). "The Siberian Traps". Palaeobiology and Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  54. ↑ Segev, A. (4 March 2002). "Flood basalts, continental breakup and the dispersal of Gondwana: evidence for periodic migration of upwelling mantle flows (plumes)" (PDF). European Geosciences Union Special Publication Series. 2: 171–191. Bibcode:2002SMSPS...2..171S. doi:10.5194/smsps-2-171-2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  55. ↑ O'Neill, C.; Müller, R. D.; Steinberger, B. (2003). "Revised Indian plate rotations based on the motion of Indian Ocean hotspots" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier B. V. 215 (1–2): 151–168. Bibcode:2003E&PSL.215..151O. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.716.4910. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00368-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
  56. ↑ O'Connor, J. M.; le Roex, A. P. (1992). "South Atlantic hot spot-plume systems. 1: Distribution of volcanism in time and spac". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier B. V. 113 (3): 343–364. Bibcode:1992E&PSL.113..343O. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(92)90138-L.
  57. ↑ McHone, Greg. "CAMP site introduction". Auburn University. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  58. ↑ "India's Smoking Gun: Dino-Killing Eruptions". Science Daily. 10 August 2005. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  59. ↑ Lo, Ching-Hua; Sun-Lin Chung; Tung-Yi Lee; Genyao Wu (2002). "Age of the Emeishan Flood magmatism and relations to Permian-Triassic boundary events" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 198 (3–4): 449–458. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.198..449L. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00535-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  60. ↑ Peate, Ingrid Ukstins; et al. (2005). "Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen". Bulletin of Volcanology. Springer. 68 (2): 135–156. Bibcode:2005BVol...68..135P. doi:10.1007/s00445-005-0428-4. S2CID 140160158.
  61. ↑ Peate, Ingrid Ukstins; et al. (30 June 2003). "Correlation of Indian Ocean tephra to individual Oligocene silicic eruptions from Afro-Arabian flood volcanism" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier B. V. 211 (3–4): 311–327. Bibcode:2003E&PSL.211..311U. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00192-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  62. ↑ Topinka, Lyn (27 August 2002). "Columbia Plateau, Columbia River Basin, Columbia River Flood Basalts". USGS. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2010.


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