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Jerin masarautun Great Lakes na Afirka

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Jerin masarautun Great Lakes na Afirka
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Hoton tauraron dan adam na yankin Great Lakes na Afirka
Masarautar Manyan Tafkunan Afirka, c.1880

Masarautun Manyan Tafkuna na Afirka suna nufin masarautun tarihi masu yawa a yankin Manyan Tafkunan Afirka . Waɗannan mulkokin sun kasance a wani lokaci tsakanin ƙarni na sha ɗaya da na sha tara a matsayin masarautu masu cin gashin kansu, kuma suna da kamanni amma wasu lokuta mabanbanta al'adu, dabi'u da al'adu. An sami masarautun manyan tabkuna a kudu maso gabashin Afirka da wasu sassan Afirka ta Tsakiya, a yankin arewa maso yammacin Tanzaniya, kudancin Uganda, wasu sassan Ruwanda, Burundi da Gabashin Kongo .

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mutanen Bantu sun gabatar da tsarin sarauta da manufar ikon da aka kafa a cikin yankin Manyan Tafkuna. Jagoranci na sarki ko babba abu ne na al'ada a yawancin al'ummomin Bantu amma ba ya nan a cikin Kudancin Sudan ta Tsakiya, Sog Gabashin Sahelian da Kudancin Kushitic waɗanda su ma ke zaune a yankin a matsayin makwabta.

The exceptional role of the Niger-Congo Bantu-speakers manifested itself by their social capacity. Thus Bantu speech became the medium in which societies were organised. Bantu-speakers’ feature of inherited leadership on all levels of reality played a crucial part in the development of the centralised rule in the region."

— Birgitta Farelius, Origins of Kingship Traditions and Symbolism in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, [18]

Ko da yake wannan shigarwar ta yi magana ne kawai game da lokacin har zuwa ƙarshen karni na goma sha takwas, yana da mahimmanci a gane cewa tarihin farko na waɗannan siyasar da cikakkun bayanai da aka rubuta su dalla-dalla ne na tarihin karni na sha tara da ashirin da kuma yanayin da ya same su. Nkore (Ankole a zamanin mulkin mallaka) ya sami kansa a cikin Ƙauyen Biritaniya na Uganda kuma ya zama ginshiƙi na manufofin Kariya, kasancewa ɗaya daga cikin manyan masarautu huɗu kuma yana jin daɗin girman yanki mai girma a ƙarƙashin Kariyar fiye da yadda yake yi a zamanin mulkin mallaka. An kuma yi amfani da shi da kyau daga masu mishan daban-daban, masu ilimin ƙabilanci, masana ilimin ɗan adam, da masana tarihi. Buhaya ya kasance mai matsakaicin matsayi, ta hanyar siyasa mai dacewa a farkon lokacin mulkin mallaka da kuma wurin gudanar da mulkin mallaka na yanki a Bukoba. Sabanin haka, Karagwe ya fadi daga kasancewa daya daga cikin mafi karfi na jihohin karni na goma sha tara a cikin Manyan Tafkuna, matsayin da ya samu ta hanyar mamaye farkon hanyoyin kasuwancin Tekun Indiya -Great Lakes, zuwa ga rugujewa da duhu gaba daya ta 1916. Marubuta akan Karagwe sun yi ta kai ruwa rana kuma sun kasa samar da ɗimbin rubutu da ke samuwa ga Nkore, makwabciyarsa ta arewa. A cikin Tanzaniya mai zaman kanta, ƙarƙashin Nyerere, babu wani wuri kaɗan don irin wannan rashin daidaituwa, tsarin siyasa na farko na mulkin mallaka. [19]

In much of the interlacustrine region, abundant rainfall and fertile soil supported a dense population, who produced a surplus which sustained courts and kings, and early European visitors wrote accounts of a land of plenty which attracted potential colonisers. It is easy to concentrate on the giants of the region—Buganda, Bunyoro, Rwanda, Burundi — to the neglect of their smaller neighbours, but there were over 200 polities in the region, some of them very small, as in Buha and Buzinza. There were 68 states in Busoga alone. Many of the states of the interlacustrine region — but not Buganda — were linked by various versions of the Cwezi saga.

— Elizabeth Isichei

Har ila yau, ba a san ainihin asalin daular da suka mamaye ba, kasancewar sun dogara da fassarar hadisai na baka. Bisa kima, a duk yankuna, dauloli sun yi iƙirarin cewa sun samo asali ne daga mutumin Chwezi, Wamara . Daga baya, mulki ya fada hannun Ruhinda, kuma zuriyar da yawa daga cikin dangin sarauta, waɗanda aka sani da Abahinda suka jawo shi kai tsaye zuwa gare shi. Fassarar waɗannan al'adun baka sun nuna cewa masu hali irin su Wamara da Ruhinda ƙila sun kasance shugabanni masu kwarjini, waɗanda bayan mutuwarsu, sun zama ruhohi masu mahimmanci waɗanda matsafa ke da alaƙa da ikon siyasa . Wuraren ibada zuwa Wamara da Ruhinda suna da alaƙa musamman da magudi da sarrafa haihuwa . [19]

Wani muhimmin abin da ya shafi waɗannan siyasar shi ne dangi. Kowace siyasa ta kasance hadewar dangi, kuma kowace dangi ta ba da gudummawar muhimman abubuwa ga siyasar. Ƙungiyoyin da ke da hannu a cikin harkokin siyasa a matakin farko sun kasance ana ɗaukar su da matsayi mafi girma. Har ila yau, an haɗa dangi da ayyuka na musamman, kamar kiwon shanu, narke baƙin ƙarfe, da daidaita al'adu . Gidan sarauta sun zauna a saman wannan ƙungiyar kuma suna kula da halin da ake ciki a hankali, ta hanyar ba da ofisoshin musamman ga dangi na musamman da kuma karɓar mata ga sarki daga cikin dangi daban-daban. Don haka, mahaifiyar sarki da danginta suna da iko sosai a kowane sarauta, kuma wannan ikon ya taimaka wajen bayyana sabani na gado da al'adun baka suka bayyana akai-akai. [19]

Waɗannan gyare-gyare masu sauƙi, ba shakka, suna rufe manyan tashe-tashen hankula da rikice-rikicen da suka wanzu a cikin waɗannan jihohin. An ba da haske game da irin wannan makirci na siyasa ta hanyar aikin tarihi wanda ya mayar da hankali kan wurin bautar Kaijja, a cikin masarautar Maruku, kilomita ashirin kudu da Bukoba. Wurin shine wurin bautar gashani, ko muƙamuƙi, na sarki na ƙarni na goma sha bakwai da na sha takwas, Rugomora Mahe, wanda aka ce ya mamaye wurin kuma ya kula da aikin ƙarfe a wurin. Wurin kuma muhimmin wurin ibada ne ga ruhin Chwezi, Wamara. Dukkanin jihohin Buhaya sun yi rikodin canji daga Hinda zuwa sarakunan Bito a cikin karni na sha bakwai, dangane da tsawaita tasirin daular Bito daga Bunyoro. Mahimmanci, Rugomora Mahe ya kasance farkon mai mulkin Bito, kuma ana fassara alaƙarsa da wurin ibada a matsayin wani muhimmin sashe na rikicin al'ada tsakanin mabiya Hinda da ruhinsu, da kuma sabbin sarakunan Bito. A lokuta masu kama da haka, al'adun baka a Karagwe da Nkore sun rubuta kutse har ma da tsayin daka da sojojin Bunyoro suka yi, amma suna jaddada nasara na ƙarshe akan maharan. [19]

A Nkore, an sami damar gano wuraren da ke da alaƙa da ikon siyasa, wanda ya wuce ƙarni da yawa a baya. Wuraren waɗannan wuraren sun nuna cewa farkon yankin Nkore yana cikin wani yanki mai ƙayyadaddun tsaunuka, Isingiro, kilomita ashirin kudu da tsakiyar zamani na Mbarara . Don haka shawarar ita ce, tun da farko waɗannan tsare-tsare ne na siyasa na gida-gida, wasu daga cikinsu sun faɗaɗa sannu a hankali. An fara samun karfin soja ta fuskar lambobi. Jihohin Buhaya duk kanana ne kuma da alama ba su da karfin soja sosai. Karagwe da alama yana da ƙarfin soji, kuma hakan na iya kasancewa saboda yawan yawan jama'a. Nkore, daga ƙaramin tushe, ba ya bayyana yana da fa'idar faɗaɗawa, ko mafi mahimmanci, iyawa, har sai manyan canje-canje a ƙungiyar sojan ta. Ƙirƙirar haraji na dindindin na sojoji, wanda aka sani da Emitwe, ya ba da damar cinye yankuna kamar Mbororo da Buhweju da kuma kare garken da ke ƙaruwa daga maƙwabta masu ƙarfi zuwa arewa. [19]

Yana da mahimmanci a jaddada cewa, a farkon matakan su, duk waɗannan siyasar sun kasance ƙanana kuma masu rauni. Musamman ma, ga dukkan alamu sun kasance masu saukin kamuwa da rigingimun gadoji, wadanda ake ganin su ne ke haifar da rikici. Ƙarin cikakkun bayanai game da muhimman canje-canje a cikin tsari da tsari kawai sun fara fitowa ne a ƙarshen karni na sha takwas, lokacin da wasu gwamnatoci suka fara neman bayan iyakokinsu don sababbin yankuna da albarkatu don sarrafawa.

Karuwar Masarautun Makiyaya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsakanin shekaru na 1000-1450AD, sauyin yanayi ya sa sassan yankin Manyan Tafuka (Great Lakes) suka zama masu bushewa. Sannu a hankali dazuzzuka suka ba da wuri ga filayen makiyaya, lamarin da ya kara wa masu garken shanu damar mallakar filaye da kuma tara dukiya. Wannan ya haifar da karuwar ikon siyasa ga makiyaya da kuma kafuwar wasu nau'ikan akidu na ruhaniya wadanda suka jaddada alaka tsakanin sarauta da shanu.[20] Musamman ma a yankunan da suka fi bushewa na Ankole da Karagwe, an sami karuwar muhimmanci wajen banbance tsakanin Bahima masu kiwon shanu da kuma manoma. A shekarun baya, wadannan sana'o'i na tattalin arziki sun zama kusan masu banbanta da juna gaba daya kuma su ne suka zama tushen ginin azuzuwan al'umma (classes). To sai dai kuma, yana da muhimmanci a sani cewa ko da yake sarakuna gaba daya sun karkata ga kiwon dabbobi a matsayin salon rayuwa mafi kyau, koda a cikin karnoni na baya, sarkin ya kasance yana sama da rarrabuwar tsakanin kiwo da noma, inda yake gudanar da bukukuwan al'ada wadanda ke da mahimmanci ga duka nau'ikan tattalin arzikin guda biyu. Mafi mahimmanci, kowane wata sarakuna suna gudanar da rarrabuwar al'adun Sabon Wata wadanda ke tabbatar da albarkar kasa da haihuwar shanu. Bugu da kari, a kalla an dauki wasu sarakuna a matsayin makeran fari (amma ba masu narke danyen karfe ba). Misali mafi shahara na wannan shi ne sanya gudumar kera karfe a cikin alamomin sarauta na Karagwe, wanda gaba daya ake dangantawa da Omukama Ndagara a farkon karni na sha tara.[21]

Rikicin duniya na yanayin kasa da na zamantakewa da siyasa ya kara rura wutar takaddama da gasa tsakanin muradun manoma da masu kiwon shanu, wanda hakan ya zaburar da neman sabbin kasashe da sabuwar alaka. Sauyi ya fito ne daga barazanar cikin gida kuma kafa masarautu ya kasance mafi kyawun tsari na sake fasalin alaka tsakanin kabilu da yankuna. Da yawa daga cikin al'ummomin manoma sun wahala daga fari kuma an tilasta musu mayar da hankali kan kiwon dabbobi. Darajojin makiyaya sun girma cikin muhimmanci kuma ikon sarrafa cinikin nesa ta hanyar wasu sassa na musamman a cikin takaitaccen rukunin kabilu ya biya bukatar gishiri da ke karuwa tsakanin makiyaya.

[22]

Sana'ar Kira da Narkar da Karfe

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tun daga shekara ta 600 BCE, al'ummomin Bantu a Uganda suna kera bakin karfe mai inganci ta hanyar amfani da tanderun hura wuta da aka riga aka dumama, wata fasaha da aka samu a Turai kawai ta hanyar tsarin Siemons a tsakiyar karni na 19.[23][24][25]

Masanin ilimin bil'adama Peter Schmidt ya gano ta hanyar tattaunawa kan labaran baka cewa mutanen Haya a Tanzania suna kera karfe sama da shekaru 2000. Wannan binciken an yi shi ne cikin bazata yayin da Schmidt ke koyon tarihin mutanen Haya ta hanyar labaran baka na su. An kai shi wajen wata bishiya da aka ce tana kan madadin tanderun magabata da ake amfani da shi wajen kera karfe. Lokacin da aka ba wasu gungun dattawa aikin sake kera wadannan tanderun, wadanda a lokacin su kadai ne suka tuna da wannan al'ada saboda daina amfani da ita sakamakon yawan shigowar karfe cikin kasar daga kasashen waje. Duk da rashin yin aikinsu na tsawon lokaci, dattawan sun sami damar kera tanderu ta amfani da laka da ciyawa, wadanda idan aka kona su, suke samar da sinadarin carbon da ake bukata don canza danyen karfe zuwa ingantaccen karfe. Binciken da aka yi a yankin daga baya ya gano wasu tanderu guda 13 makamanciyar tsarin da dattawan suka sake kera shi. An gwada wadannan tanderun ta hanyar amfani da kimiyyar carbon kuma an gano cewa sun kai shekaru 2000 da haihuwa, yayin da karfe mai irin wannan inganci bai bayyana a Turai ba sai bayan wasu karnoni da dama.[26][27][28][29][30]

An ce Bachwezi sun kasance kwararrun makera (sarakuna makera al'ada ce ta gama gari a cikin asalin kafuwar al'ummomin Bantu da dama).[31]

A cikin Masarautar Rwanda, makera sun kasance Hutu, amma a lokuta na musamman, ana hada sarki (wani Tutsi) a alamance a matsayin makeri (ko da yake ba makeri ba ne a rayuwarsa ta yau da kullum). Gudumai da yawa sun kasance bangare na kayan ado na sarki kuma sarki yana amfani da su yayin bukukuwa. An ajiye guduma guda daya (mai suna Nyarushara) kusa da gadon mwami, kuma wani kayan karfe da ke da alaka da sarautar Rwanda ana kiransa Nyamvura (wanda ke da ruwan sama). An dauki Mwami a matsayin "babban makeri" na kasa. An binne Mwami Cyirima Rujugira tare da makera guda biyu a gefen kansa.[32][33] A cikin Masarautar Burundi, makeri koyaushe yana kasancewa Hutu, amma ba Tutsi ba. Labarin al'ada ya nuna cewa sarki na farko na Burundi, Ntare Rushatsi (wanda ake cewa asalinsa Hutu ne) ya gabatar da aikin karfe da tagulla a kasar.[34][35]

Noma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin yankin Manyan Tafuka na Afirka, an yi amfani da dabarun noma na zamani kamar su "tsarin ban ruwa na injiniya a cikin duwatsu, wuraren shayarwa da mutane suka kera, karkatar da hanyoyin koguna, bututun jikin bishiyoyi da aka kware, ban ruwa a kan gangaren noma, tuddai a cikin fadama da aka kwashe musu ruwa, da ban ruwan gonakin ayaba da na bishiyar dabino" gami da amfani mai yawa da benen tuddai (terraces) da kuma yin noma sau biyu ko sau uku a shekara.Nasarar noma ta wannan wayewar kai ta Manyan Tafuka ita ce ta haifar da yawan jama'a mai yawa na ban mamaki. Masana da yawa na kasashen waje sun burge da ingancin dabarun gargajiya na yankin na noman gaba-da-gaba.[36]

"Kyawawan gonaki masu ban ruwa", gangaren tuddai dubu da aka yi wa terraces, inda ake amfani da kowane sashe na kasa, da "shanu masu kiba da manyan kaho" sun kasance "abubuwan ban mamaki na ganowa" ga mutanen Turai. Amma kuma har yanzu akwai manyan abubuwan mamaki da ke jiran su.

— Christian P. Scherrer, Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa: Conflict Roots, Mass Violence, and Regional War

Turawan farko da suka ziyarci Masarautar Rwanda sun lura da tsananin alfahari da dabarun noma. Mahaifiya tana iya ba jariri mai kuka abun wasa na fakin noma don ya yi wasa da shi, sannan akwai dabarun da galibi sun fi na manoman Gabashin Turai inganci, musamman amfani da taki, yin terraces, da ban ruwa na jabu.[37]

Ba koyaushe ne turawan mulkin mallaka ke ba da ra'ayi mai kyau ko na nuna son kai ga makiyaya ba. Emin Pasha alal misali ya gano cewa Bahima sun fi manoman yankin baya, inda ya lura cewa matsugunansu suna da datti da rashin gyara:[38]

Wannan mummunan hoto na wannan kwatanci — 'matsugunai masu datti da rashin kulawa' da rashin noma — yana nuna cewa Emin da kansa ya dauki makiyaya a matsayin wadanda ba su kai takwarorinsu manoma ba, wadanda yawanci masu lura na kasashen waje ke yaba musu saboda tsaf-tsaf da tsaftarsu. Wannan ya saba wa ra'ayi na kowa, cewa makiyaya sun ɗan fi gaban manoma a matakin wayewar kai.

[39]

Ba abin mamaki ba ne, matsugunan noma na farko sun bayyana a yankin gabar teku mai rurruka na Buhaya, a gabar yammacin Tafkin Victoria. Binciken kayan tarihi ya nuna irin gagarumin aiki da aka yi, musamman ta fuskar narkar da karfe, tun a karnonin da suka gabata kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (BCE). Wadannan al'ummomi sun yi amfani da manyan dazuzzukan da ke akwai a lokacin, kuma bayan fara shuka doya da sauran amfanin gona na daji, mai yiwuwa sun zama kwararu wajen noman ayaba. Shaidun harshe da na kayan tarihi a Karagwe da Nkore a gefe guda, suna nuna zama a kusa da farkon karni na biyu, bisa ga karuwar amfani da shanu, wanda amfanin gona na hatsi ke tallafawa. Daga wadannan rukunonin ne babu shakka manyan sassan tsarin mulki suka bunkasa, kodayake har yanzu akwai karancin shaidu da za su tabbatar da dukkan tsarin.[19]

Sabanin ra'ayin 'Hamitic hypothesis' da aka riga aka karyata, manoma ne suka kafa jihohi daban-daban kafin duk wani makiyayi ya sami muhimmancin siyasa. Tsakanin shekarun 1200-1500, ayyukan makiyaya sun kasance na gefe kuma ba su da wani tasiri. Alal misali, masarautar Buganda da masarautun Busoga daban-daban sun fito ne a matsayin jihohin daji wadanda tattalin arzikinsu ya dogara ne akan noma maimakon hadakar kiwo da noma da ke haifar da tsarin raba azuzuwan al'umma.[40]

Kiwon Dabbobi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An bayyana wasu yankuna na yankin Manyan Tafuka a matsayin aljannar makiyaya.

Filayen ciyawa wadanda wannan fashewar ayyukan makiyaya ta fito daga gare su suna cikin mafi kyau a Afirka. Suna da ruwa mafi kyau fiye da savannas wadanda galibi ake daukarsu a matsayin gidan 'na gari' na makiyaya, kuma cikin sa'a sun guje wa annobar kudan tsando (tsetse fly), babban amfanin filayen ciyawa na Manyan Tafuka ya ba mutane damar kara karfin shanu, maimakon kawai amfani da su azaman hanyar rayuwa a wuraren da idan ba haka ba ba za a iya zama ba. A nan ne fiye da ko'ina a Afirka aka sami damar dorewar kiwo na musamman tare da hadin gwiwar al'ummomin manoma da kuma zabar shanu masu matsakaicin girma na nau'in da ba lallai ba ne ya jure fari sosai.

[41]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Ogot, Bethwell Allan (1984). "The Great Lakes region". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 507.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 381–393.
  3. ↑ Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 392–393.
  4. 1 2 Uzoigwe, Godfrey; Denoon, Donald (1975). "A History of Kigezi in South-West Uganda". International Journal of African Historical Studies. Boston University African Studies Center. 8. doi:10.2307/217613. JSTOR 217613.
  5. ↑ "Songora People and their Culture in Uganda". Archived from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 18 Feb 2024.
  6. ↑ Ogot, Bethwell Allan (1984). "The Great Lakes region". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 517.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa. UNESCO Publishing. p. 398.
  8. ↑ Huggins, Chris; Mastaki, Christol (2019). "The political economy of land law and policy reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo: an institutional bricolage approach". The Canadian Journal of Development Studies. University of Toronto Press. 41 (2): 260–278. doi:10.1080/02255189.2019.1683519. S2CID 211315785.
  9. ↑ Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 398–402.
  10. ↑ Medard, Henri; Doyle, Shane (16 November 2007). Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa. Longhouse Publishing Services. ISBN 978-0-8214-4574-7.
  11. ↑ "Other Traditional States in Uganda". Archived from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
  12. ↑ Katoke, Israel (1970). "The country". The Making of the Karagwe Kingdom (PDF). East African Publishing House. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-05-21. Retrieved 2025-06-22.
  13. ↑ Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa. UNESCO Publishing. p. 402.
  14. ↑ Ogot, Bethwell Allan (1984). "The Great Lakes region". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. pp. 508–512.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Scherer, J.H. (1959). "The Ha of Tanganyika". Anthropos. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. 54 (5): 841–904. JSTOR 40453639. Archived from the original on 2023-06-24. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  16. ↑ McMaster, Mary (2005). "Language Shift and its Reflection in African Archaeology: Cord rouletting in the Uele and Interlacustrine regions". Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa. 40 (1): 49. doi:10.1080/00672700509480413.
  17. ↑ Weiss, Brad (1996). The Making and Unmaking of the Haya Lived World. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-1722-2. Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
  18. ↑ Farelius, Birgitta (2008). Origins of Kingship Traditions and Symbolism in the Great Lakes Region of Africa. Uppsala universitet. p. 81, 165-167, 351. ISBN 978-91-554-7295-5.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Great Lakes Region: Karagwe, Nkore, And Buhaya from Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 1 A–G". BookRags.com. 2004-12-14. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
  20. ↑ African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. 24 August 2017. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-61069-580-0.
  21. ↑ Encyclopedia of African History, Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. 2005. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6.
  22. ↑ H., Schoenmakers (2017). The story of Kintu and his sons: naming, ethnic identity formation and power in the precolonial Great Lakes Region of East Africa. ASC Working Paper Series. p. 22-23.
  23. ↑ Chirikure, Shadreck (18 March 2015). Metals in Past Societies: A Global Perspective on Indigenous African Metallurgy. Springer. ISBN 9783319116419.
  24. ↑ Africa and the Indian Ocean World from Early Times to Circa 1900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521810357.
  25. ↑ Schmidt, Peter R.; Childs, S. Terry (1995). "Ancient African Iron Production". American Scientist. 83 (6): 524–533. Bibcode:1995AmSci..83..524S. JSTOR 29775556.
  26. ↑ Hooker, Richard. "Civilizations in Africa: The Iron Age South of the Sahara". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2007.Samfuri:Self-published inline
  27. ↑ Africa's Ancient Steelmakers. Time, 25 September 1978.
  28. ↑ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". Journal of Field Archaeology. 10 (4): 421–434. doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.
  29. ↑ Schmidt, Peter (1997). Iron Technology in East Africa: Symbolism, Science, and Archaeology. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.[page needed]
  30. ↑ Schmidt, Peter R.; Childs, S. Terry (1995). "Ancient African Iron Production". American Scientist. 83 (6): 524–533. Bibcode:1995AmSci..83..524S. JSTOR 29775556.
  31. ↑ The African Past Speaks: Essays on Oral Tradition and History. Dawson. 1980. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-208-01784-0.
  32. ↑ Pierre de Maret (1985). "The smith's myth and the origin of leadership in Central Afmca'". African Iron Working, Ancient and Traditional. pp. 73–87. ISBN 978-82-00-07292-8.
  33. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth (13 April 1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 90, 479. ISBN 9780521455992.
  34. ↑ Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Precolonial History and Culture. Univ of Wisconsin Press. 1984. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-208-01784-0.
  35. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth (13 April 1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN 9780521455992.
  36. ↑ Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2006-09-22). of-africa The Great Lakes of Africa Check |url= value (help) (in Turanci). Zone Books. ISBN 978-1-890951-35-1.
  37. ↑ Africans: The History of a Continent. Cambridge University Press. 13 August 2007. ISBN 9781139464246.
  38. ↑ Political power in pre-colonial Buganda : economy, society & warfare in the nineteenth century. James Currey. 2002. p. 41-42. ISBN 978-0-8214-1477-4.
  39. ↑ Political power in pre-colonial Buganda : economy, society & warfare in the nineteenth century. James Currey. 2002. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8214-1477-4.
  40. ↑ Niane, Djibril Tamsir, ed. (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. General History of Africa. 4. University of California Press. p. 521.
  41. ↑ Sutton, John (2009). "The Antecedents of the Interlacustrine Kingdoms". The Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. 34 (1): 39, 42. doi:10.1017/S0021853700032990.
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