Jump to content

Jima'i da lafiyar haihuwa

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Jima'i da lafiyar haihuwa
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Lafiya
Bangare na Haƙƙoƙin lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa
Suna a harshen gida zdrowie reprodukcyjne i seksualne
Described at URL (mul) Fassara mozambique.unfpa.org…
Relates to sustainable development goal, target or indicator (en) Fassara Target 3.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (en) Fassara

"Although States parties may adopt measures designed to regulate voluntary terminations of pregnancy, such measures must not result in violation of the right to life of a pregnant woman or girl, or her other rights under the Covenant. Thus, restrictions on the ability of women or girls to seek abortion must not, inter alia, jeopardize their lives, subject them to physical or mental pain or suffering which violates article 7, discriminate against them or arbitrarily interfere with their privacy. States parties must provide safe, legal and effective access to abortion where the life and health of the pregnant woman or girl is at risk, and where carrying a pregnancy to term would cause the pregnant woman or girl substantial pain or suffering, most notably where the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest or is not viable. [8] In addition, States parties may not regulate pregnancy or abortion in all other cases in a manner that runs contrary to their duty to ensure that women and girls do not have to undertake unsafe abortions, and they should revise their abortion laws accordingly. [9] For example, they should not take measures such as criminalizing pregnancies by unmarried women or apply criminal sanctions against women and girls undergoing abortion [10] or against medical service providers assisting them in doing so, since taking such measures compel women and girls to resort to unsafe abortion. States parties should not introduce new barriers and should remove existing barriers [11] that deny effective access by women and girls to safe and legal abortion [12], including barriers caused as a result of the exercise of conscientious objection by individual medical providers. [13]"[1]

The sexual and reproductive health of the female in a child marriage is likely to be jeopardized, as these young girls are often forced into sexual intercourse with an older male spouse with more sexual experience. The female spouse often lacks the status and the knowledge to negotiate for safe sex and contraceptive practices, increasing the risk of acquiring HIV or other sexually transmitted infections, as well as the probability of pregnancy at an early age.

Lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa ( SRH ) [2] wani fanni ne na bincike, kula da lafiya, da kuma fafutukar zamantakewa wanda ke bincika lafiyar tsarin haihuwa da lafiyar jima'i a duk matakan rayuwarsu. [3] [4] [5] Lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa an fi bayyana ta a matsayin lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa da haƙƙoƙi, [6] don haɗawa da ikon mutum ɗaya don yin zaɓi game da rayuwarsu ta jima'i da haihuwa.

Haka kuma za a iya ƙara bayyana kalmar a sarari a cikin tsarin ma'anar Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) ta lafiya - a matsayin "yanayi na cikakkiyar walwala ta jiki, ta hankali da zamantakewa, ba wai kawai rashin cuta ko rauni ba" -. [7] WHO tana da ma'anar aiki ta lafiyar jima'i (2006) a matsayin '"... yanayi na jin daɗin jiki, ta motsin rai, ta hankali da zamantakewa dangane da jima'i; ba wai kawai rashin cuta, rashin aiki ko rauni ba ne. Lafiyar jima'i tana buƙatar kyakkyawar hanya ta girmamawa ga jima'i da dangantakar jima'i, da kuma yiwuwar samun abubuwan jima'i masu daɗi da aminci, ba tare da tilastawa ba, wariya da tashin hankali. Domin a cimma da kuma kiyaye lafiyar jima'i, dole ne a girmama, a kare kuma a cika haƙƙin jima'i na dukkan mutane [6] ." Wannan ya haɗa da jin daɗin jima'i, wanda ya ƙunshi ikon mutum na samun jima'i mai alhaki, mai gamsarwa da aminci da kuma ' yancin yanke shawara ko, yaushe da kuma sau nawa zai yi hakan. Hukumomin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya musamman sun ayyana lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa a matsayin haɗa da jin daɗin jiki da ta hankali game da jima'i. Bugu da ƙari, mahimmancin tabbatar da cewa rayuwar jima'i ta kasance mai daɗi da gamsarwa, kuma ba wai kawai an mayar da hankali kan mummunan sakamakon jima'i ba ne daga hukumomi da yawa kamar Ƙungiyar Lafiyar Jima'i ta Duniya [8] [9] da kuma la'akari da tasirin da ke kan lafiya da walwala na dangantaka mai aminci da gamsarwa. [10] Wani ƙarin fassarar ya haɗa da samun damar ilimin jima'i, samun damar hanyoyin hana haihuwa masu aminci, masu inganci, masu araha da karɓuwa, da kuma samun damar yin ayyukan kiwon lafiya masu dacewa, domin ikon mata na yin ciki da haihuwa cikin aminci zai iya bai wa ma'aurata damar samun jariri mai lafiya.

Kwamitin Guttmacher-Lancet kan lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa da kuma haƙƙoƙin mata ya ce ' Lafiyar jima'i da haƙƙoƙin haihuwa (SRHR) suna da mahimmanci ga ci gaba mai ɗorewa saboda alaƙarsu da daidaiton jinsi da walwalar mata, tasirinsu ga lafiyar uwa, jarirai, yara, da matasa, da kuma rawar da suke takawa wajen tsara ci gaban tattalin arziki na gaba da dorewar muhalli. Duk da haka, ci gaba zuwa ga cika SRHR ga kowa ya ragu saboda raunin himmar siyasa, rashin isassun albarkatu, ci gaba da nuna wariya ga mata da 'yan mata, da kuma rashin son magance batutuwan da suka shafi jima'i a bayyane da kuma cikakke. Sakamakon haka, kusan dukkan mutane biliyan 4·3 masu shekaru haihuwa a duk duniya za su sami isassun ayyukan kiwon lafiya na jima'i da haihuwa a tsawon rayuwarsu '. [11]

Mutane suna fuskantar rashin daidaito a ayyukan kiwon lafiyar haihuwa. Rashin daidaito ya bambanta dangane da matsayin tattalin arziki, matakin ilimi, shekaru, ƙabila, addini, da albarkatun da ake da su a muhallinsu. Mutane masu ƙarancin kuɗi na iya rashin samun damar yin amfani da ayyukan kiwon lafiya da suka dace da/ko sanin yadda za su kula da lafiyar haihuwa. [12] Bugu da ƙari, hanyoyi da yawa da suka haɗa da mata, iyalai, da al'ummomin gida a matsayin masu ruwa da tsaki a cikin shiga tsakani da dabarun inganta lafiyar haihuwa. [13]

Bayani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) ta tantance a shekarar 2008 cewa "Rashin lafiyar haihuwa da jima'i sun kai kashi 20% na nauyin rashin lafiyar mata a duniya, da kuma kashi 14% ga maza." [14] Lafiyar haihuwa wani bangare ne na lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa da kuma haƙƙoƙi . A cewar Asusun Yawan Jama'a na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNFPA), rashin biyan buƙatun lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa yana hana mata 'yancin yin "mahimman zaɓuɓɓuka game da jikinsu da makomarsu", wanda ke shafar jin daɗin iyali. Mata suna haihuwa kuma yawanci suna renon yara, don haka lafiyarsu ta haihuwa ba za a iya raba ta da daidaiton jinsi ba. Hana irin waɗannan haƙƙoƙi kuma yana ƙara ta'azzara talauci. [15]

Lafiyar matasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Adadin haihuwar matasa ga kowace mace 1,000 masu shekaru 15-19, 2000-2009

Lafiyar matasa tana haifar da babban nauyi a duniya kuma tana da matsaloli da yawa da suka shafi lafiyar haihuwa ta manya kamar su daukar ciki da matsalolin iyaye, wahalar samun damar hana daukar ciki da kuma zubar da ciki cikin aminci, rashin samun damar kula da lafiya, da kuma yawan kamuwa da cutar kanjamau, kamuwa da cututtuka ta hanyar jima'i da kuma matsalolin lafiyar kwakwalwa. Kowanne daga cikinsu na iya shafar tasirin siyasa, tattalin arziki da zamantakewa da al'adu. [16] Ga yawancin mata matasa, har yanzu ba su kammala hanyoyin girma a jikinsu ba, don haka ƙara ciki yana fallasa su ga yiwuwar samun matsaloli. Waɗannan matsalolin sun haɗa da rashin jini, zazzabin cizon sauro, HIV da sauran cututtukan da ake dauka ta hanyar jima'i, zubar jini bayan haihuwa da sauran matsalolin bayan haihuwa, matsalolin lafiyar kwakwalwa kamar baƙin ciki da tunanin kashe kai ko yunƙurin kashe kai. [17] A shekarar 2016, adadin haihuwar matasa tsakanin shekaru 15-19 ya kai 45 a kowace 1000. [18] A shekarar 2014, 1 cikin 3 sun fuskanci cin zarafin jima'i, kuma akwai mutuwar sama da miliyan 1.2. Manyan dalilai guda uku da ke haifar da mace-mace ga mata masu shekaru 15-19 sune yanayin uwa mai juna biyu 10.1%, cutar da kai 9.6%, da kuma yanayin hanya 6.1%. [19]

Abubuwan da ke haifar da ɗaukar ciki ga matasa suna da yawa kuma suna da bambance-bambance. A ƙasashe masu tasowa, ana tilasta wa matasa mata yin aure saboda dalilai daban-daban. Ɗaya daga cikinsu shine a haifi yara don taimakawa wajen aiki, ɗayan kuma a kan tsarin sadaki don ƙara yawan kuɗin shiga na iyali, ɗayan kuma saboda auren da aka riga aka tsara. Waɗannan dalilan sun shafi buƙatun kuɗi na iyalan 'yan mata, al'adunsu, imaninsu na addini, da rikice-rikicen waje.

Ciki a lokacin samartaka, musamman a ƙasashe masu tasowa, yana ɗauke da ƙarin haɗarin lafiya, kuma yana taimakawa wajen kiyaye zagayowar talauci . [20] Wannan da kansa wani ɓangare ne na babban tsarin watsa haɗarin da ke tattare da talauci da ɗaukar ciki a tsakanin tsararraki. [21] Samuwa da nau'in ilimin jima'i ga matasa ya bambanta a sassa daban-daban na duniya. Matasa waɗanda suka gane kansu a matsayin waɗanda ba sa son jinsi ɗaya na iya fuskantar ƙarin matsaloli idan suna zaune a wuraren da ayyukan luwaɗi ba a yarda da su a zamantakewa ko ma haramun ba; a cikin mawuyacin hali, za a iya samun baƙin ciki, ware kai a zamantakewa, har ma da kashe kai a tsakanin matasan LGBT .

Lafiyar uwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Adadin mace-macen uwaye a duk duniya, kamar yadda aka bayyana ta hanyar adadin mace-macen uwaye a cikin kowace haihuwa 100,000 da ke faruwa sakamakon kowace matsala da ta shafi ko kuma ta tsananta sakamakon ciki ko kuma yadda ake kula da ita, ban da dalilai na bazata ko na bazata
Taswirar ƙasashe bisa ga jimillar adadin haihuwa (2022–2023), yana nufin matsakaicin adadin yaran da mace ke haifa a tsawon rayuwarta, a cewar Ofishin Kula da Yawan Jama'a . [22]

Kashi 95% na mace-macen mata masu juna biyu suna faruwa ne a cikin yanayi da ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi, kuma cikin shekaru 25, mace-macen mata masu juna biyu a duniya ya ragu zuwa kashi 44%. [23] A kididdiga, damar mace ta tsira yayin haihuwa tana da alaƙa da matsayinta na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, samun damar kula da lafiya, inda take zaune a yanki, da kuma al'adun gargajiya. [24] Idan aka kwatanta, mace tana mutuwa sakamakon matsaloli daga haihuwa a kowace minti a ƙasashe masu tasowa idan aka kwatanta da jimillar kashi 1% na mace-macen mata masu juna biyu a ƙasashe masu tasowa. Mata a ƙasashe masu tasowa ba su da damar samun ayyukan tsara iyali, al'adu daban-daban, rashin bayanai, masu kula da haihuwa, kula da mata masu juna biyu, hana haihuwa, kula da haihuwa bayan haihuwa, rashin samun kulawar lafiya, kuma yawanci suna cikin talauci. A shekarar 2015, waɗanda ke cikin ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi suna da damar zuwa kula da mata masu juna biyu matsakaicin kashi 40% kuma ana iya hana su. [23] [24] Duk waɗannan dalilan sun haifar da ƙaruwar rabon mace-macen mata masu juna biyu (MMR).

Ɗaya daga cikin Manufofin Ci Gaba Mai Dorewa na Duniya da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ƙirƙiro shine inganta lafiyar uwa ta hanyar kai hari ga mace-mace 70 a cikin kowace haihuwa 100,000 da aka haifa nan da shekarar 2030. [24] Yawancin samfuran lafiyar uwa sun haɗa da tsarin iyali, ɗaukar ciki kafin haihuwa, kula da haihuwa kafin haihuwa, da kuma bayan haihuwa. Duk wata kulawa bayan haihuwa yawanci ba a cire ta ba, wanda ya haɗa da kafin lokacin haila da tsufa zuwa tsufa. [25] A lokacin haihuwa, mata galibi suna mutuwa sakamakon zubar jini mai tsanani, kamuwa da cuta, hawan jini yayin daukar ciki, matsalolin haihuwa, ko zubar da ciki mara aminci. Wasu dalilai na iya zama na yanki kamar rikitarwa da suka shafi cututtuka kamar zazzabin cizon sauro da AIDS yayin daukar ciki. Yayin da mace ta kai ƙarami lokacin da ta haihu, to da ita da jaririnta suna cikin haɗarin kamuwa da matsaloli da yiwuwar mace-mace. [23]

Akwai muhimmiyar alaƙa tsakanin ingancin ayyukan uwaye da ake bayarwa da kuma matsayin kuɗi mafi girma na wata ƙasa. [26] Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara da Kudancin Asiya sun nuna wannan yayin da waɗannan yankuna ba su da ma'aikatan lafiya da damammaki masu araha. [ [27] Yawancin ƙasashe suna ba da ayyukan kiwon lafiyarsu ta hanyar haɗa kuɗaɗen shiga daga kuɗin harajin gwamnati da gidaje na gida. [26] Ƙasashe matalauta ko yankuna masu arziki mai yawa na iya barin 'yan ƙasa a kan ƙasa ba tare da kulawa ko yin watsi da su ba. Duk da haka, rashin shugabanci mai kyau na iya haifar da rashin kulawa da ɓangarorin gwamnati na ƙasa ko rashin aiki mai kyau duk da albarkatun ƙasar da matsayinta. [26] Bugu da ƙari, ƙasashe matalauta da ke ba da kuɗin ayyukan likitancinsu ta hanyar haraji suna sanya ƙarin nauyi na kuɗi ga jama'a da kuma iyaye mata da kansu. [27] An jaddada nauyi da alhakin da ke kan ɓangarorin lafiyar kwakwalwa game da abin da zai magance rashin ingancin lafiyar uwaye a duniya. [27] Tasirin hanyoyin kula da lafiyar uwaye daban-daban a faɗin duniya yana raguwa daban-daban kuma ba su da daidaito sosai. [26] Wannan ya faru ne sakamakon rashin jajircewa a fannin siyasa da kuɗi ga wannan batu, domin yawancin shirye-shiryen uwaye masu aminci a duniya dole ne su yi gasa don samun kuɗi mai yawa. [27] Wasu sun yanke shawarar cewa idan aka haɓaka shirye-shiryen rayuwa a duniya kuma aka ba da kuɗin da ya dace, zai zama mai amfani ga al'ummar duniya. Zuba jari a lafiyar uwaye zai kawo ci gaba ga batutuwa da dama kamar rashin daidaiton jinsi, talauci, da kuma ƙa'idodin kiwon lafiya na duniya baki ɗaya. [28] Kamar yadda yake a yanzu, mata masu juna biyu suna fuskantar manyan kuɗaɗen kuɗi a tsawon lokacin da suke a duniya, wanda hakan ke da matuƙar wahala da wahala.

Lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa ta LGBT+

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa ta mutanen LGBT+ na fuskantar ƙalubale ta hanyar batutuwa kamar annobar cutar HIV da ke ci gaba da yaduwa, tsarin iyali na "maza" da lafiyar haihuwa na "mata", tare da kyama da dannewa waɗanda ke hana mutanen LGBT+ samun damar samun kulawar lafiya da suke buƙata. [29] [30] Lafiyar jima'i yanayi ne na jin daɗin jiki, motsin rai, tunani, da zamantakewa dangane da jima'i. Yana da mahimmanci ba wai kawai a yi la'akari da lafiyar jima'i/jiki na mutum ba, har ma da abubuwan da suka shafi al'adu da mahallin da ke shafar lafiyar mutum. Rashin masu ba da sabis masu ƙwarewa da kyama da ke tattare da luwaɗi suna da babban tasiri ga lafiyar jima'i na mutanen LGBTQ+. Al'ummar LGBTQ+ na fuskantar cikas da dama dangane da lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa. Bambancin kyama da son zuciya da ke zuwa tare da waɗannan shingen suna sa samun kulawa mai kyau ya zama da wahala. Wasu daga cikin waɗannan kyama da ke bin waɗanda ke cikin al'ummar LGBTQ+ dangane da lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa suna danganta wasu cututtuka, da sauran cututtuka da wannan al'umma. Wannan ya bar waɗanda ke cikin al'ummar LGBTQ+ a cikin wani matsayi da ke sa su zama masu rauni, da kuma waɗanda ke fama da bambance-bambancen lafiya da dama. Lafiyar mutanen LGBTQ+ gaba ɗaya tana da mahimmanci ga lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa domin duk waɗannan suna samar da lafiyar waɗannan mutanen. Waɗanda ke cikin al'ummar LGBTQ+ suna fuskantar wariya daga masu samar da kayayyaki da kamfanonin inshora, ban da duk wasu shinge da iyakokin samun kulawar da suke jurewa. Duk waɗannan abubuwan sun haifar da waɗanda ke cikin al'ummar LGBTQ+ suna fuskantar mummunan sakamako na lafiya. [31]

Maganin hana haihuwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Samun damar yin ayyukan kiwon lafiyar haihuwa yana da matuƙar wahala a ƙasashe da yawa. Mata galibi ba sa iya samun ayyukan kiwon lafiyar mata saboda rashin sanin irin waɗannan ayyuka ko rashin 'yancin motsi . Wasu mata suna fuskantar ɗaukar ciki na dole kuma an hana su barin gida. A ƙasashe da yawa, ba a barin mata su bar gida ba tare da wani dangi ko miji ba, don haka ikonsu na samun ayyukan kiwon lafiya yana da iyaka. Saboda haka, ana buƙatar ƙara 'yancin kai na mata don inganta lafiyar haihuwa, duk da haka, yin hakan na iya buƙatar canjin al'adu. A cewar WHO, "Duk mata suna buƙatar samun kulawar haihuwa kafin haihuwa a lokacin daukar ciki, kulawa ta ƙwararru yayin haihuwa, da kulawa da tallafi a makonni bayan haihuwa".

Maganin hana haihuwa ta baki da aka haɗa

Gaskiyar cewa dokar ta ba da izinin wasu ayyukan kiwon lafiyar haihuwa, ba lallai ba ne ya tabbatar da cewa mutane suna amfani da irin waɗannan ayyukan. Samuwar hana haihuwa, hana haihuwa, da zubar da ciki ya dogara ne akan dokoki, da kuma ƙa'idodin zamantakewa, al'adu, da addini. Wasu ƙasashe suna da dokoki masu sassaucin ra'ayi game da waɗannan batutuwa, amma a aikace, yana da matukar wahala a sami irin waɗannan ayyukan saboda likitoci, masu harhada magunguna, da sauran ma'aikatan zamantakewa da na likita suna ƙin yarda da su da gangan .

Kwaroron roba suna ba da kariya mai inganci daga cututtukan da ake ɗauka ta hanyar jima'i (STIs) da kuma ciki mara so.

A yankuna masu tasowa na duniya, akwai kimanin mata miliyan 214 da ke son guje wa juna biyu amma ba sa iya amfani da hanyoyin tsara iyali masu aminci da inganci. [32] Idan aka sha maganin hana daukar ciki da aka haɗa da baki, yana da tasiri sama da kashi 99% wajen hana daukar ciki. Duk da haka, ba ya kariya daga cututtukan da ake dauka ta hanyar jima'i (STIs). Wasu hanyoyi, kamar amfani da kwaroron roba, suna samun kariya daga cututtukan da ake dauka ta hanyar jima'i da kuma wadanda ba a so. Akwai kuma hanyoyin tsara iyali na halitta, wadanda masu addini za su iya fifita su, amma wasu kungiyoyin addini masu ra'ayin mazan jiya, kamar kungiyar Quiverfull, suna adawa da wadannan hanyoyin saboda suna goyon bayan fadada haihuwa. [33] Ɗaya daga cikin tsoffin hanyoyin rage daukar ciki da ba a so shine coitus interruptus - wanda har yanzu ana amfani da shi sosai a kasashen masu tasowa.

Akwai nau'ikan hana daukar ciki da yawa. Wani nau'in hana daukar ciki ya haɗa da hanyoyin hana daukar ciki. [34] Wata hanyar hana daukar ciki ta ƙunshi kwaroron roba ga maza da mata. [34] Duk nau'ikan suna hana maniyyi shiga mahaifar mace, ta haka ne suke hana daukar ciki faruwa. [34] Wani nau'in hana daukar ciki shine maganin hana daukar ciki, wanda ke hana ovulation faruwa ta hanyar hada sinadarai progestin da estrogen. [34] Mata da yawa suna amfani da wannan hanyar hana daukar ciki, duk da haka, suna daina amfani da ita daidai gwargwado kamar yadda suke amfani da ita. [35] Wani dalili na wannan shine saboda illolin da ka iya faruwa daga amfani da kwayar, kuma saboda wasu masu samar da lafiya ba sa daukar damuwar mata game da illolin da ba su dace ba da muhimmanci. [35] Amfani da kwayar hana daukar ciki ya zama ruwan dare a kasashen yamma, kuma nau'ikan hana daukar ciki guda biyu suna cikin Jerin Magungunan da suka fi muhimmanci na Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya, magunguna mafi mahimmanci da ake bukata a tsarin lafiya na asali.

Akwai ƙorafe-ƙorafe da yawa game da amfani da maganin hana haihuwa, a tarihi da kuma a yau. Wata hujja da aka yi wa amfani da maganin hana haihuwa ta nuna cewa babu buƙatar maganin hana haihuwa, tun farko. [36] An yi wannan muhawarar a shekarar 1968 lokacin da aka zaɓi Richard Nixon a matsayin shugaban ƙasa, kuma hujjar ta bayyana cewa tunda yawan haihuwa ya kai mafi ƙanƙanta tun bayan ƙarewar Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, maganin hana haihuwa bai zama dole ba. [36] Muhawara kan tsara yanayin alƙaluma kuma su ne tushen manufar yawan jama'a ta Nicolae Ceaușescu a ƙasar kwaminisanci ta Romania, wadda ta ɗauki wata doka mai tsauri ta hana zubar da ciki da hana haihuwa, gwaje-gwajen ciki na yau da kullun ga mata, haraji kan rashin haihuwa, da kuma wariya ta shari'a ga mutanen da ba su da 'ya'ya. Irin waɗannan manufofin suna la'akari da cewa tilastawa hanya ce mai karɓuwa ta cimma burin alƙaluma. Ƙiyayyar addini ta dogara ne akan ra'ayin cewa bai kamata a yi jima'i kafin aure ba, yayin da ma'aurata ya kamata su haifi 'ya'ya da yawa gwargwadon iko. Saboda haka, Cocin Katolika yana ƙarfafa kauracewa jima'i kafin aure. [36] An rubuta wannan hujja a cikin Humanae Vitae, wani littafi mai suna Paparoma wanda aka fitar a shekarar 1968. [36] Cocin Katolika ya kafa hujjarsa kan magungunan hana haihuwa bisa ga cewa magungunan hana haihuwa suna lalata dokar Allah ta halitta. [37] Cocin Katolika kuma tana jayayya kan hana haihuwa bisa ga girman iyali, inda Cardinal Mercier na Belgium ya yi jayayya, "...ayyukan lamiri sun fi la'akari da abin duniya, kuma banda haka, manyan iyalai ne suka fi kyau" (Reiterman, 216). [37] Wata hujja ta bayyana cewa ya kamata mata su yi amfani da hanyoyin hana haihuwa na halitta maimakon na wucin gadi, kamar yin jima'i lokacin da mutum bai haihu ba. [36]

Tallafin hana daukar ciki ya dogara ne akan ra'ayoyi kamar 'yancin haihuwa, 'yancin mata, da kuma wajibcin hana barin yara da talaucin yara . [38] [39] Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya ta ce "Ta hanyar hana daukar ciki ba da niyya ba, tsarin iyali/hana daukar ciki yana hana mutuwar uwaye da yara". [38]

Kamuwa da cuta ta hanyar jima'i

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cutar da ake kamuwa da ita ta hanyar jima'i (STI) -- wacce aka sani da cutar da ake kamuwa da ita ta hanyar jima'i (STD) ko cutar venereal (VD) -- cuta ce da ke da yuwuwar yaɗuwa tsakanin mutane ta hanyar jima'i . CDC ta yi nazarin cututtukan STI guda takwas da aka fi kamuwa da su: chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B virus (HBV), herpes simplex virus type 2 ( HSV-2 ), human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ), human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, da trichomoniasis . [40]

Mutuwar da aka samu sakamakon cutar sifili a shekarar 2012, a cikin mutane miliyan daya
Shekarar rayuwar cutar gonorrhea da aka daidaita ta hanyar nakasa ga kowane mutum 100,000

Akwai sabbin kamuwa da cutar miliyan 1 a rana [41] da kuma sabbin kamuwa da cutar sama da miliyan 20 a cikin Amurka. [40] A shekarar 2020, WHO ta kiyasta sabbin kamuwa da cutar miliyan 374 tare da 1 daga cikin 4 na cututtukan da suka shafi jima'i: chlamydia (miliyan 129), gonorrhoea (miliyan 82), syphilis (miliyan 7.1) da trichomoniasis (miliyan 156). An kiyasta cewa sama da mutane miliyan 490 suna rayuwa da cutar herpes ta al'aura a shekarar 2016, kuma an kiyasta cewa mata miliyan 300 suna dauke da cutar HPV, babban dalilin da ke haifar da cutar kansar mahaifa da kuma cutar kansar dubura a tsakanin mazan da ke yin jima'i da maza.

Adadin masu irin wannan girman yana da nauyi mai yawa ga tattalin arzikin gida da na duniya. Wani bincike [42] da aka gudanar a Jami'ar Oxford a shekarar 2015 ya kammala da cewa duk da bai wa mahalarta magungunan rigakafi na farko (ART), har yanzu suna kashe kimanin dala biliyan 256 a cikin shekaru 20. Gwajin HIV da aka yi a ƙaramin farashi zai iya rage kamuwa da cutar HIV da kashi 21%, riƙe HIV da kashi 54%, da kuma mace-macen HIV da kashi 64%, tare da rabon inganci na $45,300 a kowace shekara da aka daidaita inganci . Duk da haka, binciken ya kammala da cewa Amurka ta haifar da yawan kamuwa da cuta, farashin magani, da mace-mace, koda lokacin da hanyoyin magancewa ba su inganta yawan rayuwa ba. [42]

Akwai raguwa sosai a yawan kamuwa da cututtukan da ake kamuwa da su ta hanyar jima'i da zarar an ilmantar da waɗanda ke yin jima'i game da kamuwa da cutar, tallata kwaroron roba, da kuma hanyoyin da aka yi niyya ga manyan mutane da masu rauni ta hanyar cikakken kwasa-kwasan ko shirye-shiryen koyar da jima'i . [43] Shaidun da aka samu kwanan nan sun nuna cewa fahimtar rawar da jin daɗi ke takawa a rayuwar jima'i ta mutane da kuma haɗa wannan a cikin ayyukan kiwon lafiyar jima'i da ilimi yana da tasiri mai mahimmanci kan ƙara yawan amfani da kwaroron roba da kuma inganta sakamakon lafiyar jima'i. [44] [45] [46] [47] Manufar Afirka ta Kudu ta magance buƙatun mata masu haɗarin kamuwa da cutar HIV da waɗanda ke da cutar HIV da kuma abokan hulɗarsu da yara. Manufar ta kuma inganta ayyukan tantance lafiyar jima'i kamar ba da shawara da gwaji kan cutar HIV da kuma gwajin wasu cututtukan da ke shafar jima'i, tarin fuka, ciwon mahaifa, da ciwon nono. [48]

Hukumar CDC ta bayyana cewa yawan kamuwa da cutar ta hanyar jima'i ya fi yawa a tsakanin 'yan tsiraru idan aka kwatanta da fararen fata. Waɗannan tsirarun suna fuskantar matsaloli daban-daban, ciki har da ilimin lafiya, yanayin zamantakewa, samun damar ayyukan kiwon lafiya, da kuma tsoron wariya daga masu samar da lafiya. Yawan kamuwa da cutar ya ninka sau biyar zuwa takwas a cikin al'ummar Baƙar fata idan aka kwatanta da fararen fata waɗanda ba 'yan Hispanic ba. [49]

Matan Afirka 'yan Amurka matasa suna cikin haɗarin kamuwa da cututtukan STI, ciki har da HIV. [50] Wani bincike da aka buga kwanan nan a wajen Atlanta, Georgia ya tattara bayanai (ma'aunin alƙaluma, na tunani, da na ɗabi'a) tare da shafa farji don tabbatar da kasancewar cututtukan STI. Sun gano babban bambanci cewa waɗannan matan da suka kammala karatun jami'a ba su da yuwuwar kamuwa da cututtukan STI, wataƙila suna amfana daga raguwar raunin kamuwa da cututtukan STI/HIV yayin da suke samun matsayin ilimi kuma wataƙila suna ƙaruwa a yankunan alƙaluma da/ko matsayi. [50]

Zubar da ciki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A duk duniya, an kiyasta cewa zubar da ciki miliyan 25 ba shi da haɗari yana faruwa kowace shekara. [51] Mafi yawan irin wannan zubar da ciki mara aminci yana faruwa ne a ƙasashe masu tasowa a Afirka, Asiya da Latin Amurka. [51]

Muhawarar zubar da ciki ita ce takaddamar da ke ci gaba da wanzuwa game da ɗabi'a, shari'a, da addini na zubar da ciki da aka haifar. Bangarorin da ke cikin muhawarar su ne ƙungiyoyin " pro-choice " da " pro-life " da suka bayyana kansu. "Pro-choice" suna jaddada 'yancin mata na yanke shawara ko za su dakatar da ciki. "Pro-life" suna jaddada 'yancin tayin ko tayin na haihuwa da haihuwa. Ana ɗaukar waɗannan sharuɗɗan a cikin manyan kafofin watsa labarai, inda ake fifita kalmomi kamar "haƙƙin zubar da ciki" ko "haƙƙin hana zubar da ciki". [52] Kowace ƙungiya, tare da sakamako daban-daban, ta nemi rinjayar ra'ayin jama'a da kuma samun goyon bayan doka ga matsayinta, tare da ƙananan adadin masu fafutukar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam suna amfani da tashin hankali, kamar kisan kai da ƙonewa.

Labarai daga Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya sun kira zubar da ciki bisa doka a matsayin babban hakki ga mata ba tare da la'akari da inda suke zama ba, kuma suna jayayya cewa zubar da ciki ba bisa ka'ida ba annoba ce ta shiru. A shekara ta 2005, an kiyasta cewa zubar da ciki miliyan 19-20 yana da matsaloli, wasu matsaloli na dindindin ne, yayin da aka kiyasta cewa mata 68,000 sun mutu sakamakon zubar da ciki ba bisa ka'ida ba. [53] Samun damar zubar da ciki ba bisa ka'ida ba na iya yin tasiri mai kyau ga lafiyar mata da rayuwarta, haka nan akasin haka. Doka kan zubar da ciki bisa buƙata ya zama dole amma ba shi da isasshen mataki don inganta lafiyar mata. [54] A wasu ƙasashe inda zubar da ciki ya halatta kuma ya kasance tsawon shekaru da yawa, babu wani ci gaba a samun isassun ayyuka da ke sa zubar da ciki ya zama ba shi da aminci saboda rashin ayyukan kiwon lafiya. Yana da wuya a sami zubar da ciki saboda shingayen doka da manufofi, shingayen zamantakewa da al'adu (nuna wariyar jinsi, talauci, ƙuntatawa na addini, rashin tallafi), shingayen tsarin kiwon lafiya (rashin kayan aiki ko ma'aikata masu horo). Duk da haka, zubar da ciki lafiyayye tare da ma'aikata masu horo, kyakkyawan tallafin zamantakewa, da kuma samun kayan aiki, na iya inganta lafiyar uwa da kuma ƙara lafiyar haihuwa daga baya a rayuwa. [55]

Yarjejeniyar Maputo, wadda Tarayyar Afirka ta amince da ita a matsayin yarjejeniya ga Yarjejeniyar Afirka kan Haƙƙoƙin Ɗan Adam da Jama'a, ta bayyana a Mataki na 14 (Lafiya da Haƙƙoƙin Haihuwa) cewa: "(2). Ƙasashen da abin ya shafa za su ɗauki duk matakan da suka dace don: [...] c) kare haƙƙin haihuwa na mata ta hanyar ba da izinin zubar da ciki a fannin likitanci a lokutan cin zarafin mata, fyaɗe, jima'i tsakanin dangi, da kuma inda ci gaba da ɗaukar ciki ke barazana ga lafiyar kwakwalwa da ta jiki na uwa ko rayuwar uwa ko tayin. " [56] Yarjejeniyar Maputo ita ce yarjejeniya ta farko ta duniya da ta amince da zubar da ciki, a ƙarƙashin wasu sharuɗɗa, a matsayin haƙƙin ɗan adam na mace. [57]

Sharhin Janar mai lamba 36 (2018) kan sashe na 6 na Yarjejeniyar Duniya kan Haƙƙoƙin Bil Adama da Siyasa, kan haƙƙin rayuwa, wanda Kwamitin Haƙƙoƙin Bil Adama ya amince da shi a shekarar 2018, ya bayyana, a karon farko, haƙƙin ɗan adam na zubar da ciki - a wasu yanayi (duk da haka, waɗannan maganganun Majalisar Dinkin Duniya gabaɗaya ana ɗaukar su a matsayin doka mai laushi, kuma, saboda haka, ba a ɗaure su bisa doka ba).

A lokacin da ake tattaunawa kan Shirin Aiki na Alkahira a taron ƙasa da ƙasa kan yawan jama'a da ci gaba (ICPD) na shekarar 1994, batun ya kasance mai cike da ce-ce-ku-ce har ta kai ga wakilan sun yanke shawarar yin watsi da duk wani shawara na halatta zubar da ciki, maimakon haka suna ba da shawara ga gwamnatoci da su samar da kulawar da ta dace bayan zubar da ciki da kuma saka hannun jari a shirye-shiryen da za su rage yawan ɗaukar ciki da ba a so.

Kwamitin Kawar da Wariya ga Mata ya dauki sanya zubar da ciki a matsayin laifi a matsayin "keta haƙƙoƙin mata na jima'i da haihuwa" da kuma wani nau'i na "cin zarafin jinsi"; sakin layi na 18 na shawarar Janar mai lamba 35 kan cin zarafin mata bisa ga jinsi, yana sabunta shawarar gabaɗaya mai lamba 19 ya bayyana cewa: "Keta haƙƙoƙin mata na jima'i da haihuwa, kamar tilasta musu haihuwa, tilasta musu zubar da ciki, tilasta musu ɗaukar ciki, tilasta musu zubar da ciki, hana ko jinkirta zubar da ciki lafiya da kuma kula da bayan zubar da ciki, tilasta musu ci gaba da ɗaukar ciki, cin zarafi da cin zarafin mata da 'yan mata da ke neman bayanai game da lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa, kayayyaki da ayyuka, nau'ikan cin zarafin jinsi ne wanda, dangane da yanayin, na iya zama azabtarwa ko kuma mummunan magani, rashin tausayi ko kuma wulaƙanci ." [58] Shawarar Janar mai lamba ɗaya kuma ta yi kira ga ƙasashe a sakin layi na 31 da su [...] Musamman, a soke: a) Tanadin da ke ba da damar, jure wa ko kuma amincewa da nau'ikan cin zarafin mata bisa ga jinsi, gami da [...] dokar da ke haramta zubar da ciki". [58]

Kaciyar al'aurar mata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
map
Kaciyar mata a Afirka da Asiya, tun daga shekarar 2024 ( taswirar Afirka ).

Kaciyar mata (FGM), wanda kuma aka sani da kaciyar mata ko yanke al'aura, al'ada ce ta gargajiya, wacce ba ta likitanci ba, ta canza ko raunata gabobin haihuwa na mata, sau da yawa ta hanyar cire dukkan ko sassan al'aura na waje. [59] Ana yin ta galibi a ƙasashe 30 a Afirka, Gabas ta Tsakiya, da Asiya, kuma tana shafar mata da 'yan mata sama da miliyan 200 a duk duniya. Mafi tsananin nau'ikan kaciyar mata sun fi yawa a Djibouti, Eritrea, Habasha, Somalia, da Sudan. [60]

Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) ta rarraba kaciyar mata zuwa nau'i huɗu:

Kaciya sau da yawa tana ɗaukar siffar bikin gargajiya wanda dattijo ko shugaban al'umma ke gudanarwa. Shekarun da mata ke yin wannan aikin ya bambanta dangane da al'ada, kodayake galibi ana yin sa ne ga 'yan mata masu zuwa balaga. Wasu al'adu suna ɗaukar Kaciya a matsayin al'adar zuwan girma ga 'yan mata kuma suna amfani da ita don kiyaye budurcin mace da amincin mijinta bayan aure. Hakanan yana da alaƙa da wasu kyawawan halaye na mata da tsafta. [61] Kaciya na iya samun ko ba zai iya samun ma'anar addini ba dangane da yanayin. [59]

Babu wani fa'ida ga lafiya da ke tattare da FGM, domin yana tsoma baki ga ayyukan halitta na jikin mace da 'yan mata, kamar haifar da ciwo mai tsanani, girgiza, zubar jini, tetanus ko sepsis (cutar ƙwayoyin cuta), riƙe fitsari, ƙuraje a buɗe a yankin al'aura da rauni ga kyallen al'aura da ke kusa, kamuwa da mafitsara da mafitsara mai dawowa, ƙuraje, ƙaruwar haɗarin rashin haihuwa, matsalolin haihuwa da mutuwar jarirai. Matsalolin jima'i sun fi faruwa da kashi 1.5 cikin 100 a cikin mata waɗanda aka yi wa FGM, suna iya fuskantar jima'i mai zafi, ba su da gamsuwar jima'i, kuma suna iya samun rahoton rashin sha'awar jima'i sau biyu. Bugu da ƙari, adadin mutuwar uwa da tayin yana da girma sosai saboda matsalolin haihuwa. [62]

Kaciyar mata (FGM) na iya haifar da mummunan tasiri ga mata, a lokacin da kuma bayan aikin. Waɗannan na iya haɗawa da alamun damuwa na dogon lokaci, damuwa, matsalar damuwa bayan tashin hankali, da ƙarancin girman kai. [59] Wasu mata sun ba da rahoton cewa an yi aikin ba tare da yardarsu da saninsu ba, kuma suna bayyana jin tsoro da rashin taimako yayin da ake yin sa. Wani bincike na 2018 ya gano cewa an fitar da adadi mai yawa na hormone cortisol a cikin matan da aka yi wa kaciyar mata, musamman waɗanda suka fuskanci nau'ikan aikin da suka fi tsanani kuma tun suna ƙanana. Wannan yana nuna martanin sinadarai na jiki ga rauni da damuwa kuma yana iya nuna babban haɗarin kamuwa da alamun PTSD da sauran cututtukan rauni, kodayake akwai ƙananan bincike da ke nuna alaƙa kai tsaye. [63]

Yarjejeniyar Istanbul ta haramta yin kaciya (Mataki na 38). An gabatar da dokoki a wasu ƙasashe don hana yin kaciya. Wani bincike da aka gudanar a ƙasashe 30 a shekarar 2016 ya nuna cewa 24 suna da manufofi don sarrafa da kuma hana yin kaciya, kodayake tsarin samar da kuɗi, ilimi, da albarkatu galibi ba shi da daidaito kuma ba shi da kyau. Wasu ƙasashe sun ga ɗan raguwar yawan yin kaciya, yayin da wasu kuma ba su nuna wani canji ko kaɗan ba. [61] [64]

Yaro da auren dole

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Fosta da ke adawa da yaro da auren dole

Al'adar tilasta wa ƙananan yara mata auren wuri, wadda aka saba gani a sassa da dama na duniya, tana barazana ga lafiyarsu ta haihuwa. A cewar Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya: [65]

Afirka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

HIV/AIDS

Yaɗuwar cutar HIV/AIDS a Afirka a shekarar 2011

HIV/AIDS a Afirka babbar matsala ce ta lafiyar jama'a. Yawan jama'ar Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara ita ce yankin da cutar ta fi shafa, musamman ma mata matasa. A cewar Laburaren Magunguna na Ƙasa, "Kashi 12% na al'ummar duniya ne ke zaune a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara (SSA), amma ba a cika samun fiye da kashi 90% na yara 'yan ƙasa da shekara 15 ba, da kuma kashi 68% na manya da ke ɗauke da HIV2 ba." [66] A Najeriya, musamman, "Akwai lokacin girma da kuma yawan jima'i tsakanin shekaru 9 zuwa 15." [67] Ana iya yaɗa cutar HIV ta hanyar nonon uwa, wanda hakan ya tabbatar da cewa mata da suka kamu da cutar HIV/AIDS dole ne su fuskanci ƙarin illoli a fannin lafiya. Kudancin Sahara, annobar cutar AIDS ita ce babbar sanadin mace-mace.

Za a iya raba dalilan yaduwar cutar HIV/AIDS zuwa manyan sassa 7: talauci, rashin isasshen kulawar lafiya, rashin rigakafi da ilimi, haramun da kyama, halayen jima'i, karuwanci, da cin zarafin mata. [68] Ganin cewa akwai mutane da yawa da ke rayuwa cikin matsanancin talauci, ba a ba da fifiko ga robar hana daukar ciki, gwajin HIV, da sauran nau'ikan tantancewa ba, wanda hakan ya sa mutane da yawa ba su da abubuwan da za su kare kansu daga cutar. A cewar Hukumar Kudi ta Duniya, "Kula da lafiya a yankin kudu da hamadar sahara ya kasance mafi muni a duniya, inda ƙasashe kalilan ne ke iya kashe dala $34 zuwa $40 a shekara ga kowane mutum wanda Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya ta dauka mafi ƙarancin kula da lafiya." [69] Abin lura, kodayake talauci ya yaɗu, "kashi 50 cikin 100 na kuɗaɗen kiwon lafiya na yankin ana ba da kuɗinsu ne ta hanyar biyan kuɗi daga aljihun mutane." [69] Wannan yana wakiltar rashin araha da kuma damar da ke kewaye da tsarin kiwon lafiya a yankin kudu da hamadar sahara. A cewar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, yankin kudu da hamadar sahara yana fama da mafi girman adadin warewa ilimi a duniya; Kashi 60% na matasa 'yan shekara 15 zuwa 17 ba sa zuwa makaranta. [70] Tare da wannan rashin ilimi, bayanai game da HIV/AIDS da hanyoyin rigakafi ba sa yaduwa ga mutane da yawa, wanda ke haifar da ƙarin 'yan ƙasa ba su san tsananin cutar ba. Ƙiyayyar da ke tattare da HIV/AIDS ta ƙara taimakawa wajen yawan kamuwa da cuta. A ƙauyukan Afirka, rayuwar mutum tana da alaƙa da abokansa, iyalansa, da maƙwabtansa da ke kewaye da su. Mutanen da ke ɗauke da HIV/AIDS suna da sha'awar ɓoye ta saboda tsoron warewa da keɓewa. Ƙarshen wannan ƙyamar ana isar da ita ta hanyar wasu tattaunawa, mutanen da ke zaune da HIV galibi ana yi musu ba'a a matsayin "gawa mai tafiya", ana kiranta da "HIV" har ma ana kiranta a Tanzania, "nyambizi", ko jirgin ruwa mai ƙarƙashin ruwa, wanda ke nufin cewa mutumin da ke ɗauke da HIV "mai haɗari ne kuma mai kisa." [71] Halayyar jima'i da karuwanci suma suna taka rawa a cikin ƙaruwar yaduwar HIV/AIDS a Afirka. Saboda yawan talauci, karuwanci ya yaɗu, kuma abokan hulɗar jima'i galibi suna canzawa, wanda ke ƙara yiwuwar kamuwa da cutar. Afirka tana ɗaya daga cikin ƙasashen da suka fi fama da fyaɗe a duniya, inda mata da yawa ke kamuwa da cutar AIDS saboda fyaɗe da cin zarafin mata da wani mai ɗauke da cutar HIV ya yi. Hakazalika, rawar da mata ke takawa a cikin ƙasashen Afirka da yawa tana taimakawa wajen wannan, domin "a mafi yawan ƙasashen kudu da hamadar Sahara, mata ƙungiya ce da ake sa ran za ta yi juna biyu, ta haifi 'ya'ya, kuma ta cika sha'awar mazajensu ba tare da wata shakka ba". [71]

A mafi yawan ƙasashen Afirka, jimillar yawan haihuwa yana da yawa sau da yawa saboda rashin damar yin amfani da maganin hana haihuwa, tsarin iyali, da kuma ayyuka kamar tilasta wa yara aure. Misali, Nijar, Angola, Mali, Burundi, Somalia da Uganda suna da yawan haihuwa mai yawa. A cewar Ma'aikatar Tattalin Arziki da Jama'a ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, "Afirka tana da mafi ƙarancin yawan amfani da maganin hana haihuwa (33%) da kuma mafi girman adadin buƙatar maganin hana haihuwa (22%)." [72] A Mozambique, duk da ƙoƙarin inganta hanyoyin hana haihuwa na zamani, yawan haihuwa gabaɗaya "har yanzu yana da yawa a 5.3 kuma buƙatar maganin hana haihuwa da ba a cika ba ita ma tana da yawa a 26%." A tsakanin mata matasa, adadin haihuwa ya karu sosai daga haihuwa 167 ga kowace 1000 masu shekaru tsakanin (shekaru 15-19) a shekarar 2011 zuwa 194 a shekarar 2015, tare da karuwar da aka samu a yankunan karkara daga 183 zuwa 230. Yawan hana daukar ciki tsakanin (shekaru 15-19) ya kasance ƙasa da kashi 14% a shekarar 2015 idan aka kwatanta da yawan haihuwa a ƙasa tsakanin rukunin shekarun haihuwa (shekaru 15-49) a kashi 25% a cikin shekarar guda. [73]

Nau'ikan hana ɗaukar ciki

Ba a ba da maganin hana ɗaukar ciki na jan ƙarfe (copper IUD) sau da yawa fiye da sauran hanyoyin hana ɗaukar ciki ba, amma akwai alamun ƙaruwa a yawancin lardunan da aka ruwaito. Hanyoyin da aka fi bayarwa su ne dashen da kuma maganin progesterone da aka yi wa allura, wanda bai kai yadda ake amfani da robar ba, wanda har yanzu ake buƙata tare da wannan hanyar don rage haɗarin kamuwa da cutar HIV. A Najeriya, musamman, mutanen da ke da abokan hulɗa da yawa sau da yawa ba sa son kare kansu da robar. "A wani bincike da aka gudanar a wani yanki na karkara a Kudu maso Yammacin Najeriya a 1993, an gano cewa duk da cewa kashi 94.7% na 'yan takara 302 masu shekaru tsakanin 20 zuwa 54 sun yarda sun ji labarin robar, kashi 51.3% ne kawai suka yarda sun taɓa amfani da shi." [67] A cewar Ra'ayin Tsarin Iyali na Duniya, "waɗannan samfuran progesterone da aka yi wa allura sun ƙunshi kashi 49% na amfani da maganin hana ɗaukar ciki na Afirka ta Kudu da kuma har zuwa kashi 90% a wasu larduna." [74] Duk da cewa amfani da maganin hana ɗaukar ciki yana ƙaruwa a ƙasashen Afirka, ƙimar daina amfani da robar ma tana da yawa. Rashin tsarin lafiya yana ƙalubalantar ƙasashen Afirka da ke kudu da hamada wajen faɗaɗa isar da maganin hana ɗaukar ciki, haɓakawa da hidima.

Samun damar amfani da maganin hana haihuwa

Sabbin jagororin hana daukar ciki a Afirka ta Kudu suna ƙoƙarin inganta damar shiga ta hanyar samar da sabis na musamman da kuma wayar da kan matasa, 'yan madigo, 'yan luwadi, masu luwadi, masu jinsi daya, masu canza jinsi, masu jinsi daya, nakasassu, masu fama da rashin lafiya na dogon lokaci, mata masu jinin al'ada, masu aikin jima'i, 'yan cirani da maza. Suna kuma da nufin kara samun hanyoyin hana daukar ciki na tsawon lokaci kamar su copper IUD, da kuma allurar progestogen guda daya tare da allurar estrogen da progesterone. [75] Ra'ayoyin masu samar da magunguna na kasar Tanzaniya sun kuma gano babban cikas wajen kula da lafiyar hana daukar ciki a cikin al'ummominsu: rashin daidaito. Kamfanonin kula da hana daukar ciki sun gano cewa ikon samar da hidima ga marasa lafiya bai dace ba kuma bai dace ba. Wannan ya haifar da rashin gamsuwar manufofin haihuwa, karancin ilimi, da kuma rashin ilimi game da illolin wasu magungunan hana daukar ciki. [76]

An kuma kawo cikas ga samun damar shiga saboda rashin isassun ma'aikatan lafiya da aka horar da su yadda ya kamata. A cewar mujallar Afirka ta Lafiyar Haihuwa, "Karancin ma'aikacin lafiya... ƙalubale ne, ba mu da ikon kula da adadi mai yawa na abokan ciniki, haka kuma ba mu da isasshen ilimi wanda ke sa mu kasa samar wa mata hanyoyin da suke so". [77] Yawancin cibiyoyin kiwon lafiya suna da ma'aikata ba tare da horon likita ba kuma likitoci da ma'aikatan jinya kaɗan ne, duk da dokokin tarayya, saboda rashin albarkatu. Wata cibiya tana da mutum ɗaya kawai wanda zai iya sakawa da cire dashen, kuma ba tare da ita ba, ba za su iya yi wa mutanen da ke buƙatar wannan hanyar kula da hana ɗaukar ciki hidima ba. Wata cibiyar kula da jarirai da ke ɗauke da hanyoyi biyu na hana ɗaukar ciki ta bayyana cewa wani lokacin kayan aikin biyu suna ƙarewa a lokaci guda wanda hakan ke sa ya yi wuya a ci gaba da bin tsarin wadata da buƙata.

Abubuwan zamantakewa suna tasiri ga hana ɗaukar ciki

Rashin daidaiton yanayin jinsi, yanayin zamantakewar aure, yanayin tattalin arziki, al'adun addini, al'adun gargajiya, da ƙuntatawa a cikin hanyoyin samar da kayayyaki duk suna taimakawa ga yawan hana haihuwa da amfani da su. Misali ɗaya daga cikin wannan shine mai ba da sabis wanda ya yi nuni da farfagandar cutarwa game da illolin amfani da hana haihuwa. Yaɗuwar wannan farfagandar yana ɗaya daga cikin misalan mutane masu tasiri a cikin al'umma, kamar dattawa da shugabannin addini, waɗanda ke hana kula da/lafiyar hana haihuwa yadda ya kamata. A wasu lokuta, membobin al'umma masu tasiri galibi suna shawo kan wasu cewa kwaroron roba da magungunan hana haihuwa suna ɗauke da ƙwayoyin cuta masu haifar da cutar kansa.

Dangane da yanayin rayuwar mata da maza, mata da yawa suna fuskantar matsin lamba daga matansu ko 'yan uwansu don su guji ɗaukar ciki wanda hakan ya sa suka yi amfani da shi a ɓoye. Wannan kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin dalilan da yasa mata ke fifita hanyoyin hana ɗaukar ciki waɗanda ba a iya gano su ba waɗanda za su iya haifar da rashin ingancin ɗaukar ciki. [78]

Sustainable Development Goals

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Rabin burin ci gaba da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta sanya ya fara ne a cikin 2000 zuwa 2015 tare da Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Lafiyar haihuwa ita ce Manufar 5 daga 8. Don saka idanu kan ci gaba, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta amince da alamomi huɗu: [1]

  • Yawan maganin hana daukar ciki
  • Yawan haihuwa na matasa
  • Kula da haihuwa
  • Bukatar da ba a cika ba don tsara iyali

Ci gaba ya kasance mai jinkiri, kuma a cewar WHO a cikin 2005, kusan kashi 55% na mata ba su da isasshen kulawa kafin haihuwa kuma kashi 24% ba su da damar yin amfani da ayyukan tsara iyali.[79] MDGs sun ƙare a cikin 2015 kuma an maye gurbinsu da cikakkun manufofi don rufe tsawon shekara ta 2016-2030 tare da jimlar manufofi 17, wanda ake kira Goals na Ci gaba mai dorewa. Dukkanin burin 17 suna da cikakkun bayanai kuma suna gina juna, amma burin 3 shine "Don tabbatar da rayuwa mai kyau da inganta jin daɗi ga kowa a kowane zamani". Takamaiman manufofi sune rage yawan mace-mace na duniya zuwa kasa da 70 a cikin haihuwa 100,000 masu rai, kawo karshen mutuwar da za a iya hanawa na jarirai da yara, rage yawan da kashi 50% na mutuwar haɗari a duniya, karfafa shirye-shiryen magani da rigakafin shan miyagun ƙwayoyi da barasa.[80] Manufar 4 ta jaddada gaskiyar cewa bai kamata a bar kowa ba wajen samar da ilimi mai inganci. Manufar 4 musamman ta ambaci hada mutanen da ke da nakasa, 'yan asalin ƙasar da yara a cikin yanayi mai rauni. Bugu da kari, daya daga cikin manufofi na Ci gaba mai dorewa Manufar 5 ita ce tabbatar da samun damar duniya ga lafiyar jima'i da haihuwa.[81]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "I.General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life" (PDF). Human Rights Committee. United Nations. 30 October 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  2. ↑ Cottingham J, Kismödi E, Hussein J (December 2019). "Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters - What's in a name?". Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters. 27 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1080/09688080.2019.1574427. PMC 7887925. PMID 31884899.
  3. ↑ "Reproductive Health". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Archived from the original on 2021-09-18. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  4. ↑ Mitchell KR, Lewis R, O'Sullivan LF, Fortenberry JD (2021). "What is sexual wellbeing and why does it matter for public health?". The Lancet Public Health (in Turanci). 6 (8): e608–e613. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00099-2. PMC 7616985. PMID 34166629 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 235635898 Check |s2cid= value (help). |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  5. ↑ Sladden, Tim; Philpott, Anne; Braeken, Doortje; Castellanos-Usigli, Antón; Yadav, Vithika; Christie, Emily; Gonsalves, Lianne; Mofokeng, Tlaleng (2021-10-02). "Sexual Health and Wellbeing through the Life Course: Ensuring Sexual Health, Rights and Pleasure for All". International Journal of Sexual Health (in Turanci). 33 (4): 565–571. doi:10.1080/19317611.2021.1991071. ISSN 1931-7611. PMC 10903615 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38595782 Check |pmid= value (help).
  6. 1 2 "Defining sexual health". www.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  7. ↑ "WHO: Reproductive health". Archived from the original on 2012-07-09. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
  8. ↑ World Association of Sexual Health, World Association of Sexual Health (2019). "Mexico City World Congress of Sexual Health DECLARATION ON SEXUAL PLEASURE" (PDF). World Association of Sexual Health. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
  9. ↑ Ford, Jessie V.; Corona-Vargas, Esther; Cruz, Mariana; Fortenberry, J. Dennis; Kismodi, Eszter; Philpott, Anne; Rubio-Aurioles, Eusebio; Coleman, Eli (2021-10-02). "The World Association for Sexual Health's Declaration on Sexual Pleasure: A Technical Guide". International Journal of Sexual Health (in Turanci). 33 (4): 612–642. doi:10.1080/19317611.2021.2023718. ISSN 1931-7611. PMC 10903694 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38595778 Check |pmid= value (help).
  10. ↑ Gianotten, Woet L.; Alley, Jenna C.; Diamond, Lisa M. (2021-10-02). "The Health Benefits of Sexual Expression". International Journal of Sexual Health (in Turanci). 33 (4): 478–493. doi:10.1080/19317611.2021.1966564. ISSN 1931-7611. PMC 10903655 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38595776 Check |pmid= value (help).
  11. ↑ Starrs AM, Ezeh AC, Barker G, Basu A, Bertrand JT, Blum R, Coll-Seck AM, Grover A, Laski L, Roa M, Sathar ZA, Say L, Serour GI, Singh S, Stenberg K, Temmerman M, Biddlecom A, Popinchalk A, Summers C, Ashford LS (2018). "Accelerate progress—sexual and reproductive health and rights for all: report of the Guttmacher–Lancet Commission". The Lancet. 391 (10140): 2642–2692. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30293-9. PMID 29753597.
  12. ↑ Hall KS, Moreau C, Trussell J (February 2012). "Determinants of and disparities in reproductive health service use among adolescent and young adult women in the United States, 2002-2008". American Journal of Public Health. 102 (2): 359–67. doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300380. PMC 3483992. PMID 22390451.
  13. ↑ Dada, Sara; Cocoman, Olive; Portela, Anayda; Brún, Aoife De; Bhattacharyya, Sanghita; Tunçalp, Özge; Jackson, Debra; Gilmore, Brynne (2023-02-01). "What's in a name? Unpacking 'Community Blank' terminology in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health: a scoping review". BMJ Global Health (in Turanci). 8 (2). doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009423. ISSN 2059-7908. PMC 9906186 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36750272 Check |pmid= value (help). Archived from the original on 2023-02-08. Retrieved 2023-02-08.
  14. ↑ "Reproductive Health Strategy". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on June 17, 2005. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
  15. ↑ "Sexual reproductive health". UN Population Fund. Archived from the original on 2019-05-22. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
  16. ↑ Morris JL, Rushwan H (October 2015). "Adolescent sexual and reproductive health: The global challenges". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 131 (Suppl 1): S40–2. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.02.006. PMID 26433504.
  17. ↑ "Maternal, newborn, child and adolescent health". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on July 7, 2013.
  18. ↑ United Nations Population Division. "Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19)". Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
  19. ↑ "Global Strategy for Women's, Children's and Adolescents' Health (2016-2030) Key Statistics" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2020-10-05.
  20. ↑ "Preventing early pregnancy and poor reproductive outcomes among adolescents in developing countries". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved September 23, 2017.
  21. ↑ Rowlands, Amanda; Juergensen, Emma; Prescivalli, Ana Paula; Salvante, Katrina; Nepomnaschy, Pablo (19 November 2021). "Social and Biological Transgenerational Underpinnings of Adolescent Pregnancy". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (22). doi:10.3390/ijerph182212152. PMC 8620033 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34831907 Check |pmid= value (help).
  22. ↑ Kaneda, Toshiko; Greenbaum, Charlotte; Haub, Carl, eds. (October 2022). "2022 World Population Data Sheet". 2022-wpds.prb.org. Population Reference Bureau. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2025.
  23. 1 2 3 "Maternal mortality". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2022-02-08. Retrieved 2018-04-26.
  24. 1 2 3 Alkema L, Chou D, Hogan D, Zhang S, Moller AB, Gemmill A, Fat DM, Boerma T, Temmerman M, Mathers C, Say L (January 2016). "Global, regional, and national levels and trends in maternal mortality between 1990 and 2015, with scenario-based projections to 2030: a systematic analysis by the UN Maternal Mortality Estimation Inter-Agency Group". Lancet. 387 (10017): 462–74. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00838-7. PMC 5515236. PMID 26584737.
  25. ↑ "Maternal health". www.unfpa.org (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2018-04-26.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Borghi, Jo. "Mobilising Domestic Financial Resources for Development." 2002, doi:10.14217/9781848597655-4-en.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Filippi, Véronique, et al. "Maternal Health in Poor Countries: the Broader Context and a Call for Action." The Lancet, vol. 368, no. 9546, 28 Sept. 2006, pp. 1535–1541., doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69384-7.
  28. ↑ Nyamtema, Angelo S, et al. "Maternal Health Interventions in Resource Limited Countries: a Systematic Review of Packages, Impacts and Factors for Change." BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, vol. 11, no. 1, 2011, doi:10.1186/1471-2393-11-30.
  29. ↑ Lunde CE, Spigel R, Gordon CM, Sieberg CB (2021-10-06). "Beyond the Binary: Sexual and Reproductive Health Considerations for Transgender and Gender Expansive Adolescents". Frontiers in Reproductive Health. 3. doi:10.3389/frph.2021.670919. ISSN 2673-3153. PMC 9580725 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36304055 Check |pmid= value (help).
  30. ↑ Wahlen R, Bize R, Wang J, Merglen A, Ambresin AE (2020-07-01). "Medical Students' Knowledge of and Attitudes Towards LGBT People and Their Health Care Needs: Impact of a Lecture on LGBT Health". PLOS ONE. 15 (7). Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1534743W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234743. PMC 7329058. PMID 32609754.
  31. ↑ "Not Up for Debate: LGBTQ People Need and Deserve Tailored Sexual and Reproductive Health Care". Guttmacher Institute (in Turanci). 2020-11-02. Archived from the original on 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
  32. ↑ "Family planning". Archived from the original on 2019-09-21. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  33. ↑ Joyce K (2006-11-09). "Arrows for the War". The Nation. Archived from the original on 2019-10-28. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  34. 1 2 3 4 "What are the different types of contraception?". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). 31 January 2017. Archived from the original on 2018-11-15. Retrieved 2018-11-15.
  35. 1 2 Stevens LM (September 2018). ""We have to be mythbusters": Clinician attitudes about the legitimacy of patient concerns and dissatisfaction with contraception". Social Science & Medicine. 212: 145–152. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.07.020. PMID 30031980. S2CID 51721911.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 McAndrews L (Winter 2015). "Before Roe: Catholics, Nixon, and the Changing Politics of Birth Control". Fides et Historia. 47: 24–43 – via EBSCOhost.
  37. 1 2 Reiterman C (1965). "Birth Control and Catholics". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 4 (2): 213–233. doi:10.2307/1384139. JSTOR 1384139.
  38. 1 2 "Family planning/contraception methods". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 2018-12-01. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  39. ↑ "The Rights to Contraceptive Information and Services for Women and Adolescents". www.unfpa.org. Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  40. 1 2 "Incidence, Prevalence, and Cost of Sexually Transmitted Infections in the United States" (PDF). CDC STI Fact Sheet. United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC). February 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-05-23. Retrieved 2018-05-01.
  41. ↑ "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)". www.who.int (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  42. 1 2 Shah M, Risher K, Berry SA, Dowdy DW (January 2016). "The Epidemiologic and Economic Impact of Improving HIV Testing, Linkage, and Retention in Care in the United States". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 62 (2): 220–229. doi:10.1093/cid/civ801. PMC 4690480. PMID 26362321.
  43. ↑ "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-30.
  44. ↑ Zaneva, Mirela; Philpott, Anne; Singh, Arushi; Larsson, Gerda; Gonsalves, Lianne (2022-02-11). "What is the added value of incorporating pleasure in sexual health interventions? A systematic review and meta-analysis". PLOS ONE (in Turanci). 17 (2). Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1761034Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261034. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8836333 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 35148319 Check |pmid= value (help).
  45. ↑ Power, Jennifer (2022-02-11). "Sex ed needs to talk about pleasure and fun. Safe sex depends on it and condom use rises". The Conversation (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  46. ↑ Cohen, Li (2022-02-14). "To teach safe sex, don't forget about pleasure, study suggests - CBS News". www.cbsnews.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  47. ↑ "Altmetric – What is the added value of incorporating pleasure in sexual health interventions? A systematic review and meta-analysis". plos.altmetric.com. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  48. ↑ Department of Health, Republic of South Africa (2014). "Bookshelf: National Contraception and Fertility Planning Policy and Service Delivery Guidelines". Reproductive Health Matters. 22 (43): 200–203. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(14)43764-9. JSTOR 43288351. S2CID 218573657.
  49. ↑ "STD Health Equity". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 18 October 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-10-30. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  50. 1 2 Painter JE, Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ, Depadilla LM, Simpson-Robinson L (2012-05-01). "College graduation reduces vulnerability to STIs/HIV among African-American young adult women". Women's Health Issues. 22 (3): e303–10. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2012.03.001. PMC 3349441. PMID 22555218.
  51. 1 2 "Worldwide, an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions occur each year". Archived from the original on 2020-10-06. Retrieved 2020-10-05.
  52. ↑ "Hyperbole". Style and Substance. Wall Street Journal. January 31, 2010. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  53. ↑ "WHO: Unsafe Abortion — The Preventable Pandemic". Archived from the original on 2010-01-13. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
  54. ↑ "Preventing unsafe abortion". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  55. ↑ Finer L, Fine JB (April 2013). "Abortion law around the world: progress and pushback". American Journal of Public Health. 103 (4): 585–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301197. PMC 3673257. PMID 23409915.
  56. ↑ "Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa". Legal Instruments. African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR). Archived from the original on 2015-12-02. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  57. ↑ "General Comment No. 2 on Article 14.1 (a), (b), (c) and (f) and Article 14. 2 (a) and (c) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa". Legal Instruments. African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR). Archived from the original on 2018-11-05. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  58. 1 2 "General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19" (PDF). Human Rights Committee. United Nations. 30 October 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2019. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  59. 1 2 3 "Female genital mutilation". World Health Organization (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2021-01-29. Retrieved 2018-11-26.
  60. ↑ "Prevalence of female genital mutilation". www.who.int. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020.
  61. 1 2 Klein E, Helzner E, Shayowitz M, Kohlhoff S, Smith-Norowitz TA (2018-07-10). "Female Genital Mutilation: Health Consequences and Complications-A Short Literature Review". Obstetrics and Gynecology International. 2018. doi:10.1155/2018/7365715. PMC 6079349. PMID 30116269.
  62. ↑ Martin C (19 September 2014). "The psychological impact of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) on girls/women's mental health: a narrative literature review". Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 32 (5): 469–485. doi:10.1080/02646838.2014.949641. S2CID 145366953.[dead link]
  63. ↑ Köbach A, Ruf-Leuschner M, Elbert T (June 2018). "Psychopathological sequelae of female genital mutilation and their neuroendocrinological associations". BMC Psychiatry. 18 (1). doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1757-0. PMC 5998450. PMID 29895282.
  64. ↑ Johansen RE, Ziyada MM, Shell-Duncan B, Kaplan AM, Leye E (April 2018). "Health sector involvement in the management of female genital mutilation/cutting in 30 countries". BMC Health Services Research. 18 (1). doi:10.1186/s12913-018-3033-x. PMC 5883890. PMID 29615033.
  65. ↑ "Child marriage – a threat to health". 2012-12-20. Archived from the original on 2019-10-27. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  66. ↑ Ubesie, Ac (2013-01-15). "Pediatric HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: emerging issues and way forward". African Health Sciences. 12 (3): 297–304. doi:10.4314/ahs.v12i3.8. ISSN 1680-6905. PMC 3557677. PMID 23382743. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  67. 1 2 Onile, B. A. (2002). "SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) AND ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS) IN NIGERIA". African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology (in Turanci). 3 (2): 78–81. doi:10.4314/ajcem.v3i2.7333. ISSN 1595-689X. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2022-05-12. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Onile 2002 78–81" defined multiple times with different content.
  68. ↑ SOS Children's Villages. "AIDS IN AFRICA: Facts, Figures and Background Information on the Epidemic". SOS Children's Villages. Archived from the original on 2022-05-19. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  69. 1 2 "Health Care In Africa: IFC Report Sees Demand for Investment". www.ifc.org (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  70. ↑ "Why the right to education remains a challenge in Africa | DW | 24.01.2022". DW.COM (in Turanci). Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  71. 1 2 Rankin, William W; Brennan, Sean; Schell, Ellen; Laviwa, Jones; Rankin, Sally H (August 2005). "The Stigma of Being HIV-Positive in Africa". PLOS Medicine. 2 (8). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020247. ISSN 1549-1277. PMC 1176240. PMID 16008508.
  72. ↑ Bongaarts, John; Frank, Odile; Lesthaeghe, Ron (September 1984). "The Proximate Determinants of Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa". Population and Development Review. 10 (3): 511. doi:10.2307/1973518. ISSN 0098-7921. JSTOR 1973518.
  73. ↑ Hensly, Catherine; et al. (2020-02-19). "Increasing Effectiveness of Family Planning Promoters in Mozambique through an SMS Intervention". AEA RCT Registry. doi:10.1257/rct.5383-2.0. S2CID 242990676 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  74. ↑ Chimere-Dan, Orieji (March 1996). "Contraceptive Prevalence in Rural South Africa". International Family Planning Perspectives. 22 (1): 4–9. doi:10.2307/2950795. JSTOR 2950795.
  75. ↑ Adedini, Sunday A.; Omisakin, Olusola Akintoye; Somefun, Oluwaseyi Dolapo (2019-06-04). Kabir, Russell (ed.). "Trends, patterns and determinants of long-acting reversible methods of contraception among women in sub-Saharan Africa". PLOS ONE (in Turanci). 14 (6). Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1417574A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217574. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6548375. PMID 31163050.
  76. ↑ Speizer, Ilene S.; Hotchkiss, David R.; Magnani, Robert J.; Hubbard, Brian; Nelson, Kristen (March 2000). "Do Service Providers in Tanzania Unnecessarily Restrict Clients' Access to Contraceptive Methods?". International Family Planning Perspectives. 26 (1): 13. doi:10.2307/2648285. JSTOR 2648285.
  77. ↑ Bankole; Adewole; Hussain; Awolude; Singh; Akinyemi (2015). "The Incidence of Abortion in Nigeria". International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 41 (4): 170–181. doi:10.1363/intsexrephea.41.4.0170. JSTOR 10.1363/intsexrephea.41.4.0170. PMC 4970740. PMID 26871725.
  78. ↑ Horowitz, Michael C.; Maxey, Sarah (2020). "Morally Opposed? A Theory of Public Attitudes and Emerging Military Technologies". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3589503. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 236818177 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  79. ↑ WHO. "What progress has been made on MDG 5?". Archived from the original on September 10, 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
  80. ↑ "Sustainable Development Goal 3: Health". World Health Organization (in Turanci). Archived from the original on March 11, 2016. Retrieved 2018-05-01.
  81. ↑ "Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender equality". UN Women (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2020-11-26. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jima%27i_da_lafiyar_haihuwa&oldid=859335"