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John Maynard Keynes

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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes [1] CB, FBA (/keɪnz/ KAYNZ; 5 Yuni 1883 - 21 Afrilu 1946), masanin tattalin arziki ne kuma ɗan falsafa ɗan Ingilishi wanda ra'ayoyinsa sun canza ainihin ka'idar da aiwatar da macroeconomics da manufofin tattalin arziki na gwamnatoci. Asalinsa ya sami horo a fannin lissafi, ya gina kuma ya inganta aikin da ya gabata a kan abubuwan da ke haifar da zagayowar kasuwanci.[2] Yergin & Stanislaw 2002, pp. 39–</ref> daya daga cikin manyan masana tattalin arziki na karni na 20, [3] [4] [5] samar da rubuce-rubucen da suka kasancebsvg tushen mazhabar da aka fi sani da tattalin arziki na Keynesian, da mabanbantan sa[6] Ra'ayoyinsa, waɗanda aka sake fasalin su azaman Sabon Keynesianism, suna da mahimmanci ga macroeconomics na yau da kullun. An san shi da “mahaifin macroeconomics”,[7] [8] [9] A lokacin babban mawuyacin hali na shekarun 1930, Keynes ya jagoranci juyin juya hali a cikin tunanin tattalin arziki, yana kalubalantar ra'ayoyin tattalin arziki na zamani wanda ke da'awar cewa kasuwanni masu 'yanci, a cikin gajeren lokaci zuwa matsakaicin lokaci, za su samar da cikakken aiki kai tsaye, muddin ma'aikata sun kasance masu sassaucin ra'ayi game da bukatun albashi. Ya bayar da hujjar cewa jimillar bukatu (jimlar kashe kudi a cikin tattalin arzikin kasa) ya tabbatar da yawan ayyukan tattalin arziki, kuma rashin isassun bukatu na iya haifar da tsawan lokaci na rashin aikin yi, kuma tunda albashi da tsadar ma’aikata sun yi kasa da kasa tattalin arzikin ba zai dawo da cikakken aiki kai tsaye ba.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]

Rayuwar farko da ilimi

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Kwalejin King, Cambridge. Kakar Keynes ta rubuta masa cewa, tun da aka haife shi a Cambridge, mutane za su sa ran zai yi wayo. [19] [20] Bisa ga tunanin ɗan'uwansa Geoffrey, iyayensu suna da ƙauna da kulawa. Sun halarci Cocin Ikilisiya[21] [22] 14  kuma sun kasance a gida ɗaya a duk rayuwarsu, inda koyaushe ana maraba da yaran su dawo. Keynes ya sami goyon baya mai yawa daga mahaifinsa, ciki har da kwararre ".[23]14 [24]

A cikin Janairu 1889, yana da shekaru biyar da rabi, Keynes ya fara a kindergarten na Perse School for Girls na safe biyar a mako. Nan da nan ya nuna gwanintar ilimin lissafi, amma lafiyarsa ba ta da kyau wanda ya haifar da rashin lafiya da yawa. shi [25]

A cikin .[26] 27  Duk da kasancewarsa a aji na tsakiya, Keynes yana gauraya cikin sauki tare da manyan daliban aji.[27]

A cikin 1902, Keynes ya bar Eton zuwa Kwalejin King, Cambridge, bayan ya sami gurbin karatu don wannan ma, don karanta lissafi. Alfred Marshall ya roki Keynes ya zama masanin tattalin arziki,[28] duk da cewa son zuciyar Keynes ya jawo shi zuwa ga falsafa, musamman tsarin da'a na G. E. Moore. An zaɓi Keynes a Jami'ar Pitt Club[29]  kuma ya kasance memba mai ƙwazo a cikin rukunin sirri na Cambridge Messengers, ƙungiyar muhawara da aka keɓe don .,[30] [31] [32]

Sana'a

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A cikin Oktoba 1906 Keynes ya fara aikinsa na Ma'aikata a matsayin magatakarda a Ofishin Indiya.[33] ] Ya ji daɗin aikinsa da farko, amma a 1908 ya zama gundura kuma ya yi murabus daga matsayinsa don komawa Cambridge kuma ya yi aiki a kan ka'idar yiwuwar, ta hanyar lacca a fannin tattalin arziki da farko da masana tattalin arziki Alfred Marshall da Arthur Pigou suka ba da kansu; Ya zama ɗan'uwa a Kwalejin King a 1909.[34]

A shekara ta 1909 Keynes kuma ya buga labarinsa na farko na fannin tattalin arziki a cikin Jaridar Tattalin Arziki, game da tasirin koma bayan tattalin arzikin duniya kwanan nan ga Indiya.[35] kafa

A cikin 1911 Keynes ya zama editan Jaridar Tattalin Arziki. A shekara ta 1913 ya buga littafinsa na farko, Kuɗin Indiya da Kuɗi.[[36] Daga nan aka nada shi ga Hukumar Sarauta kan Kudi da Kuɗi ta Indiya[37] batu guda ɗaya da littafinsa - inda Keynes ya nuna.[38]

Yaƙin Duniya na Farko

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The [39] A cikin Janairu 1915 Keynes ya ɗauki matsayin gwamnati a baitul mali. Daga cikin nauyin da ya rataya a wuyansa akwai tsara sharuddan lamuni tsakanin Biritaniya da kawayenta na nahiyar a lokacin yakin da kuma samun karancin kudade. A cewar masanin tattalin arziki Robert Sakataren Baitulmali ya yi farin ciki da jin Keynes ya tara abin da ya dace don samar da mafita na wucin gadi ga Gwamnatin Burtaniya. Amma Keynes bai ba da pesetas ɗin ba, maimakon haka ya zaɓi ya sayar da su duka don ya karya kasuwa rfin halinsa ya biya, domin pesetas ɗin ya ragu sosai da tsada.[40] [41] [42] cikin 1920s Keynes ya kammala A Treatise on Probability kafin yakin amma ya buga shi a cikin 1921.[43] 283  Aikin ya kasance sanannen gudummawa ga ilimin falsafa da ilimin lissafi na ka'idar yiwuwa, yana mai da ra'ayi mai mahimmanci cewa yiwuwar ba su wuce ko ƙasa da ƙimar gaskiya tsaka-tsakin tsaka-tsakin gaskiya da karya ba. Keynes ya haɓaka tsarin tazara mai yiwuwa na farko na sama-ƙananan don yuwuwa a cikin "[44] Paley Marshall ta kasance "shiga" ta wurin tunawa, yayin da Lytton Strachey ya sanya shi a matsayin ɗayan "mafi kyawun ayyuka" na Keynes.[45] [46] A cikin 1922 Keynes ya ci gaba da ba da shawarar rage ramukan Jamusanci tare da sake fasalin yarjejeniyar. rage daraja. Biritaniya ta sha fama da rashin aikin yi a mafi yawan shekarun 1920, wanda hakan ya sa Keynes ya ba da shawarar rage darajar siti don haɓaka ayyukan yi ta hanyar sanya kayan da Birtaniyya ke fitarwa cikin araha. Daga 1924 kuma yana ba da shawarar mayar da martani ga kasafin kuɗi, inda gwamnati za ta iya samar da ayyukan yi ta hanyar kashe kuɗi akan ayyukan jama'a.[47]  A cikin 1920s Keynes's pro-stimulus views yana da iyakanceccen tasiri ga masu tsara manufofi da ra'ayin ilimi na al'ada - bisa ga Hyman Minsky dalili daya shine cewa a wannan lokacin shine "[ore]". [48] [49]

A lokacin Babban Bacin rai

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[50] [51] [52] [53] Babban mawuyacin hali da lokacinsa na matsalolin tattalin arziki na duniya shine tushen da juyin juya halin Keynesian ya faru akai. Wannan hoton Uwar Migrant ce, wacce mai daukar hoto Dorothea Lange ta dauka a cikin Maris 1936.,[54] [55] Wikiquote yana da maganganu masu alaƙa da Babban Ka'idar Aiki, Sha'awa da Kuɗi. Keynes ya fara aiki na ka'ida don bincika alaƙar da ke tsakanin rashin aikin yi, kuɗi da farashi a cikin 1920s.[56] buga aikin, Treatise on Money, a cikin 1930 a cikin littattafai biyu. Babban ra'ayi na a<ikin shine idan adadin kuɗin da aka ajiye ya wuce adadin da ake sakawa - wanda zai iya faruwa idan yawan kuɗin ruwa ya yi yawa - to rashin aikin yi zai tashi. Wannan wani bangare ne na rashin son kashe wani kaso mai tsoka na abin da masu daukar ma’aikata ke biya, wanda hakan ya sa ya zama da wahala, a dunkule, ga masu daukar ma’aikata su samu riba. Wani mahimmin jigo na littafin shine rashin dogaron fihirisar kuɗi don wakiltar ingantaccen - ko ma'ana mai ma'ana - nunin sauye-sauye na gaba ɗaya a cikin ikon siyan kuɗi na tsawon lokaci. Musamman ma, ya soki hujjar komawar Biritaniya zuwa matsayin zinare a shekarar 1925 a kimar yakin kafin yakin ta hanyar la’akari da kididdigar farashin kaya. Ya bayar da hujjar cewa fihirisar ta yi watsi da tasirin canje-canje a farashin ayyuka da aiki.[57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63]

Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu

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Keynes (dama) da wakilin Amurka Harry Dexter White a taron farko na Hukumar Kula da Lamuni ta Duniya a Savannah, Georgia a 1946 A lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, Keynes ya yi jayayya a cikin Yadda za a Biyan Yakin, wanda aka buga a 1940, cewa yakin ya kamata ya kasance mafi yawan kudade ta hanyar haraji mafi girma kuma musamman ta hanyar ceton wajibi (musamman ma'aikata suna ba da kuɗi ga gwamnati), maimakon kashe kuɗi, don kauce wa hauhawar farashin kaya. Ajiye tilas zai yi aiki don rage buƙatun cikin gida, yan ,[64] [65] a taimakawa wajen isar da ƙarin fitarwa zuwa yaƙi.[66] A cikin watan Yuni 1942, Keynes ya salada saboda hidimarsa tare da gada a cikin girmama ranar haihuwar Sarki.[67] [68] [69] Yayin da nasarar da Allied ta samu ta fara ganin tabbas, Keynes ya taka rawa sosai, a matsayinsa na jagoran tawagar Birtaniyya kuma shugaban hukumar bankin duniya, a tattaunawar tsakiyar 1944 da ta kafa tsarin Bretton Woods. Shirin Keynes, game da ƙungiyar share fage na ƙasa da ƙasa, ya yi jayayya da tsarin tsattsauran ra'ayi don sarrafa kuɗaɗe. Ya ba da shawarar ƙirƙirar ƙungiyar gama gari ta duniya, bancor da sabbin cibiyoyi na duniya - babban bankin duniya da ƙungiyar share fage ta ƙasa da ƙasa. Keynes ya yi hasashen waɗannan cibiyoyi a matsayin gudanar da tsarin ciniki na ƙasa da ƙasa da tsarin biyan kuɗi tare da ƙwaƙƙwaran ƙarfafawa ga ƙasashe don guje wa gibin ciniki ko ragi mai yawa[70] Daidai da abubuwan da suka faru.[71] [72] [73]

Bayan yakin

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Bayan yakin, Keynes ya ci gaba da wakiltar Burtaniya a tattaunawar kasa da kasa duk da tabarbarewar lafiyarsa. Ya yi nasarar samun sharuɗɗan fifiko daga Amurka don sabbin basussuka don sauƙaƙe sake gina tattalin arzikin Birtaniyya.[74] §1945 zuwa 1946 

Kafin mutuwarsa a 1946, Keynes ya gaya wa Henry Clay, farfesa a fannin tattalin arziki kuma mai ba da shawara ga Bankin Ingila, [75] na fatansa cewa "hannun da ba a iya gani" na Adam Smith zai iya taimakawa Birtaniya daga cikin ramin tattalin arziki da ta kasance: "Na sami kaina da kuma dogara ga warware matsalolinmu a hannun marar ganuwa wanda na yi ƙoƙari na fitar da shi daga tunanin tattalin arziki shekaru ashirin da tara." 1946 

Ra'ayin tattalin arziki

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[76] A farkon aikinsa, Keynes masanin tattalin arziki ne na kusa da Alfred Marshall, mai matukar gamsuwa da fa'idar ciniki cikin 'yanci. Tun daga rikicin shekarar 1929 zuwa gaba, lura da jajircewar hukumomin Biritaniya na kare daidaiton zinare na fam din Ingila da kuma tsaurin ra'ayi na albashi, a hankali ya bi matakan kariya.[77] ,[78] Ra'ayoyi kan rashin daidaituwar ciniki Keynes shine babban marubucin shawara - abin da ake kira Keynes Plan - don Ƙungiyar Ƙwallon Ƙasa ta Duniya. Ka'idojin gudanarwa guda biyu na shirin su ne cewa ya kamata a magance matsalar daidaita ma'auni ta hanyar "ƙirƙirar" ƙarin "kuɗin duniya", kuma mai bi bashi da mai lamuni ya kamata a kula da su kusan iri ɗaya a matsayin masu dagula daidaito. A cikin taron, ko da yake, an ƙi tsare-tsaren, a wani ɓangare saboda "ra'ayin Amurka a zahiri ya ƙi yarda da ƙa'idar daidaiton magani don haka labari a cikin dangantakar masu bashi da bashi"[79]  326-329 

Ba a kafa sabon tsarin akan ciniki na 'yanci ba ('yanci[80] kasuwancin waje[81] amma s.[82] Ya ba da shawarar wani banki na duniya wanda zai fitar da kudadensa - Bancor - wanda za'a iya yin musanya da kudaden kasa bisa ƙayyadaddun farashin musaya kuma zai zama sashin asusun ajiyar kuɗi tsakanin ƙasashe, wanda ke nufin za a yi amfani da shi don auna gibin ciniki ko rarar kasuwanci. Kowace ƙasa za ta sami kayan aikin wuce gona da iri a cikin asusunta na bancor a Ƙungiyar Ƙaddamarwa ta Duniya. Ya yi nuni da cewa ragi na haifar da raunin jimillar buqatar duniya – }asashen da ke gudanar da rarar ku]a]en ragi, suna aiwatar da “bangaren waje” a kan abokan ciniki, da kuma zama, fiye da waxanda ke da gibi, barazana ga ci gaban duniya.[71] Isar da Kai",[83] [84] daidai yake kusa da daidaito, sannan babu wani tsarin tsare-tsare na kudi wanda zai iya kubutar da duniya daga mummunan sakamakon hargitsi."[85] : 336[86] [87] [88]

Ra'ayi kan hauhawar farashin kayayyaki

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Keynes an siffanta shi da cewa ba shi da sha'awa ko ma tabbatacce game da hauhawar farashi mai sauƙi.[[89] 220-232   Ya bayyana fifikon hauhawar farashin kaya akan deflation, yana mai cewa idan mutum ya zabi tsakanin mugayen abubuwa guda biyu, yana da kyau a bata mai hayar gida rai fiye da sanya ciwo ga iyalai masu aiki.[90] kuma yana sane da haɗarin hauhawar farashin kayayyaki.[91] shafi ya yi faɗi sosai] A cikin Sakamakon Tattalin Arziki na Zaman Lafiya, ya rubuta: [92] [93] [

Neo-Keynesian tattalin arziki

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Babban labarin: Neo-Keynesian tattalin arziki,[94] [95] Ana amfani da samfurin Neo-Keynesian IS–LM don tantance tasirin girgizar buƙatu akan tattalin arzikinvsgaggagshSashe na jerin kan [96] [97] Jari-hujja [98] Tsarin tattalin arziki Ka'idojin tattalin arziki Akidu Asalin Ci gaba Masu hankali batutuwa masu alaƙa ikon Capitalism portal ikon portal kasuwanci icon Economics portal vte A ciki [99] [100] [101] [102] A cikin shekarun 1950, kusan dukkanin kasashen duniya da suka ci gaba sun amince da manufofin Keynesian kuma kasashe masu tasowa da yawa sun yi amfani da irin wannan matakan na tattalin arziki gauraye. A lokacin, ra'ayin Keynes game da tattalin arziki ya zama ruwan dare a cikin jami'o'in duniya. A cikin shekarun 1950 da 1960, tattalin arzikin jari-hujja masu tasowa da masu tasowa sun sami ci gaba na musamman da ƙarancin rashin aikin yi.[[103] Farfesa[104] Gordon Fletcher ya rubuta cewa shekarun 1950 da 1960, lokacin da tasirin Keynes ya kai kololuwa, ya bayyana a baya a matsayin zamanin mulkin jari-hujja.[105] [106] [107] [108] [109] A ƙarshen 1965 mujallar Time ta gudanar da labarin rufe tare da sharhin take daga Milton Friedman (wanda shugaban Amurka Richard Nixon ya yi daga baya), "Dukkanmu Keynesians ne yanzu". Labarin ya bayyana yanayin tattalin arziƙin da ya fi dacewa a wancan lokacin kuma ya ba da rahoton cewa "Masu kula da tattalin arzikin Washington sun haɓaka wannan matsayi ta hanyar bin jigon Keynes na tsakiya: tattalin arzikin jari-hujja na zamani ba ya aiki kai tsaye a mafi inganci, [110] [111] [112]

manazarta

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  1. ↑ Cairncross, Alec. "Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes (1883–1946)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34310. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  2. ↑ Cohn, Steven Mark (2015). Reintroducing Macroeconomics: A Critical Approach. Taylor & Francis. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-317-46120-3. Archived from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  3. ↑ Sloman, John (22 October 2008). "How to kick-start a faltering economy the Keynes way". BBC News magazine. Archived from the original on 4 April 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2008.
  4. ↑ Cohn, Steven Mark (2015). Reintroducing Macroeconomics: A Critical Approach. Taylor & Francis. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-317-46120-3. Archived from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  5. ↑ Klein, Daniel B. (May 2011). "Economic Professors' Favorite Economic Thinkers, Journals, and Blogs" (PDF). Econ Journal Watch. 8 (2): 126–146. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  6. ↑ .Skidelsky, Robert (26 October 2010). Keynes: The Return of the Master. Cambridge: Public affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-897-0.
  7. ↑ , Martin (23 December 2008). "Keynes offers us the best way to think about the financial crisis". Financial Times. (Columnist opinion)
  8. ↑ "J. M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme"
  9. ↑ [18]
  10. ↑ , John Maynard (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2021 – via The University of Adelaide Library Electronic Texts Collection.
  11. ↑ Les fondements non neoclassiques du protectionnisme
  12. ↑ Keynes, John Maynard (June 1933). "National Self-Sufficiency". The Yale Review. 22 (4): 755–769. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  13. ↑ Keynes, John Maynard (June 1933). "National Self-Sufficiency". The Yale Review. 22 (4): 755–769. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  14. ↑ Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations
  15. ↑ Chris Giles; Ralph Atkins; Krishna Guha. "The undeniable shift to Keynes". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2009.
  16. ↑ Reich, Robert
  17. ↑ Archived
  18. ↑ Maynard Keynes". The Bloomsbury Group. 22 August 2007. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
  19. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  20. ↑ Aschheim, J.; Tavlas, G. S.; Heinsohn, G.; Steiger, O. (1994). "The Monetary Thought-Ideology Nexus: Simons verses Keynes; Marx and Keynes – Private Property and Money". In Wood, John Cunningham (ed.). John Maynard Keynes: Critical Assessments. Second. pp. 101–120, 135. ISBN 978-0-415-11415-8. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  21. ↑ Keynes, Geoffrey (1975). "The Early Years". In Milo Keynes (ed.). Essays on John Maynard Keynes. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–35. ISBN 978-0-521-20534-4.
  22. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  23. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  24. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  25. ↑ John Maynard Keynes: A Personal Biography of the Man Who Revolutionized Capitalism
  26. ↑ John Maynard Keynes: A Personal Biography of the Man Who Revolutionized Capitalism
  27. ↑ Thorpe, D. R. (2011). Supermac: The Life of Harold Macmillan. London: Pimlico; Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-1-84413-541-7.
  28. ↑ McGee, Matt (2005). Economics – In terms of The Good, The Bad and The Economist. S.l.: IBID Press. p. 354. ISBN 1-876659-10-6. OCLC 163584293.
  29. ↑  Moggridge, Donald Edward (1992). Maynard Keynes: An Economist's Biography. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 9780415051415. p. 395: I again fell very much in
  30. ↑ Robinson, Austin (1975). "A Personal View". In Milo Keynes (ed.). Essays on John Maynard Keynes. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–35. ISBN 978-0-521-20534-4. See p.11
  31. ↑ Humanism: A Beginner's Guide
  32. ↑ Gowland. "Biography of Baron John Maynard Keynes". LiberalHistory.org. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
  33. ↑ The London Gazette
  34. ↑ Skidelsky 1983
  35. ↑ Hyman Minsky (16 April 2008). "Chapter 1". John Maynard Keynes. and McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-159301-4. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  36. ↑ Indian Currency and Finance
  37. ↑ . 28711". The London Gazette. 18 April 1913. p. 2809.
  38. ↑ "Niall Ferguson is wrong: writing on Lopokova, Keynes' wife, I found evidence of a warm and loving relationship in which both wanted children"
  39. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  40. ↑ Spiegel, Henry William (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought. Durham, UK: Duke University Press. p. 602. ISBN 0-8223-0973-4.
  41. ↑ Keynes, John Maynard (December 1919). "V. Reparation"; "VII. Remedies". The Economic Consequences of the Peace (First ed.). Macmillan & Co. Ch. V: pp. 103–210; Ch. VII: pp. 236–279.
  42. ↑ The Journal of Modern History
  43. ↑ Skidelsky, Robert (2003). John Maynard Keynes,
  44. ↑ The London Gazette
  45. ↑ Henig, Ruth (1995). Versailles and After, 1919–1933 (second ed.). Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-134-79873-5. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
  46. ↑ Schuker, Stephen A. (July 1988). American 'Reparations' to Germany, 1919–33: Implications for the Third-World Debt Crisis. Princeton Studies in International Finance. International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University. p. 119. ISBN 0881652334.
  47. ↑
     Skidelsky, Robert (2003). John Maynard Keynes,
  48. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  49. ↑ Schumpeter, Joseph (2003). Ten Great Economists. Simon Publications. p. 271. ISBN 1-932512-09-8
  50. ↑ Hazlitt, Henry (1995) [1960]. The critics of Keynesian Economics. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education. ISBN 978-1-57246-013-3.
  51. ↑ Harris, Seymour E. (2005). The New Economics: Keynes's Influence on Theory and Public Policy. Kessinger Publishing. p.
  52. ↑ , Gordon A. (1989). Keynesian Revolution and Its Critics: Issues of Theory and Policy for the Monetary Production Economy (second ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. xix–xxi, 88, 189–191, 234–238, 256–261. ISBN 978-1-349-20108-2. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.[page range too broad]
  53. ↑ Minsky (16 April 2008). "Chapter 1". John Maynard Keynes. and McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-159301-4. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  54. ↑ (10 October 2011). "The Demand Doctor". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 17 November 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2018
  55. ↑ John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman
  56. ↑ Pressman, Steven (1999). Fifty Major Economists. Routledge. pp. 99–104. ISBN 978-1-134-78082-2. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  57. ↑ Employment, Interest, and Money (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2021 – via The University
  58. ↑ 978-0-07-159301-4
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