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Juyin Juya Halin Rwanda

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Infotaula d'esdevenimentJuyin Juya Halin Rwanda

Iri Juyin Juya Hali
ethnic conflict (en) Fassara
Kwanan watan 1 Nuwamba, 1959 –  Satumba 1961
Ƙasa Ruanda-Urundi (en) Fassara
Tambarin 1969 yana bikin cika shekaru 10 na juyin juya halin Ruwanda, wanda ke nuna wani baƙauye yana daga tutar Rwandan ja-yellow-kore .

Juyin juya halin Ruwanda, wanda kuma aka fi sani da juyin juya halin Hutu, juyin juya halin zamantakewa, ko kuma iskar halaka [1] ( Kinyarwanda ), [2] wani lokaci ne na rikicin kabilanci a Ruwanda daga 1959 zuwa 1961 tsakanin Hutu da Tutsi, biyu daga cikin kabilu uku na Ruwanda . Juyin juya halin ya ga kasar ta sauya sheka daga mulkin mallaka na Tutsi a karkashin ikon mallakar Beljiyam zuwa jamhuriya mai cin gashin kanta ta Hutu.

Kasar Ruwanda ta kasance karkashin mulkin masarautar Tutsi tun a kalla karni na 18, tare da kafuwar manufofin Tutsi da kyamar Hutu. Jamus da Beljiyam sun yi nasara a kan Ruwanda tun farkon karni na 20, inda kasashen Turai biyu ke mulki ta hanyar sarakuna tare da ci gaba da aiwatar da manufofin Tutsi. Bayan 1945, 'yan Hutu masu adawa da 'yan tawayen sun ɓullo, wanda ya haifar da tabarbarewar dangantaka tsakanin ƙungiyoyi. Shugabancin Tutsi dai ya tayar da hankalin neman ‘yancin kai cikin gaggawa don tabbatar da ikonsu, sannan kuma ‘yan kabilar Hutu sun yi kira da a mika mulki daga Tutsi zuwa Hutu, matakin da Cocin Katolika da gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ke samun goyon baya.

An fara juyin juya hali ne a watan Nuwamban shekarar 1959, inda aka yi tashe-tashen hankula da kone-kone a gidajen Tutsi bayan harin da wasu 'yan Tutsi masu tsattsauran ra'ayi suka kai wa daya daga cikin kananan shugabannin Hutu, Dominique Mbonyumutwa . Nan da nan tashin hankali ya bazu ko'ina cikin kasar. Sarkin da ‘yan siyasan Tutsi sun yi yunkurin kai farmaki don kwace mulki tare da kakkabe ‘yan Hutu da Belgian amma sai da Guy Logiest, Kanar Belgian ya ci tura, wanda gwamnan mulkin mallaka ya kawo. Logiest ya sake kafa doka da oda, inda ya fara shiri don haɓakawa da kare ƴan Hutu. Daga nan ne Belgians suka maye gurbin manyan sarakunan Tutsi da hakimai da Hutu, inda suka ba da Sarki Kigeli na Biyu zuwa matsayi; Daga baya Kigeli ya gudu daga kasar. Duk da ci gaba da tashe-tashen hankula na kin jinin Tutsi, Belgium ta shirya zaɓen cikin gida a tsakiyar 1960. Jam'iyyun Hutu sun sami iko da kusan dukkanin al'ummomin, wanda hakan ya kawo karshen juyin juya hali. Shugaban 'yan kabilar Hutu da Logiest Grégoire Kayibanda ya ayyana kasar Rwanda a matsayin jamhuriya mai cin gashin kanta a shekarar 1961, kuma kasar ta samu 'yancin kai a shekarar 1962

Juyin juya halin ya sa a kalla 'yan kabilar Tutsi 336,000 tserewa zuwa kasashe makwabta, inda suka zauna a matsayin 'yan gudun hijira. Ko da yake ’yan gudun hijirar sun tayar da hankalin komawa Ruwanda nan take, amma sun rabu tsakanin masu neman sasantawa da masu son hambarar da sabuwar gwamnati. Wasu ’yan gudun hijira sun kafa ƙungiyoyi masu ɗauke da makamai (wanda ake kira inyenzi, ko kuma “kyankyawa”, ta gwamnatin Hutu), waɗanda suka kai hare-hare a cikin Ruwanda. Mafi girma ya faru ne a ƙarshen 1963, lokacin da wani harin ba-zata ya tunkari Kigali . Gwamnati dai ta yi yaki, inda ta yi galaba a kan 'yan tawayen tare da kashe dubban 'yan Tutsi da suka rage a kasar Ruwanda. Babu wata barazana da 'yan gudun hijirar suka yi, sai a shekarun 1990, lokacin da yakin basasa da kungiyar Tutsi da 'yan gudun hijira ta Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) ta fara ya tilastawa gwamnatin Hutu shiga shawarwari. Wannan ya haifar da karuwar tsattsauran ra'ayin Hutu da kisan kare dangi na 1994, inda aka kashe Tutsi sama da 500,000 kafin RPF ta karbe iko.

Fage

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Ruwanda kafin mulkin mallaka

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Photograph of King's palace in Nyanza, Rwanda depicting main entrance, front and conical roof
Sake gina fadar Sarkin Ruwanda a Nyanza

Farkon mazaunan ƙasar Ruwanda a yanzu su ne Twa, ƙungiyar mafarautan pygmy na asali waɗanda suka zauna a yankin tsakanin 8000 zuwa 3000. BC kuma ya kasance a cikin ƙasar a yau. [3] [4] Tsakanin 700 BC da kuma 1500 AD, ƙungiyoyin Bantu da yawa sun yi ƙaura zuwa Ruwanda kuma suka fara share gandun daji don noma. [3] [4] Bayan sun rasa yawancin mazauninsu, Twa da ke cikin gandun daji ya ƙaura zuwa tsaunuka. [5] Masana tarihi suna da ra'ayoyi da yawa game da ƙauran Bantu . A cewar wani, mutanen farko su ne Hutu ; Tutsi sun yi ƙaura daga baya kuma suka kafa wata ƙungiya ta kabilanci, mai yiwuwa na asalin Kushitic . [2] Wata madaidaicin ka'idar ita ce ƙaura ta kasance a hankali kuma ta tsaya tsayin daka, tare da ƙungiyoyi masu shigowa suna haɗa kai cikin (maimakon cin nasara) al'ummar data kasance. [4] [4] A cikin wannan ka'idar bambance-bambancen Hutu-Tutsi ya taso daga baya a matsayin rarrabuwa, maimakon kabilanci. [3] [6]

Yawan jama'a ya haɗu, na farko zuwa dangi ( ubwoko ) [3] kuma zuwa cikin masarautu kusan takwas ta 1700. [3] Ƙasar ta kasance mai albarka kuma tana da yawan jama'a, tare da kula da masarautun ta na zamantakewa. [2] Masarautar Ruwanda, wadda 'yan kabilar Tutsi Nyiginya ke mulki, ta zama mafi rinjaye tun daga tsakiyar karni na 18. [3] Daga asalinsa a matsayin ɗan ƙaramin sarki kusa da tafkin Muhazi [2] masarautar ta faɗaɗa ta hanyar ci da yaƙi, [7] ta kai matsayinta a ƙarƙashin Sarki ( Mwami ) Kigeli Rwabugiri tsakanin 1853 da 1895. Rwabugiri ya faɗaɗa mulkin yamma da arewa, [4] [3] aiwatar da gyare-gyaren gudanarwa wanda ya haɗa da ubuhake (inda majiɓincin Tutsi suka ba da shanu-da gata ga abokan Hutu ko Tutsi don musanya sabis na tattalin arziki da na sirri) [2] da uburetwa (tsarin corvée wanda aka tilasta wa Hutu yin aiki ga Tutsi). [4] Sauye-sauyen da Rwabugiri ya yi ya haifar da rashin jituwa tsakanin al'ummar Hutu da Tutsi. [4]

Mulkin mallaka

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Taron Berlin na 1884 ya ba da yankin ga Jamus, tare da iyakoki mara kyau. [8] Lokacin da Gustav Adolf von Götzen ya bincika ƙasar shekaru goma bayan haka, [3] ya gano cewa Masarautar Ruwanda ta haɗa da yanki mai albarka a gabashin tafkin Kivu . Jamus na son wannan yanki, wanda kuma Leopold II ya yi iƙirari a matsayin wani yanki na Kongo Free State (Belgium ta haɗa zuwa Belgian Kongo a 1908). Domin tabbatar da da'awarta, Jamus ta fara manufar yin mulki ta hanyar masarautar Ruwanda da kuma goyon bayan sarakunan Tutsi; wannan tsarin ya ba da damar yin mulkin mallaka tare da sojojin Turai kaɗan. [2] Yuhi V Musinga, wanda ya zama sarki bayan rikicin da ya biyo bayan mutuwar mahaifinsa Rwabugiri [2] da kuma gwagwarmaya da sojojin Belgium, ya maraba da Jamusawa kuma ya yi amfani da su don ƙarfafa ikonsa. [3] Yankin ya zama iyakar yammacin Jamus ta Gabashin Afirka . Mulkin Jamus ya ƙyale manufofin Rwabugiri ya ci gaba da kasancewa a tsakiya, kuma rashin jituwa tsakanin Tutsi da Hutu ya yi tsanani. [2] An murkushe masu adawa da wannan ci gaba kamar tawayen Ndungutse, wanda ya kara nuna bacin rai musamman a arewa. [9]

Tambarin wasiƙa na 1916 daga yankunan Gabashin Afirka da Belgium ta mamaye, wanda aka kama a lokacin yaƙin neman zaɓe na Gabashin Afirka a Yaƙin Duniya na ɗaya.

Dakarun Beljiyam sun karbe iko da Ruanda da Burundi a lokacin yakin duniya na daya, kuma kasar ta kasance karkashin ikon Belgium a cikin wa'adin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na 1919, [2] mai suna Ruanda-Urundi . [10] Duk da cewa da farko Belgium ta ci gaba da tsarin mulkin Jamus ta hanyar sarauta, a shekara ta 1926, ta fara tsarin mulkin mallaka kai tsaye kamar yadda aka saba a Kongo. [2] [3] Gyaran baya ya haɗa da sauƙaƙe tsarin manyan sarakuna uku, don haka wani sarki (yawanci Tutsi) maimakon uku (yawanci tsakanin Tutsi da Hutu) ya yi mulki a wani yanki. Sake-sake na Beljiyam ya kuma mika uburetwa (ma'aikata da Hutu suka tilasta wa shugabannin Tutsi) ga daidaikun mutane, ba kawai al'ummomi ba, da kuma yankunan da tsarin ba a baya ba. [2] Shugabannin Tutsi sun fara aiwatar da tsarin sake fasalin ƙasa tare da tallafin Belgium; Tutsi sun kwace wuraren kiwo da ’yan kabilar Hutu ke kula da su a al’adance kuma aka mayar da su zaman kansu tare da dan karamin diyya. [2]

Tun daga ƙarshen 1920s, rawar da Cocin Katolika ya girma ( duba Cocin Katolika a Ruwanda mulkin mallaka ). Gwamnatin Belgium ta ƙarfafa hakan, tun da limaman ƙasar sun san ƙasar sosai kuma suna taimaka mata wajen gudanar da harkokinta. Yawancin mutanen Ruwanda (ciki har da manyan Tutsi) sun tuba, tun da Katolika ya kasance babban abin da ake buƙata don ci gaban zamantakewa. [2] Sarki Musinga ya ki ya tuba, kuma a shekara ta 1931 gwamnatin Belgium ta kore shi; Babban dansa, Mutara III Rudahigwa, ya gaje shi kuma daga baya ya zama sarki Kirista na farko a Ruwanda. [2] A cikin shekarun 1930 'yan Belgium sun gabatar da manyan ayyuka a fannin ilimi, kiwon lafiya, ayyukan jama'a da sa ido kan aikin gona, gami da sabbin kayan amfanin gona da dabarun noma don inganta wadatar abinci. [3] Ko da yake Ruwanda ta zama na zamani, Tutsis sun ci gaba da zama a kan mulki, sun bar Hutu ba su da 'yanci kuma suna fuskantar manyan ayyukan tilastawa. [2] A cikin 1935 Belgium ta gabatar da katunan shaida, suna yiwa mutum lakabi da Tutsi, Hutu, Twa ko Naturalised. Ko da yake Hutu masu arziki a baya sun sami damar zama Tutsi masu daraja, katunan shaidar sun ƙare ƙarin motsin zamantakewa. [1]

Gabatarwa

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Hutu counter-elite

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Beljiyam ta ci gaba da mulkin Ruwanda a matsayin Majalisar Amintattu ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya bayan yakin duniya na biyu, tare da wajabcin kula da 'yancin kai daga karshe . [11] [12] Yanayin tattalin arziki ya canza sosai a lokacin yakin; tattalin arzikin tsabar kuɗi ya girma, [2] kuma tare da shi buƙatar ma'aikata a cikin ma'adinan Kongo na Katanga da kuma kofi da sukari na Uganda. [4] An sami canji na lokaci guda a cikin Cocin Katolika; [2] fitattun mutane a cikin cocin Ruwanda na farko, waɗanda suka kasance daga masu arziki da masu ra'ayin mazan jiya (irin su Léon-Paul Classe ), [2] an maye gurbinsu da ƙananan malamai na asali masu aiki. Daga cikin waɗannan, mafi girman kashi su ne Flemish maimakon Walloon Belgians kuma sun tausaya wa halin da Hutu ke ciki. [4] Yanayin tattalin arziki da ilimin hauza da cocin ya yi ya ba Hutu motsin jama'a da ba zai yiwu ba a da, yana ba da damar haɓaka rukunin manyan shugabannin Hutu da haziƙai. [4] Wannan rukunin, wanda ya ƙunshi Hutu daga Masarautar Ruwanda kafin mulkin mallaka, ya haɗu da fitattun ƴan ƙasa na masarautun da aka samu a lokacin mulkin mallaka (ciki har da Kiga ). [4]

Babban sanannen mutum a cikin motsi shine Grégoire Kayibanda . [2] Kamar yawancin ’yan Hutu masu adawa da Kayibanda sun sami horon aikin firist a makarantar Nyakibanda, kodayake ba a nada shi ba. [2] Bayan kammala karatunsa a shekarar 1948, ya zama malamin firamare. A 1952 Kayibanda ya gaji Alexis Kagame a matsayin editan mujallar Katolika, L'Ami . [13] A lokacin ƙarshen 1950s ya kasance Travail, Fidélité, Progrès (TRAFIPRO) memba na hukumar abinci-haɗin kai, [3] ya gyara mujallar Katolika na Pro-Hutu Kinyamateka, [2] kuma ya kafa Mouvement Social Muhutu (MSM). [3]

Babban jigo na biyu na manyan 'yan Hutu shi ne Joseph Gitera, wani tsohon malamin makaranta [13] da ke kudancin ƙasar [3] wanda ya bar makarantar hauza don kafa ƙananan bulo . [14] Gitera ya kafa jam'iyyar Association for Social Promotion of the Masses (APROSOMA). [13] Masana tarihi na addini Ian da Jane Linden sun bayyana shi a matsayin "mafi sha'awa kuma mai yiwuwa mai tausayi" fiye da Kayibanda da sauran 'yan Hutu tsofaffin masu karatu, amma "sau da yawa mai kuskure kuma wani lokaci mai son zuciya". [13] Ba kamar Kayibanda ba, Gitera ya yi kira da a dauki kwakkwaran mataki kan “zaluntar” daular tun a shekarar 1957; duk da haka, kalaman nasa sun fi mayar da hankali kan rarrabuwar kawuna tsakanin Hutu da Tutsi fiye da yadda ake ‘yantar da talakawa. [14]

Tabarbarewar dangantakar Hutu da Tutsi

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'Yan Hutu masu adawa da juna sun ji daɗin dangantakar da ta dace da Sarki da Tutsi a farkon shekarun 1950, yayin da neman dimokuradiyya ya mamaye rayuwar siyasa. [15] Matasa Tutsi da Hutu waɗanda suka yi karatu a makarantun hauza na Katolika ko kuma suka yi aiki a kasuwancin duniya, sun taru a matsayin " evolués ", suna aiki a ƙaramin matsayi a cikin mulkin mallaka. [15] Dangantakar Hutu-Tutsi ta tabarbare cikin sauri daga 1956, duk da haka. [15] A watan Yuli, jaridar La Presse Africaine ta kasar Congo ta buga labarin wani limamin kasar Rwanda wanda ba a bayyana sunansa ba, inda ya yi bayani dalla-dalla kan cin zarafin 'yan kabilar Hutu na tsawon shekaru aru-aru da 'yan kabilar Tutsi suka yi. [15] An bi diddigin wannan labarin a cikin jaridun La Presse Africaine da wasu jaridun Kongo da Burundi tare da wasu jerin kasidu da ke bayyana tarihin alakar kungiyoyin da matsayin sarki. [15] Sarki Rudahigwa da ’yan Tutsi sun yi watsi da ikirarin, suna mai mai da martani cewa babu wata kabila da ke hana zirga-zirgar al’umma kuma ba a iya bambanta Hutu da Tutsi. [15] Abu na gaba da ya haifar da wargajewar dangantaka shi ne faruwar zaben dimokuradiyya na farko a kasar a karkashin ikon mazaje na duniya a watan Satumba na 1956. [15] An ba wa al'ummar kasar damar kada kuri'a ga manyan hafsoshin, kuma kashi 66% na wadanda aka zaba 'yan Hutu ne. [15] Har yanzu an nada manyan mukamai a cikin manyan mukamai na gargajiya da na mulkin mallaka maimakon zabe, kuma wadannan sun kasance Tutsi masu yawa. [15] Rashin daidaituwa tsakanin waɗannan ma'aunin nauyi biyu ya nuna rashin adalcin tsarin ga Hutu. [15]

Kafin 1956, daular sarauta da fitattun Tutsi sun huta game da lokacin samun 'yancin kai, sun gamsu cewa za a mika musu cikakken iko daga Belgian nan da nan. [2] Da suka firgita da yadda 'yan Hutu ke dada girma da kuma rashin jituwar da ke tsakanin kungiyoyin, sun fara fafutuka a karshen shekara ta 1956 don samun 'yancin kai cikin gaggawa. [2] Sarki Rudahigwa da Conseil Supérieur da Tutsi ke da rinjaye sun ba da shawarar sabbin ma'aikatun kudi, ilimi, ayyukan jama'a da na cikin gida da su ke gudanar da su, masu zaman kansu daga Belgium, [13] ta hanyar bayanin da ake kira mise en point . [15] Masu adawa da Hutu sun yi gaggawar mayar da martani ga wannan ci gaba, inda suka yi Allah wadai da shi a matsayin wani makirci na Tutsi na ganin Tutsi ya zama fifiko a Ruwanda bayan samun 'yancin kai. [13] Kayibanda, tare da wasu shugabannin Hutu takwas, sun fara aiki a madadin aikin da aka sani da Bahutu Manifesto . [15] Matasan limaman Beljiyam masu tausayin Hutu ne suka taimaka wa marubutan wajen rubuta wannan takarda. [13] Bahutu Manifesto ya soki mulkin Beljiyam a kaikaice, inda ya yi kira da a kawar da ubuhake da bunkasa masu matsakaicin matsayi. [13] Ita ce takarda ta farko da ke magana ga Tutsi da Hutu a matsayin jinsi daban, inda aka yiwa Tutsi lakabin "Hamites" da kuma zarginsu da kafa "yanayin wariyar launin fata". [13] Takardar ta yi kira da a mika mulki daga Tutsi zuwa Hutu bisa "dokar kididdiga". [2] Sakin wadannan ra'ayoyi masu fafutuka kan makomar kasar ya jawo hankulan 'yan siyasar Beljiyam da al'ummar kasar kan matsalolin zamantakewar Ruwanda wanda har zuwa wannan lokaci, ya kasance abin damuwa ne kawai na masana ilimin zamantakewa da kuma sassan mulkin mallaka. [16]

A cikin 1958, Gitera ya ziyarci Sarki a fadarsa da ke Nyanza . Ko da yake Gitera yana daraja sarauta sosai, Rudahigwa ya wulakanta shi; a wani lokaci ya kama maƙogwaron Gitera, yana kiransa da mabiyansa inyangarwanda (maƙiyan Ruwanda). [13] Wannan wulakanci ya sa MSM, APROSOMA da wallafe-wallafen Katolika masu goyon bayan Hutu suka dauki matsaya mai tsauri akan masarautar. [13] Kinyamateka ya wallafa cikakken rahoton yadda Rudahigwa ya yi wa Gitera, inda ya musanta kamanninsa na Allah da kuma zarginsa da nuna wariyar launin fata ga Tutsi. [13] Mujallar ta kuma buga labaran da ta ambaci asalin tatsuniyoyi na Hutu, Tutsi da Twa, inda ta kira manufofin Sarkin da suka saba da su. [13] Kasuwan ba su kai ga kalubalantar ikon Sarki a kan kabilar Hutu ba, [13] amma bayyanar da tashin hankalin Rudahigwa ya haifar da rashin jituwa ta dindindin tsakaninsa, Hutu masu adawa da Hutu da hukumomin Belgian. [13] A cikin 1958 ma'aikatar mulkin mallaka ta Beljiyam ta yi ƙoƙari ta kwace ikon Rudahigwa, ta rage shi zuwa wani mutum, [13] amma shahararsa da sarakunan yankin da Tutsi (waɗanda ke tsoron haɓakar ƙungiyoyin Hutu) ya haifar da yajin aiki da zanga-zangar. [13]

Mutuwar Rudahigwa da samuwar UNAR

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A farkon 1959, Belgium ta kira kwamitin majalisar dokoki don nazarin zaɓuɓɓukan dimokuradiyya da 'yancin kai na ƙarshe, [15] tsara zaɓe na ƙarshen shekara. [14] Tare da Belgians [13] da kuma mafi yawan limamai a gefensa, [13] Gitera ya fara yakin neman Kalinga : gandun sarauta, daya daga cikin alamun sarauta mafi girma. [13] Rudahigwa ya kara tsorata, yana fitar da ganga daga kasar yana sha da yawa. [13] Ya rasu ne sakamakon bugun jini na kwakwalwa a watan Yuli 1959 yayin da yake neman magani a Usumbura, Burundi. [13] 'Yan kasar Rwanda da yawa sun yi imanin cewa Belgian ne suka yi wa Rudahigwa allura ta kisa; [17] ko da yake ba a taɓa yin gwajin gawa ba saboda ƙin yarda daga uwar sarauniya, kimantawa da likitoci masu zaman kansu suka tabbatar da ainihin ganewar cutar jini. [17] Haka kuma an yi ta cece-ku-ce a bangarorin gwamnati cewa ya kashe kansa ne bisa umarnin masana tarihi na kotuna. [16] Manyan mutanen Tutsi da suka yi imani cewa coci ne ya kashe Rudahigwa tare da taimakon Belgian, nan da nan suka fara yaƙi da su biyun. [13] An shigar da ɗan'uwan Rudahigwa Kigeli V Ndahindurwa, ba tare da shiga Belgium ba [13] kuma ba tare da son rai ba; [14] Linden da Linden sun bayyana wannan gado a matsayin "ƙananan juyin mulkin Tutsi". [13]

Bayan nadin sarautar Kigeli V, wasu sarakunan Tutsi da jami'an fada masu son samun 'yanci cikin gaggawa suka kafa jam'iyyar Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR). [13] Duk da cewa UNAR ta kasance mai goyon bayan sarauta, ba sarki ne ke sarrafa ta; [15] Jam'iyyar ta kasance mai adawa da Belgian, wanda ya sami goyon baya daga kungiyar gurguzu . [2] Nan da nan UNAR ta fara yaƙin neman zaɓe na inganta kishin ƙasar Ruwanda, tare da shan alwashin maye gurbin tarihin Turai a makarantu tare da nazarin cin nasarar Rwabugiri [13] da kuma yin kira da a kawar da turawa da mishan. [13] Wannan furucin ya sa Cocin Katolika (da yawancin ɗalibanta na Ruwanda, waɗanda suka amince da cocin da tashe su daga talauci) suka kira UNAR anti-Catholic. [13] Ita kuma Gitera, ta yi amfani da matsayin cocin na kin UNAR wajen yin ikirarin goyon bayanta ga APROSOMA. [13] Gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta yi yunkurin takaita ikon UNAR, inda ta yi yunkurin tsige hakimai uku da suka yi fice a jam’iyyar tare da bude wuta kan masu zanga-zangar a wajen wani gangami. [15] Kayibanda ya yi wa MSM rajista a matsayin jam’iyya ta hukuma, inda ya canza mata suna Parti du Mouvement de l’Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU). [15] Ya fara tattara gungun magoya bayansa a duk fadin kasar, yana mai kira ga kasar Hutu mai cin gashin kanta a karkashin tsarin mulkin kasar. [13] Masanin tarihi Catharine Newbury ya bayyana halin da ake ciki a ƙarshen 1959 a matsayin "kasko mai ɗumi"; [14] ta ƙarshen Oktoba, tare da rahoton majalisar dokoki da kuma zaɓe na gabatowa, [14] tashin hankali ya kai ga raguwa. [13]

Juyin Juya Hali

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Harin Mbonyumutwa da Tawayen Hutu

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Alamar alamar sarauta mai taken "Vive Kigeli V" ("Dogon rayuwa Kigeli V") tun daga lokacin juyin juya halin Ruwanda

A ranar 1 ga Nuwamba 1959, an kai wa Dominique Mbonyumutwa, daya daga cikin 'yan tsirarun Hutu kuma mai fafutukar PARMEHUTU, hari bayan ya halarci Mass tare da matarsa a wani coci kusa da gidansa a Byimana, Lardin Gitarama. Attajiran sun kasance mambobi tara na reshen matasa na UNAR, suna daukar fansa kan kin amincewar Mbonyumutwa ya sanya hannu kan wasikar zanga-zangar UNAR, inda suka yi Allah wadai da korar da Belgium ta yi wa shugabannin Tutsi uku. Maharan da farko sun tattauna da Mbonyumutwa game da karuwar tasirinsa a matsayinsa na karamin shugaba, kafin su naushi shi. Mbonyumutwa ya fatattaki maharan kuma shi da matarsa sun sami damar komawa gida lafiya, amma jita-jita ta fara yaduwa cewa an kashe shi; a cewar farfesa a fannin tauhidi na Amurka James Jay Carney, Mbonyumutwa na iya fara yada jita-jitar da kansa. Harin da aka kai wa Mbonyumutwa ya tabbatar da cewa shi ne abin da ya haifar da tashin hankalin da ake tsammani tsakanin Hutu da Tutsi, bayan watannin da suka gabata na tashin hankali. A ranar 2 ga Nuwamba, washegari bayan harin, an yi zanga-zangar Hutu a Ndiza, gidan Athanase Gashagaza, babban shugaban Tutsi wanda ya kasance babban Mbonyumutwa kai tsaye. Zanga-zangar ta kare lafiya a wannan ranar, amma a ranar 3 ga Nuwamba an gudanar da wata zanga-zanga mafi girma a wuri guda, wanda ya rikide zuwa tashin hankali. 'Yan banga na Hutu, da suka ayyana kansu "na Allah, Cocin, da Ruwanda", sun kashe jami'an Tutsi biyu kuma suka kore Gashagaza cikin buya. An nada Mbonyumutwa a matsayin wanda zai maye gurbinsa. Zanga-zangar ta rikide da sauri zuwa tarzoma, inda kungiyoyin Hutu suka bi unguwa suna kai hari kan gidajen Tutsi yayin da suke tafiya. Tashin hankali a wannan mataki ya kunshi kone-kone ne maimakon kashe-kashe, sai dai a lokuta da Tutsi suka yi kokarin mayar da martani. Da farko a Ndiza sannan kuma a fadin kasar, Hutu sun kona gidajen Tutsi har lahira musamman ta hanyar kunna paraffin, wani samfur da ake samu a Ruwanda don amfani da fitilu. Da yake sun rasa matsugunansu, Tutsi da dama sun nemi mafaka a ofisoshin mishan na Cocin Katolika da kuma hukumomin Belgium, yayin da wasu suka tsallaka zuwa Uganda da Belgian Congo, suna fara abin da zai zama gudun hijira da yawa a karshen juyin juya halin. Masu kone-kone sun dauki manoma na gida a cikin sahu, suna tabbatar da yaduwar tawayen cikin sauri. Har yanzu Hutu da yawa sun yi imanin cewa Sarki ya fi karfin dan Adam, kuma sun yi ikirarin cewa sun kai hare-haren a madadin sa. A ranar 9 ga Nuwamba tashin hankali ya yadu a fadin kasar, sai dai lardin Gitera na Astrida (Butare) da kuma kudu maso yamma da gabas. Tarzoma ta fi kamari a arewa maso yamma; a Ruhengeri, an lalata gidan Tutsi da wuta. Martanin farko na Belgium ga tashin hankalin ya yi shiru; gwamnatin mulkin mallaka tana da sojoji 300 ne kawai a Ruwanda a farkon Nuwamba, duk da barazanar yakin basasa da ya karu a cikin watannin da suka gabata. Alphonse van Hoof, wani Farar fata na Katolika da ke aiki a kasar, ya bayyana sojojin Belgium a matsayin "wasu jeep da ke gudu a kan hanya". An kama wasu masu kone-kone, amma 'yan Belgium ba su iya dauke yaduwar tawayen ba, kuma an tilasta musu kiran karin sojoji daga makwabciyar Congo. Sarki Kigeli ya nemi izinin kafa nasa sojoji don yaki da tashin hankalin, amma mazaunin mulkin mallaka, Andre Preud'homme ya ki amincewa da wannan bukatar. Preud'homme ya ji tsoron cewa ba wa Tutsi makamai zai kara dagula rikicin zuwa cikakken yakin basasa. Duk da wannan kin amincewa, Kigeli ya kaddamar da harin ramuwar gayya kan 'yan tarzoma a ranar 7 ga Nuwamba, inda ya tattara dubban mayakan da suka yi masa biyayya, Kigeli ya ba da umarnin a kama ko a kashe wasu fitattun shugabannin Hutu da fatan murkushe tawayen manoma; An kashe dan uwan Joseph Gitera, fitaccen memba na APROSOMA. An kawo da yawa daga cikin wadanda aka kama zuwa fadar Sarki a Nyanza, inda jami'an UNAR suka azabtar da su. Gregoire Kayibanda yana buya a lokacin, don haka ba a kama shi ba. A ranakun 9 da 10 ga Nuwamba, sojojin Kigeli sun kai hari kan tudun da ke Save, kusa da Astrida, da nufin isa gidan Gitera da kama shugaban APROSOMA. Gitera ya mayar da martani ta hanyar tattara nasa sojoji don kare tudun. Sojojin Sarkin ba su da gwanintar soji don cin wannan yakin, kuma a karshe hukumomin Belgium sun shiga tsakani a Save don hana zubar da jini, wanda ya kai ga tserewar Gitera. Ko da yake Kigeli da UNAR sun kasance masu karfi da kayan aiki fiye da jam'iyyun Hutu, sun san cewa 'yan Belgium yanzu suna goyon bayan na karshen; da an ba Hutu isasshen lokaci, da sun sami galaba. Don haka, UNAR ta yi kokarin ware Belgium daga mulki tare da samun 'yancin kai da wuri-wuri.

Zuwa na Guy Logiest

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tashin hankalin Nuwamba 1959 da kuma gwagwarmayar da ta biyo baya tsakanin Hutu da Tutsi sun fara juyin juya hali, amma a cewar Carney, martanin Beljiyanci ne ya tabbatar da cewa zai haifar da canjin dindindin a matsayin ƙungiyoyin biyu, tare da Hutu suna samun iko.[18] Babban mai yanke hukunci a wannan martanin shi ne Kanal Guy Logiest, wani sojan Beljiyanci da ke aiki a Congo tare da Force Publique.[19] Logiest aboki ne na gwamnan Ruanda-Urundi Jean-Paul Harroy, kuma an riga an tambaye shi, kafin fara juyin juya hali, da ya zo Rwanda domin tantance zaɓuɓɓukan sojin Belgium a cikin mulkin mallaka.[20] Bayan barkewar rikici, Logiest ya hanzarta tafiyarsa daga Congo, yana isa Rwanda a ranar 4 ga Nuwamba.[19] Logiest ya zo tare da sojoji da para-troopers kuma an ba shi aikin dawo da tsarin mulki.[20]

Wani mai bin addinin Katolika da kuma mai bin tsarin dimokiradiyya,[18] Logiest ya yanke shawara da wuri cewa zai goyi bayan Hutu a yanke hukuncinsa a ƙasar.[19] Wannan wani ɓangare ne na dalilan tsaro, kamar yadda Logiest ya bayyana cewa Hutu zai ci gaba da tashin hankali muddin Tutsi suna cikin iko,[18] amma kuma ya goyi bayan juyin juya hali a kan tsarin dimokiradiyya; ya ga wannan a matsayin damar da "ƙazamin" manoman Hutu za su tayar da ƙungiyar mulkin Tutsi.[18] Daga baya ya rubuta a cikin tarihin rayuwarsa: "Wasu daga cikin mataimakina sun yi tunani cewa na yi kuskure wajen fifita akan Tutsi kuma cewa ina jagorantar Rwanda zuwa hanyar dimokiradiyya wadda ƙarshenta ba a san ba";[21] amma ya kare matakan da ya dauka, yana cewa "wataƙila burina shi ne kawo ƙasƙanci da fallasa zamba na wata gungiyar mulkin mallaka mai danniya da rashin adalci".[21] Bayan maida martanin Kigeli da UNAR akan Hutu, Logiest da sojojinsa sun fifita kare shugabannin Hutu (ciki har da Gitera).[20]

A ranar 12 ga Nuwamba, bayan bayyanar dokar ta-baci daga Harroy, Logiest an nada shi a matsayin Mazaunin Sojin Musamman tare da mandat na dawo da tsarin mulki a Rwanda.[20] Yana gane cewa ‘yancin kai yana gab da faruwa, kuma cewa UNAR da shugabancin Tutsi na da damar gaggauta kafa masarautar ‘yancin kai ta Tutsi,[22] Logiest ya tura ƙasar sosai zuwa jamhuriya ta Hutu.[22] Ya aikata hakan tare da goyon bayan Harroy, ta hanyar nada Hutu a mukamai masu girma;[22] fiye da rabin shugabannin Tutsi na ƙasar (da yawancin ƙaramin shugabanni) an maye gurbinsu da Hutu, yawancin su daga jam'iyyar PARMEHUTU.[18] Logiest ya ce nade-naden sun kasance "na ɗan lokaci", yana alkawarta cewa za a gudanar da zaɓe.[18] Duk da cewa an yi shari’a da yanke hukunci kan membobin UNAR da suka aikata laifuka a lokacin juyin juya hali na Tutsi, abokansu na Hutu daga PARMEHUTU da APROSOMA da suka aikata barna ba su fuskanci tuhuma ba.[18] A watan Disamba Logiest an nada shi a matsayin mazaunin farar hula na musamman, ya maye gurbin Preud'homme mai ƙin juyin juya hali.[18] Gwamnatin Belgium ta ba shi iko na sauke Sarki da na hana shi yanke hukunci, wanda hakan ke nufin Kigeli ya zama sarki na tsarin mulki, tare da Logiest yana maye gurbinsa a matsayin shugaba na de facto na ƙasar.[23]

Tasiri a kan dankon al'adun asali

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A bangaren al'adu, yawancin bukukuwan al'adu na Kudancin Kaduna da aka saba yi a karshen da farkon shekara sun tsaya, inda na karshe aka gudanar tsakanin karshen shekarar 2019 zuwa farkon 2020. Wadannan bukukuwan sun ci gaba ne kawai bayan ficewar gwamnatin Nasir el-Rufai a ranar 29 ga Mayu 2023. An tarbi wannan ficewa da gabatar da bikin al'adu na farko na Kudancin Kaduna (SKFEST) wanda aka gudanar galibi a filin wasa na gari, Kafanchan, tsakanin 28 zuwa 30 ga Disamba 2023. Sama da kabilu 20 daga cikin kimanin kabilu 57 na Kudancin Kaduna sun halarci bikin.[24] An kuma gudanar da Ayet Atyap a fadar Agwatyap, Atak Njei, Zangon Kataf, a ranar 31 ga Disamba 2023. Wannan ya kasance don karrama Babban Hafsan Sojojin Najeriya, Christopher Gwabin Musa, wani dan asalin yankin, wanda sabon shugaban kasa, Bola Tinubu, wanda ya zo 'yan watanni da suka gabata, ya zaba don karbar mukamin. Mutane sun tarbi wannan da farin ciki.[25] A ranar guda, bikin al'adu na shekara-shekara na Nom Bajju ya ci gaba a Zonkwa bayan an yi shi a karshe shekaru 18 da suka wuce, a 2005.[26] A ranar 1 ga Janairu 2024, garin Gworog ya ga dawowar Afan National Festival, wanda aka yi a karshe a 2020.[27] A watan Maris 2024, an gudanar da Khituk Gwong a Kagoma,[28] da kuma Tuk-Ham a Kwain.[29] Wadannan bukukuwan hanya ce ta adana al'adun mutane, gina abota da taimakawa harsunansu su ci gaba da wanzuwa.[24][30]

Ƙwace Ƙarfi daga Mulkin Mallaka

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Tutar Rwanda wadda ta samu ‘yancin kai a shekarar 1962

Rwanda ta saba da sabon yanayin rinjaye na kabilar Hutu bayan zaɓen shekarar 1960; Belgium da Logiest sun goyi bayan PARMEHUTU, kuma tasirin Tutsi ya ragu. Hukumar Kula da Lamurran Wakilci ta Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya, wadda ƙasashen da ke haɗe da gurguzun ke rinjaye a cikinta kuma masu goyon bayan jam’iyyar UNAR ta Tutsi da ke adawa da Belgium, ta nemi a gudanar da zaɓe tare da sa ido daga ƙasa da ƙasa.[31] Hukumar ta goyi bayan ƙudurin Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya mai lamba 1579 da 1580, waɗanda suka buƙaci gudanar da zaɓe da kuma ƙuri’ar raba gardama kan sarauta;[31] Logiest ya yi watsi da waɗannan ƙoƙarin, yana cewa "babu wani amfani", kuma bai yi ƙoƙari sosai na aiwatar da su ba.[32] An gudanar da Taron Haɗin Kan Ƙasa a Belgium a watan Janairu 1961, wanda ya ƙare da gazawa.[32] Logiest da Kayibanda daga nan suka kira wani taro na shugabannin ƙananan hukumomin ƙasar, inda suka ayyana “Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Rwanda mai cin gashin kanta”[32] tare da Dominique Mbonyumutwa a matsayin shugaban rikon ƙwarya.[33] MDD ta fitar da rahoto cewa "an maye gurbin wani tsarin danniya da wani",[32] amma ikon da take da shi wajen shafar abubuwan da ke faruwa ya ƙare. PARMEHUTU ta lashe zaɓen majalisa a watan Satumba 1961;[32] Kayibanda ya zama shugaban ƙasa,[33] kuma Rwanda ta samu cikakken ‘yancin kai a ranar 1 ga Yuli 1962. Jawaban hukumomi a lokacin shagulgulan samun ‘yancin kai sun fi mai da hankali kan nasarorin juyin juya halin da aka yi, fiye da tunawa da ƙarshen mulkin mallaka.[34]

Bayan haka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

'Yan Gudun Hijira na Tutsi da Hare-haren 'Yan Tawayen

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yayin da juyin juya hali ke ci gaba, da dama daga cikin Tutsi sun bar Rwanda don guje wa kisan kiyashi daga Hutu. Wannan hijira, wadda ta fara ne a lokacin harin kona gidaje a watan Nuwamba 1959,[35] ta ci gaba da gudana tsawon lokacin juyin juya halin.[36] Adadin hukuma da aka fitar a ƙarshen 1964 ya nuna cewa Tutsi 336,000[37] sun koma kasashen makwabta guda huɗu: Burundi, Uganda, Tanganyika (wanda daga baya ya zama Tanzaniya), da Congo-Léopoldville.[38] Wadanda suka yi hijira a wannan lokacin, sabanin 'yan asalin Rwanda da suka yi ƙaura a zamanin mulkin mallaka da kafin haka, an ɗauke su a matsayin 'yan gudun hijira a ƙasashen da suka karɓe su,[39] kuma kusan nan da nan suka fara kokarin dawo wa Rwanda.[40] Manufofinsu sun bambanta; wasu suna neman sulhu da Kayibanda da sabon mulki, wasu kuma suna goyon bayan Sarki Kigeli da ke gudun hijira, yayin da wasu ke son kifar da gwamnatin PARMEHUTU domin kafa jamhuriya mai ra'ayin gurguzu.[41]

'Yan gudun hijirar Tutsi suna guduwa zuwa Uganda tare da shanunsu (Janairu 1964)

Tun daga ƙarshen 1960, kungiyoyin Tutsi 'yan gudun hijira da suka dauki makami (wanda gwamnatin Hutu ke kiran su da inyenzi ko "kwararari")[42] suka kaddamar da hare-hare daga kasashen makwabta zuwa Rwanda, tare da samun nasara kaɗan.[41] Tutsin da ke Burundi, da tallafin sabuwar jamhuriya mai zaman kanta ta Tutsi da aka kafa a can, sun haddasa tarzoma a kudu na Rwanda.[41] Wadannan abubuwan da suka faru a Rwanda sun kara tabarbarewar dangantaka tsakanin Tutsi da Hutu a Burundi, kuma tun daga lokacin, shugabannin Tutsi a kasar suka dinga kokarin hana irin wannan juyin juya hali a kasarsu. Tsoron faruwar hakan ne ya sa gwamnatin Burundi ta kashe dubban Hutu a shekarar 1972 bayan wata tarzoma daga bangaren Hutu, inda wasu daga cikin 'yan gudun hijirar Tutsi daga Rwanda suka shiga ciki.[43] 'Yan gudun hijira da ke Congo, Uganda da Tanzaniya ba su da isasshen damar shirya farmaki saboda yanayin wuraren da suka zauna;[40] a Tanzaniya, gwamnati ta karɓe su hannu biyu-biyu, kuma da yawa daga cikinsu sun zauna har abada, suka daina fatan dawowa Rwanda.[41] Sai dai hare-haren da 'yan tawayen ke yi sun janyo karin 'yan gudun hijira, domin gwamnatin Rwanda kan mayar da martani da hare-hare a kan Tutsin da suka rage a cikin ƙasar.[42]

A watan Disamba 1963, 'yan tawayen da ke da sansani a Burundi suka kaddamar da wani babban hari na bazata, inda suka kwace yankin Bugesera suka karaso kusa da Kigali.[44] Wadanda suka kai harin ba su da kayan yaki masu kyau kuma ba su da tsari mai kyau, hakan ya sa gwamnatin ta ci su da sauki.[44] A martani ga wannan hari, gwamnatin Rwanda ta aikata kisan Tutsi mafi girma a tarihi har zuwa wancan lokacin: kimanin mutane 10,000 aka kashe a tsakanin Disamba 1963 da Janairu 1964, ciki har da dukan ’yan siyasar Tutsi da suka rage a cikin ƙasa.[44] Al’ummar duniya ba su dauki wani mataki ba, kuma hakan ya kara karfafa mulkin cikin gida na Shugaba Kayibanda.[45] Rigima a cikin kansu da kuma kashin da aka yi musu ya kawo karshen barazanar 'yan tawayen Tutsi, waɗanda ba su sake zama barazana ga Rwanda bayan shekarar 1964 ba.[45]

Bayan juyin juya hali a Rwanda

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Bayan kisan kiyashi na Tutsi a shekarar 1963–64 da kuma shan kaye da suka yi, Kayibanda da jam’iyyarsa ta PARMEHUTU suka mulki Rwanda ba tare da wani cikas ba har na tsawon shekara goma, inda suka jagoranci mulkin Hutu da suka kare da taken "yawan jama'a da dimokuraɗiyya".[46] Gwamnatin ba ta yarda da sabani ba, tana mulki ne ta hanyoyi masu tsauri kamar yadda sarautar mulkin mallaka ta gabata ta ke yi.[45] Sun kuma tallata tsarin rayuwa na addinin Katolika mai tsabta da ɗabi'a.[47] A farkon shekarun 1970s, wannan tsarin ya ware Rwanda daga sauran duniya, kuma tawaye ya fara fitowa daga cikin manyan 'yan Hutu.[48] A shekarar 1973, babban kwamandan soja Juvénal Habyarimana ya shirya juyin mulki, inda ya karɓi mulki kuma daga ƙarshe ya kashe Kayibanda.[49]

A shekarar 1990, Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), wata ƙungiyar 'yan tawaye da yawancinsu 'yan gudun hijirar Tutsi ne, suka kutsa arewacin Rwanda; hakan ya haifar da Yaƙin Basasa na Rwanda.[50] Ko da yake babu ɓangaren da ya samu rinjaye a yaƙin,[51] daga shekarar 1992, ƙarfin ikon Habyarimana ya ragu sosai; zanga-zangar jama'a ta tilasta masa haɗa kai da 'yan adawa na cikin gida tare da sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar Arusha da RPF a shekarar 1993.[52] Yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya ta kare a ranar 6 ga Afrilu 1994, lokacin da jirgin Habyarimana ya fāɗi kusa da Filin Jirgin Sama na Kigali kuma aka kashe shi.[53] Mutuwar Habyarimana ita ce ta haifar da kisan kiyashin Rwanda, wanda ya fara sa’o’i kaɗan bayan haka. A cikin kusan kwanaki 100, tsakanin mutane 500,000 zuwa 1,000,000[54] daga cikin Tutsi da Hutu masu sassaucin ra’ayi aka kashe a cikin hare-hare da gwamnatin rikon kwarya ta tsara.[55] RPF na Tutsi ƙarƙashin jagorancin Paul Kagame suka sake fara hare-hare, inda suka karɓi ikon ƙasar a hankali har zuwa tsakiyar watan Yuli.[56] As of 2023 Kagame da RPF har yanzu suna kan mulki, kuma sun dawo da ci gaban tattalin arziki na Rwanda, yawan baƙi masu ziyara da kuma matsayinta a Human Development Index.[57][58]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Gourevitch 2000.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 Prunier 1999.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Chrétien 2003.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 Mamdani 2002.
  5. ↑ King 2007.
  6. ↑ Shyaka.
  7. ↑ Dorsey 1994.
  8. ↑ Appiah & Gates 2010.
  9. ↑ Des Forges 1986.
  10. ↑ Page & Sonnenburg 2003.
  11. ↑ United Nations (II).
  12. ↑ United Nations (III).
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 13.19 13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 13.24 13.25 13.26 13.27 13.28 13.29 13.30 13.31 Linden & Linden 1977.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Newbury 1988.
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 Carney 2013.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 CRISP 1959.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Halsey Carr & Halsey 2000.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Carney 2013, p. 127.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Prunier 1999, p. 49.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Newbury 1988, p. 196.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Logiest 1988, p. 135.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Newbury 1988, p. 197.
  23. ↑ Carney 2013, p. 129.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Joseph Daniel Yatai (December 29, 2023). "SKFEST Showcasing the rich cultural heritage of Southern Kaduna - Dep. Gov". NAN News. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  25. ↑ Gusau, Tukur (January 2, 2024). "Agwatyap Honours Gen Musa with Tswung Title, Advocates National Unity". PRNews.
  26. ↑ Ebije, Noah (January 1, 2024). "Zango Kataf: Bajju cultural festival revived after 18 years". Kaduna: Sun News Online. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  27. ↑ Ali, Ahmed (January 7, 2024). "Kaduna: Kagoro Cultural Festival Holds 4 Years After Suspension Due To Insecurity". Kafanchan: Daily Trust. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  28. ↑ "Southern Kaduna: Gwong Chiefdom resuscitates annual cultural festival after 3-year lull". Quick News. March 2, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  29. ↑ Ojo, Sola (February 18, 2024). "Southern Kaduna: Famous Tuk-ham festival returns after six years' break". Kaduna: Sun News Online. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  30. ↑ "Festivals: Immersing in Culture: A Calendar Year Experience of Festivals". Faster Capital. February 3, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Prunier 1999, p. 52.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Prunier 1999, p. 53.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 BBC News (I) 2010.
  34. ↑ Halberstam, David (2 July 1962). "Rwanda, Burundi Raise Their Flags". The New York Times. p. 8. Missing or empty |url= (help)
  35. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 51.
  36. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 61.
  37. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 62.
  38. ↑ Mamdani 2002, pp. 160–161.
  39. ↑ Prunier 1999, pp. 63–64.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Prunier 1999, pp. 55–56.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Prunier 1999, p. 55.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Prunier 1999, p. 54.
  43. ↑ Lemarchand 2009, pp. 135, 139.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Prunier 1999, p. 56.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Prunier 1999, p. 57.
  46. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 58.
  47. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 59.
  48. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 60.
  49. ↑ Prunier 1999, pp. 74–76.
  50. ↑ Prunier 1999, p. 93.
  51. ↑ Prunier 1999, pp. 135–136.
  52. ↑ Prunier 1999, pp. 190–191.
  53. ↑ BBC News (II) 2010.
  54. ↑ Henley 2007.
  55. ↑ Dallaire 2005, p. 386.
  56. ↑ Dallaire 2005, p. 299.
  57. ↑ UNDP 2010.
  58. ↑ RDB (I) 2009.

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