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Ka'idodin kiwon lafiya

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Ka'idodin kiwon lafiya
Ilimin halayyar dan adam da hali
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na bioethics (en) Fassara, philosophy of medicine (en) Fassara da research ethics (en) Fassara

Ɗabi'ar likitanci wani reshe ne na ɗabi'a da aka yi amfani da shi wanda ke nazarin ayyukan likitancin asibiti da binciken kimiyya masu alaƙa. Ɗabi'ar likitanci ta dogara ne akan wasu ɗabi'u waɗanda ƙwararru za su iya komawa zuwa gare su idan akwai wani rudani ko rikici. Waɗannan ɗabi'u sun haɗa da girmama ' yancin kai, rashin cin zarafi, alheri, da adalci . [1] Irin waɗannan ƙa'idodi na iya ba wa likitoci, masu ba da kulawa, da iyalai damar ƙirƙirar tsarin magani da aiki zuwa ga manufa ɗaya. [2] Waɗannan ɗabi'u huɗu ba a jera su bisa ga mahimmanci ko dacewa ba kuma duk sun ƙunshi dabi'u da suka shafi ɗabi'ar likita. [3] Duk da haka, rikici na iya tasowa wanda ke haifar da buƙatar matsayi a cikin tsarin ɗabi'a, ta yadda wasu abubuwan ɗabi'a za su mamaye wasu da nufin amfani da mafi kyawun hukuncin ɗabi'a ga mawuyacin hali na likita. [4] Ɗabi'ar likita tana da mahimmanci musamman a cikin yanke shawara game da magani ba tare da son rai ba da kuma alƙawarin da ba tare da son rai ba .

Akwai ka'idoji da dama na ɗabi'a. Rantsuwar Hippocratic ta tattauna ƙa'idodi na asali ga ƙwararrun likitoci. [4] Wannan takarda ta samo asali ne tun ƙarni na biyar kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa. [5] Duka Sanarwar Helsinki (1964) da Dokar Nuremberg (1947) takardu ne guda biyu sanannu kuma masu daraja waɗanda ke ba da gudummawa ga ɗabi'un likitanci. Bayan waɗannan muhimman abubuwan, haɓaka aikin hemodialysis a shekarun 1960 da kuma soke Roe v. Wade da Kotun Koli ta yi a 2022 sun yi tasiri ga tarihin ɗabi'un likitanci. A shekarar 1973, an zartar da Roe v. Wade kuma ya zama doka a ƙarƙashin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka. Duk da haka, yanzu Amurkawa suna da ikon sanya nasu dokokin kan samun damar ayyukan zubar da ciki. Wannan juyawar yana haifar da rikici da hukuncin ɗabi'a idan likita ya kamata a hukunta shi bisa doka don samar da zubar da ciki don ceton rayuwar majiyyaci. [6] A farkon matakan hemodialysis, damuwa ta farko ta taso game da dalilan ɗabi'a da ke bayan zaɓar waɗanne marasa lafiya ne suka fi fifiko wajen amfani da maganin hemodialysis saboda ƙarancin kayan aiki. [7] Waɗannan damuwar sun samo asali ne daga ƙarancin zuwa ga matsalar da ake fuskanta game da rashin jituwa tsakanin marasa lafiya waɗanda ba su da tunanin yanke shawara. Ko likitoci ya kamata su daina magani saboda matsalolin ɗabi'unsu, ba tare da la'akari da yanayin rayuwarsu ko na mutuwa ba. [8]

Yayin da wannan fanni ke ci gaba da bunƙasa da canzawa a tsawon tarihi, an mai da hankali kan tunani mai adalci, daidaito, da ɗabi'a a duk fannoni na al'adu da addinai a duniya. [9] Fannin ɗabi'ar likitanci ya ƙunshi amfani da aikace-aikace a wuraren asibiti da kuma aikin ilimi a fannin falsafa, tarihi, da zamantakewa .

Ɗabi'un likitanci sun haɗa da kyautatawa, 'yancin kai, da adalci yayin da suke da alaƙa da rikice-rikice kamar mutuwar mutane, sirrin majiyyaci, yarda da bayanai, da rikice-rikicen sha'awa a fannin kiwon lafiya. [10] [11] Bugu da ƙari, ɗabi'un likitanci da al'adun gargajiya suna da alaƙa yayin da al'adu daban-daban ke aiwatar da ɗabi'un ɗabi'a daban-daban, wani lokacin suna mai da hankali kan ɗabi'un iyali da kuma rage muhimmancin 'yancin kai. Wannan yana haifar da ƙaruwar buƙatar likitoci masu kula da al'adu da kwamitocin ɗabi'a a asibitoci da sauran wuraren kiwon lafiya. [9] [12]

Alaƙar ɗabi'ar likitanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ɗabi'ar likitanci tana bayyana dangantaka ta hanyoyi masu zuwa:

  • ma'aikacin lafiya - majiyyaci;
  • ma'aikacin lafiya - mutum mai lafiya (dangi);
  • ma'aikacin lafiya — ma'aikacin lafiya.

Ɗabi'un likitanci sun haɗa da tanade-tanaden sirrin likita, kurakuran likita, rashin lafiya, ayyukan likita da majiyyaci.

Ɗabi'ar likitanci tana da alaƙa da ɗabi'ar halitta, amma waɗannan ba ra'ayoyi iri ɗaya ba ne. Tunda kimiyyar ɗabi'ar halitta ta samo asali ne ta hanyar juyin halitta a ci gaba da haɓaka ɗabi'ar likitanci, ta shafi batutuwa da yawa.

Ɗabi'un likitanci suma suna da alaƙa da doka . Amma ɗabi'u da doka ba ra'ayoyi iri ɗaya ba ne. Sau da yawa, ɗabi'a tana nuna mafi girman mizanin ɗabi'a fiye da yadda doka ta tsara. [13]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kalmar ɗabi'ar likitanci ta fara ne tun daga shekarar 1803, lokacin da marubuci kuma likita ɗan Ingila Thomas Percival ya buga wani takarda da ke bayyana buƙatun da tsammanin ƙwararrun likitoci a cikin cibiyoyin kiwon lafiya. Ƙungiyar Likitoci ta Amurka ta daidaita Dokar Ɗabi'a a shekarar 1847, ta dogara sosai da kalmomin Percival. [14] Tsawon shekaru a cikin 1903, 1912, da 1947, an yi gyare-gyare ga takardar asali. [14] An karɓi aikin ɗabi'ar likitanci sosai kuma ana aiwatar da shi a duk faɗin duniya. [3]

A tarihi, ana iya gano ɗabi'un likitanci na Yamma zuwa ga jagororin da suka shafi aikin likitoci a zamanin da, kamar rantsuwar Hippocratic, da koyarwar Kirista ta farko. An buga ƙa'idar farko ta ɗabi'un likitanci, Formula Comitis Archiatrorum, a ƙarni na 5, a zamanin sarkin Kirista na Ostrogothic Theodoric the Great . A zamanin da da kuma farkon zamani, fannin ya dogara ne da ilimin Musulunci kamar Ishaq ibn Ali al-Ruhawi (wanda ya rubuta Ɗabi'un Likita, littafi na farko da aka keɓe ga ɗabi'un likitanci), Littafin Avicenna na Magunguna da Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (wanda aka sani da Rhazes a Yamma), masu tunani na Yahudawa kamar Maimonides, masu tunani na Katolika na Roman kamar Thomas Aquinas, da kuma nazarin da ya shafi shari'a ( casuistry ) na tauhidin ɗabi'un Katolika. Waɗannan al'adun ilimi suna ci gaba a cikin ɗabi'un likitanci na Katolika, Musulunci da Yahudawa.

A ƙarni na 18 da 19, ɗabi'un likitanci sun bayyana a matsayin tattaunawa mai zurfi game da kai. A Ingila, Thomas Percival, likita kuma marubuci, ya ƙirƙiro ƙa'idar zamani ta ɗabi'un likitanci ta farko. Ya tsara ƙasida mai ɗauke da ƙa'idar a cikin 1794 kuma ya rubuta wani sigar da aka faɗaɗa a cikin 1803, inda ya ƙirƙiro kalmomin "ɗabi'un likitanci" da "fikihu na likitanci". [15] Duk da haka, akwai wasu da ke ganin ƙa'idodin Percival waɗanda suka shafi shawarwarin likita a matsayin kariya ga suna na likitan gida. Jeffrey Berlant ɗaya ne daga cikin masu suka wanda ya ɗauki ƙa'idodin shawarwarin likita na Percival a matsayin misali na farko na yanayin da ke nuna adawa da gasa, kamar "ƙungiya" na al'ummar likita. Bugu da ƙari, tun daga tsakiyar ƙarni na 19 har zuwa ƙarni na 20, dangantakar likitoci da marasa lafiya waɗanda a da aka fi sani da su ta fara raguwa kuma ba ta da kusanci, wani lokacin tana haifar da rashin adalci, wanda ya haifar da ƙarancin amincewa da jama'a da kuma sauyawa a cikin ikon yanke shawara daga tsarin likitan uba zuwa ga fifikon yau kan 'yancin kai na marasa lafiya da kuma ikon yanke shawara . [16]

A shekara ta 1815, Majalisar Dokokin Burtaniya ta zartar da Dokar Magungunan Magunguna . Ta gabatar da aikin koyon aiki na tilas da kuma cancantar aiki ga masu maganin gargajiya na wannan lokacin a ƙarƙashin lasisin Ƙungiyar Magungunan Magunguna. Wannan shine farkon ƙa'idojin aikin likitanci a Burtaniya.

A shekara ta 1847, Ƙungiyar Likitoci ta Amurka ta amince da ƙa'idar ɗabi'a ta farko, inda wannan ya dogara ne da aikin Percival. [17] Duk da cewa fannin da ba shi da addini ya samo asali ne daga ɗabi'un likitanci na Katolika, a ƙarni na 20, masu tunani kamar Joseph Fletcher sun bayyana wata hanya ta Furotesta mai sassaucin ra'ayi. A cikin shekarun 1960 da 1970, an gina ta bisa ka'idar sassaucin ra'ayi da adalci a tsarin mulki, yawancin tattaunawar ɗabi'un likitanci ta shiga wani babban sauyi kuma galibi ta sake tsara kanta zuwa ɗabi'un halitta .

Shahararrun lamura na likitanci sun haɗa da:

  • Gwaje-gwajen likitan fata na Albert Kligman
  • Maganin barci mai zurfi
  • Gwajin Likitoci
  • Cibiyar Bincike ta Asibitin Yara ta Greenberg da Miami
  • Rashin Henrietta
  • Nazarin Allurar Cutar Daji ta Chester M. Southam
  • Gwaje-gwajen radiation na ɗan adam
  • Jesse Gelsinger
  • Moore da Regents na Jami'ar California
  • Cire sassan jiki na tiyata don ƙoƙarin inganta lafiyar kwakwalwa
  • Gwajin Likitanci akan Baƙar fata 'Yan Amurka
  • Gwajin Milgram
  • Gwaje-gwajen rediyoaktif aidin
  • Nazarin Dodanni
  • Allurar Plutonium
  • Shari'ar David Reimer
  • Gwajin Kurkukun Stanford
  • Gwajin Tuskegee Syphilis
  • Makarantar Jihar Willowbrook
  • Tarin samfurin jinin Yanomami
    • Duhu a El Dorado
  • jaririn Erlanger

Tun daga shekarun 1970, ana iya ganin ƙaruwar tasirin ɗabi'a a fannin likitanci na zamani a cikin yawan amfani da hukumomin bita na cibiyoyi don tantance gwaje-gwaje kan batutuwa na ɗan adam, kafa kwamitocin ɗabi'a na asibiti, faɗaɗa rawar da masu ilimin ɗabi'a na likitanci ke takawa, da kuma haɗa ɗabi'a cikin manhajoji da yawa na makarantun likitanci. [18]

CUTAR COVID 19

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A watan Disamba na 2019, kwayar cutar COVID-19 ta bulla a matsayin barazana ga lafiyar jama'a a duk duniya, kuma a cikin shekaru masu zuwa, ta haifar da sabon bincike kan ɗabi'un likitanci na zamani. Misali, tun lokacin da aka fara gano COVID-19 a Wuhan, China, [19] da kuma yaɗuwar cutar a duniya daga baya a tsakiyar 2020, ana kira da a rungumi ƙa'idodin kimiyya na buɗe ido waɗanda suka mamaye al'ummomin bincike. [20] Wasu masana sun yi imanin cewa ƙa'idodin kimiyya na buɗe ido - kamar sadarwa mai ɗorewa tsakanin ƙungiyoyin bincike, fassarar bincike cikin sauri yana haifar da manufofin jama'a, da bayyana hanyoyin kimiyya ga jama'a - sune kawai mafita don dakatar da tasirin cutar. Wasu kuma sun yi gargaɗin cewa waɗannan hanyoyin na iya haifar da aminci mara kyau don gujewa saurin gudu, amfani da jarin bincike ba tare da amfani da shi ba, da kuma haifar da rudani ga jama'a. [20] Kurakuran waɗannan ayyukan sun haɗa da ɓatar da albarkatu da ruɗani a bainar jama'a da ke tattare da amfani da hydroxychloroquine da azithromycin a matsayin maganin COVID-19 - haɗin da aka nuna daga baya bai yi wani tasiri ga waɗanda suka tsira daga COVID-19 ba kuma yana ɗauke da mummunan sakamako masu guba ga zuciya [21] - da kuma wani nau'in jinkirin allurar riga-kafi musamman saboda saurin ƙirƙirar alluran rigakafin COVID-19 da kuma samar da su ga jama'a. [22] Duk da haka, kimiyya a buɗe ta kuma ba da damar aiwatar da ayyukan ceton rai cikin sauri kamar sanya abin rufe fuska da nisantar jama'a, haɓaka alluran rigakafi da yawa da ƙwayoyin rigakafi na monoclonal waɗanda ke da raguwar yawan yaɗuwa da mutuwa, da kuma ƙara wayar da kan jama'a game da tsananin annobar da kuma bayanin matakan kariya na yau da kullun daga kamuwa da cutar COVID-19, kamar wanke hannu . [20]

Wasu muhimman fannoni na likitanci da ɗabi'un COVID-19 suka shafa sun haɗa da:

  • Rarraba albarkatu, musamman a wuraren kulawa mai tsanani waɗanda ba su da isassun na'urorin numfashi ko gadaje don kula da kwararar marasa lafiya masu fama da rashin lafiya mai tsanani. [23]
  • Rashin kayan kariya na kariya (PPE) ga masu samar da kayayyaki, wanda hakan ke sanya su cikin haɗarin kamuwa da cuta yayin kula da marasa lafiya. [24]
  • Nauyi mai yawa ga masu samar da lafiya da ma'aikata masu mahimmanci a duk lokacin annobar [25]
  • Rufe makarantu da ƙaruwar makarantun intanet, wanda hakan ya haifar da matsaloli ga iyalai waɗanda ke da ƙarancin damar shiga intanet . [26]
  • Ƙara yawan rashin daidaito a fannin lafiya, wanda hakan ke haifar da annobar ta shafi BIPOC da al'ummomin da ke fama da nakasa fiye da sauran al'ummomin duniya. [27]
  • Karuwar laifukan ƙiyayya ga 'yan Asiya, musamman 'yan China-Amurkawa masu alaƙa da ƙin jinin baƙi da ke da alaƙa da COVID-19. [28]
  • Rufe kasuwanci, ofisoshi, da gidajen cin abinci ya haifar da ƙaruwar rashin aikin yi da koma bayan tattalin arziki. [29]
  • Jinkirin allurar riga-kafi . [22]
  • Ƙin rufe fuska ko nisan jama'a, yana ƙara yawan kamuwa da cutar. [30]
  • Dakatar da hanyoyin likitanci marasa mahimmanci, jinkirta kulawa ta yau da kullun, da kuma komawa ga kiwon lafiya ta hanyar sadarwa yayin da asibitoci da asibitoci suka ci gaba da mamaye marasa lafiyar COVID-19. [31]

Ɗabi'un COVID-19 sun ƙunshi fannoni da yawa na magani da al'umma fiye da yadda aka wakilta a cikin wannan sakin layi - wasu daga cikin waɗannan ƙa'idodi ba za a gano su ba har sai ƙarshen annobar, wadda, har zuwa ranar 12 ga Satumba, 2022, har yanzu tana ci gaba.

Ƙima

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsarin da aka saba amfani da shi wajen nazarin ɗabi'un likitanci shine tsarin "ƙa'idodi huɗu" da Tom Beauchamp da James Childress suka tsara a cikin littafinsu mai suna Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Yana gane ƙa'idodi huɗu na ɗabi'a, waɗanda za a yi hukunci a kansu kuma a auna su, tare da mai da hankali kan iyakokin aikace-aikacensu. Ka'idoji huɗu sune: [32]

  • Girmama ' yancin kai - majiyyaci yana da 'yancin ƙin ko zaɓar maganin da zai yi masa. [33]
  • Kyawun hali - likita ya kamata ya yi aiki don amfanin majiyyaci. [33]
  • Rashin cin zarafi - don kada ya zama sanadin cutarwa. Haka kuma, "Amfani" - don inganta alheri fiye da cutarwa. [33]
  • Adalci - ya shafi rarraba albarkatun lafiya marasa yawa, da kuma shawarar wanda zai sami irin maganin da zai yi. [33]

'Yancin kai ga majiyyaci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ka'idar ' yancin kai, wacce aka raba zuwa "autos" (kai) da "nomos (mulki), tana kallon 'yancin mutum na yanke shawara kan kansa. [16] Wannan ya samo asali ne daga girmama ikon mutane na yanke shawara mai kyau game da al'amuran sirri tare da ' yanci . 'Yancin kai ya zama mafi mahimmanci yayin da dabi'un zamantakewa suka canza don ayyana ingancin likita dangane da sakamakon da ke da mahimmanci ga majiyyaci da iyalinsa maimakon ƙwararrun likitoci. [16] Ana iya ganin muhimmancin 'yancin kai a matsayin martanin zamantakewa game da al'adar " fatheristic " a cikin kiwon lafiya. [16] [34] Wasu sun yi tambaya ko martanin da aka mayar kan rashin bin ka'idar ubanci da ta wuce gona da iri a tarihi wanda ya goyi bayan 'yancin kai na majiyyaci ya hana amfani da tausayin ubanci da kyau don cutar da sakamako ga wasu marasa lafiya. [35]

Ma'anar 'yancin kai shine ikon mutum na yanke shawara mai ma'ana, ba tare da wani tasiri ba. Saboda haka, ana iya cewa 'yancin kai alama ce ta gabaɗaya ta lafiyayyen hankali da jiki. Ci gaban cututtuka da yawa na ƙarshe ana siffanta su da rashin 'yancin kai, ta hanyoyi da matakai daban-daban. Misali, ciwon hauka, wata cuta mai ɗorewa da ci gaba da ke kai hari ga kwakwalwa, na iya haifar da asarar ƙwaƙwalwa da kuma haifar da raguwar tunani mai ma'ana, kusan koyaushe yana haifar da asarar 'yancin kai. [36]

Sau da yawa ana tambayar likitocin tabin hankali da masana ilimin halayyar ɗan adam su tantance ikon majiyyaci na yanke shawara game da rayuwa da mutuwa a ƙarshen rayuwa. Mutanen da ke da matsalar tabin hankali kamar rashin hankali ko baƙin ciki na asibiti na iya rasa ikon yanke shawara game da ƙarshen rayuwa. Ga waɗannan mutanen, ana iya ɗaukar buƙatar ƙin magani bisa ga yanayin da suke ciki. Sai dai idan akwai umarni a gaba da ya saɓa wa haka, ana kula da mutanen da ba su da ƙarfin tunani bisa ga mafi kyawun muradinsu. Wannan zai ƙunshi tantancewa da ta shafi mutanen da suka fi sanin mutumin game da shawarar da mutumin zai yanke idan ba su rasa ƙarfin ba. [37] Mutanen da ke da ƙarfin tunani na yanke shawara game da ƙarshen rayuwa na iya ƙin magani da fahimtar cewa zai iya rage tsawon rayuwarsu. Likitocin tabin hankali da masana ilimin halayyar ɗan adam na iya shiga tsakani don tallafawa yanke shawara.

'Yancin kai na likita ra'ayi ne mai alaƙa amma daban. [38]

Karimci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kalmar beneficence tana nufin ayyukan da ke inganta lafiyar wasu. A fannin likitanci, wannan yana nufin ɗaukar matakan da suka dace da muradun marasa lafiya da iyalansu. [1] Duk da haka, rashin tabbas yana kewaye da ainihin ma'anar ayyukan da a zahiri ke taimaka wa marasa lafiya.

James Childress da Tom Beauchamp a cikin Ka'idojin Ƙa'idodin Halittu (1978) sun bayyana kyautatawa a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin manyan dabi'un ɗabi'un kiwon lafiya . Wasu masana, kamar Edmund Pellegrino, suna jayayya cewa kyautatawa ita ce kawai ƙa'idar ƙa'idar ɗabi'un likitanci. Suna jayayya cewa warkarwa ya kamata ta zama manufar magani kawai, kuma cewa ƙoƙarin kamar tiyatar kwalliya da mutuwar mutane ba su da kyau kuma sun saɓa wa rantsuwar Hippocratic . [ <span title="The claim that cosmetic surgery is unethical is interesting, and readers may want to read the full rationale for that and see which specific sources make that argument. (April 2024)">ana buƙatar ambato</span> ]

Ba cin zarafi ba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manufar rashin cin zarafi ta ƙunshi kalmar "da farko, kada ku cutar," ko kuma Latin, primum non nocere . Mutane da yawa suna ɗaukar cewa ya kamata ya zama babban abin la'akari (saboda haka primum ): cewa ya fi muhimmanci kada ku cutar da majiyyacin ku, fiye da yi musu alheri, wanda wani ɓangare ne na rantsuwar Hippocratic da likitoci ke yi. [39] Wannan wani ɓangare ne saboda masu aiki masu himma suna da saurin amfani da magungunan da suke ganin za su yi kyau, ba tare da sun fara tantance su yadda ya kamata ba don tabbatar da cewa ba su cutar da majiyyaci ba. An yi wa majiyyaci lahani da yawa sakamakon haka, kamar yadda yake a cikin maganar, "Maganin ya yi nasara, amma majiyyacin ya mutu." Ba wai kawai yana da mahimmanci a yi wani lahani fiye da yin alheri ba; yana da mahimmanci a san yadda maganin ku zai cutar da majiyyaci. Don haka likita ya kamata ya wuce fiye da rashin rubuta magunguna da suka san suna da illa - bai kamata ya rubuta magunguna (ko kuma ya yi wa majiyyaci magani ba) sai dai idan ya san cewa maganin ba zai yi illa ba; ko kuma aƙalla, wannan mara lafiyar ya fahimci haɗari da fa'idodi, kuma cewa fa'idodin da za a iya samu sun fi haɗarin da za a iya samu.

Amma a aikace, magunguna da yawa suna da haɗarin cutarwa. A wasu yanayi, misali a cikin mawuyacin hali inda sakamakon ba tare da magani ba zai zama mai tsanani, jiyya mai haɗari waɗanda ke da babban yuwuwar cutar da majiyyaci za a iya tabbatar da su, saboda haɗarin rashin magani shi ma yana iya haifar da lahani. Don haka ƙa'idar rashin rashin lafiya ba cikakke ba ce, kuma tana daidaitawa da ƙa'idar <i id="mwAfY">alheri</i> (yin nagarta), saboda tasirin ƙa'idodin biyu tare sau da yawa suna haifar da sakamako biyu (wanda aka ƙara bayyana a sashe na gaba). Har ma ayyukan asali kamar ɗaukar samfurin jini ko allurar magani suna haifar da lahani ga jikin majiyyaci. Euthanasia kuma ya saɓa wa ƙa'idar alheri saboda majiyyaci yana mutuwa sakamakon maganin likita da likita ya yi.

Mulkin kama-karya na likitanci ko kuma halin kama-karya na iya haifar da illolin magani. [40]

Tasiri biyu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasirin biyu yana nufin nau'ikan sakamako guda biyu waɗanda za a iya haifarwa ta hanyar aiki ɗaya, kuma a cikin ɗabi'ar likitanci yawanci ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin haɗin tasirin alheri da rashin mugunta.

Misali da aka fi ambata game da wannan lamari shine amfani da morphine ko wani maganin rage radadi ga majiyyaci da ke mutuwa. Irin wannan amfani da morphine na iya samun sakamako mai kyau na rage radadi da wahalar majiyyaci yayin da a lokaci guda yana da mummunan tasirin rage rayuwar majiyyaci ta hanyar kashe tsarin numfashi.

Girmama 'yancin ɗan adam

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Zamanin kare hakkin dan adam ya fara ne da kafa Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a shekarar 1945, wadda aka dora wa alhakin bunkasa hakkokin dan adam. Sanarwar Hakkokin Dan Adam ta Duniya (1948) ita ce babbar takarda ta farko da ta fayyace hakkokin dan adam. Likitoci suna da alhakin kare hakkokin dan adam da mutuncin dan adam na majiyyaci, don haka zuwan takardar da ke fayyace hakkokin dan adam ya yi tasiri ga tarbiyyar likitanci. [41] Yawancin dokokin da'a na likitanci yanzu suna buƙatar girmama hakkokin dan adam na majiyyaci.

Majalisar Turai ta inganta bin doka da kuma bin ƙa'idodin haƙƙin ɗan adam a Turai . Majalisar Turai ta amince da Yarjejeniyar Turai kan Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam da Magungunan Halittu (1997) don ƙirƙirar ƙa'idar ɗabi'ar likitanci iri ɗaya ga ƙasashe 47 da ke cikinta. Yarjejeniyar ta shafi dokokin haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya ga ɗabi'ar likitanci. Tana ba da kariya ta musamman ga mutuncin jiki ga waɗanda ba za su iya amincewa ba, waɗanda suka haɗa da yara.

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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  2. ↑ Weise, Mary (2016). "Medical Ethics Made Easy". Professional Case Management. 21 (2): 88–94. doi:10.1097/ncm.0000000000000151. PMID 26844716. S2CID 20134799.
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  4. 1 2 Berdine, Gilbert (2015-01-10). "The Hippocratic Oath and Principles of Medical Ethics". The Southwest Respiratory and Critical Care Chronicles (in Turanci). 3 (9): 28–32–32. doi:10.12746/swrccc.v3i9.185. ISSN 2325-9205.
  5. ↑ Riddick, Frank (Spring 2003). "The Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical Association". The Ochsner Journal. 5 (2): 6–10. PMC 3399321. PMID 22826677.
  6. ↑ Giubilini, Alberto; Schuklenk, Udo; Minerva, Francesca; Savulescu, Julian (2024-04-09). "Conscientious commitment, professional obligations and abortion provision after the reversal of Roe v Wade". Journal of Medical Ethics (in Turanci). 50 (5): 351–358. doi:10.1136/jme-2022-108731. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 11103303 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36754610 Check |pmid= value (help).
  7. ↑ Schreiner, George E.; Maher, John F. (1965-03-01). "Hemodialysis for Chronic Renal Failure: III. Medical, Moral and Ethical, and Socio-economic Problems". Annals of Internal Medicine (in Turanci). 62 (3): 551–557. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-62-3-551. ISSN 0003-4819.
  8. ↑ Feely, Molly A.; Albright, Robert C.; Thorsteinsdottir, Björg; Moss, Alvin H.; Swetz, Keith M. (2014-09-02). "Ethical challenges with hemodialysis patients who lack decision-making capacity: behavioral issues, surrogate decision-makers, and end-of-life situations". Kidney International (in Turanci). 86 (3): 475–480. doi:10.1038/ki.2014.231.
  9. 1 2 Brow, Julie A. (June 2002). "When culture and medicine collide". The Dental Assistant. 71 (3): 26, 28, 36. PMID 12078071.
  10. ↑ Prah Ruger, Jennifer (October 2014). "Good medical ethics, justice and provincial globalism". J Med Ethics. 41 (1): 103–106. doi:10.1136/medethics-2014-102356. JSTOR 43283237. PMID 25516948.
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  14. 1 2 Riddick, Frank (2003). "The Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical Association". The Ochsner Journal. 5 (2): 6–10. PMC 3399321. PMID 22826677.
  15. ↑ "Codes of Ethics: Some History, Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions at IIT". Archived from the original on February 6, 2012.
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  19. ↑ "Chinese researchers reveal draft genome of virus implicated in Wuhan pneumonia outbreak". www.science.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-09-13.
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  24. ↑ Binkley, Charles E.; Kemp, David S. (June 2020). "Ethical Rationing of Personal Protective Equipment to Minimize Moral Residue During the COVID-19 Pandemic". Journal of the American College of Surgeons (in Turanci). 230 (6): 1111–1113. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2020.03.031. ISSN 1072-7515. PMC 7195046. PMID 32278727.
  25. ↑ Schneider, Matthias; Altersberger, Martin; Binder, Christina; Hengstenberg, Christian; Binder, Thomas (January 2021). "The COVID-19 burden for health care professionals: Results of a global survey". European Journal of Internal Medicine (in Turanci). 83: 96–98. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2020.11.011. PMC 7659805. PMID 33221130.
  26. ↑ Tan, Wanli (2021-07-30). "School closures were over-weighted against the mitigation of COVID-19 transmission: A literature review on the impact of school closures in the United States". Medicine (in Turanci). 100 (30). doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000026709. ISSN 0025-7974. PMC 8322504 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34397701 Check |pmid= value (help).
  27. ↑ "COVID-19 Cases and Deaths by Race/Ethnicity: Current Data and Changes Over Time". KFF (in Turanci). 2022-08-22. Retrieved 2022-09-13.
  28. ↑ Gover, Angela R.; Harper, Shannon B.; Langton, Lynn (2020). "Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 45 (4): 647–667. doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1. ISSN 1066-2316. PMC 7364747. PMID 32837171.
  29. ↑ Fairlie, Robert (2020). "The impact of COVID-19 on small business owners: Evidence from the first three months after widespread social-distancing restrictions". Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. 29 (4): 727–740. doi:10.1111/jems.12400. ISSN 1058-6407. PMC 7461311. PMID 32904856.
  30. ↑ Taylor, Steven; Asmundson, Gordon J. G. (2021-02-17). Capraro, Valerio (ed.). "Negative attitudes about facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic: The dual importance of perceived ineffectiveness and psychological reactance". PLOS ONE (in Turanci). 16 (2). Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1646317T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246317. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7888611. PMID 33596207 Check |pmid= value (help).
  31. ↑ Johnson, Candice C.; Aldea, Mirela A. (2021-04-03). "Ethical Considerations for Telepsychotherapy and the Management of High-Risk Patients During Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19): Challenges and Practice Considerations". Ethics & Behavior (in Turanci). 31 (3): 193–204. doi:10.1080/10508422.2020.1870979. ISSN 1050-8422. S2CID 232171376 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  32. ↑ Gillon, R (1994). "Medical ethics: four principles plus attention to scope". British Medical Journal. 309 (184): 184–188. doi:10.1136/bmj.309.6948.184. PMC 2540719. PMID 8044100.
  33. 1 2 3 4 "Principles of Bioethics | UW Department of Bioethics & Humanities". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  34. ↑ Murgic, L.; Hébert, P.C.; Sovic, S.; Pavlekovic, G. (2015). "Paternalism and autonomy: views of patients and providers in a transitional (post-communist) country". BMC Medical Ethics. 16 (65): 65. doi:10.1186/s12910-015-0059-z. PMC 4589086. PMID 26420014.
  35. ↑ Pollard, B. J. (1993). "Autonomy and paternalism in medicine". The Medical Journal of Australia. 159 (11–12): 797–802. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1993.tb141355.x. PMID 8264472. S2CID 34104608.
  36. ↑ Burla, Claudia (2014). "Alzheimer, Dementia and the living will: a proposal". Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 17 (3): 389–395. doi:10.1007/s11019-014-9559-8. PMC 4078222. PMID 24737537.
  37. ↑ "Assessing mental capacity". BMA. Archived from the original on 2018-05-25. Retrieved 2018-05-24.
  38. ↑ "Physician Autonomy Essential to Patient Care". WMA – The World Medical Association. 2000-03-19. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
  39. ↑ Jotterand, Fabrice (2005-01-01). "The Hippocratic Oath and Contemporary Medicine: Dialectic Between Past Ideals and Present Reality?". The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (in Turanci). 30 (1): 107–128. doi:10.1080/03605310590907084. ISSN 0360-5310. PMID 15814370.
  40. ↑ Burgess, Diana J.; Dovidio, John; Phelan, Sean; Van Ryn, Michelle (2011). "The Effect of Medical Authoritarianism on Physicians' Treatment Decisions and Attitudes Regarding Chronic Pain". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 41 (6): 1399–1420. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00759.x.
  41. ↑ World Medical Association. "Principal features of medical ethics" (PDF). www.wma.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
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