Jump to content

Karfe na ƙarfe a Afirka

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Karfe na ƙarfe a Afirka
Bayanai
Bangare na ancient metallurgy in Africa (en) Fassara
Ƙarfe ƙarfe a cikin Masarautar Kongo ta Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo (kimanin 1650).

Ƙarfe na ƙarfe a Afirka ya shafi asali da haɓakar ƙarfe na ƙarfe a nahiyar Afirka . Ganin cewa ci gaban ƙarfe na ƙarfe a Arewacin Afirka da ƙahon ya yi kama da na Gabas ta Tsakiya da Bahar Rum, tsarin shekaru uku bai dace da Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara ba, inda ƙarfen ƙarfe gabaɗaya baya gaban aikin ƙarfe. Ko ƙarfe ƙarfe a yankin kudu da hamadar sahara ya samo asali ne a matsayin bidi'a mai zaman kanta ko kuma samfurin yaɗuwar fasaha ya kasance batu na cece-kuce tsakanin masana. [1] [2] [3] Bayan fara aikin ƙarfe na ƙarfe a Yammacin Afirka ta Yamma da Tsakiyar Afirka ta 800 BC - 400 BC, kuma mai yiyuwa ne a baya, [3] masana aikin gona na Rukunin Chifumbaze a ƙarshe za su gabatar da fasahar zuwa Gabas da Kudancin Afirka a ƙarshen karni na farko AD .

A cikin shekarun farko na karni na ashirin da daya, radiocarbon da thermoluminescence na kayan tarihi masu alaka da karafa a Najeriya da Jamhuriyar Afrika ta Tsakiya sun samar da dabino tun farkon karni na uku BC . [4] Ko da yake da yawa daga cikin malamai sun bincika waɗannan ranaku akan hanyoyin dabaru da dalilai na ka'ida, [5] [6] wasu sun yi iƙirarin cewa suna lalata tsarin watsa shirye-shirye na asalin ƙarfe na ƙarfe a yankin Saharar Afirka. [1] [4] [7] [8]

Ƙarfe ƙarfe ƙila an haɓaka shi da kansa a cikin al'adun Nok tsakanin karni na 9 KZ da 550 KZ. [9] Al'adun Djenné-Djenno na kusa da kwarin Nijar a Mali yana nuna shaidar samar da ƙarfe daga c. 250 KZ. Fadada Bantu ta yada fasahar zuwa Gabas da Kudancin Afirka tsakanin 500 KZ da 400 CE, kamar yadda aka nuna a al'adun Urewe . [10]

Asalin kuma ya bazu a Afirka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Duk da cewa asalin ƙarfen ƙarfe da ke aiki a Afirka ya kasance abin sha'awar masana tun shekarun 1860, har yanzu ba a san ko wannan fasaha ta yaɗu zuwa yankin Saharar Afirka daga yankin Bahar Rum ba, ko kuma an ƙirƙira shi ne ba tare da yin aikin ƙarfe a wani wuri ba. [2] Ko da yake wasu malaman Turai na ƙarni na goma sha tara sun yarda da ƙirƙirar baƙin ƙarfe na asali na aiki a yankin kudu da hamadar Sahara, masu binciken kayan tarihi da suka rubuta tsakanin 1945 zuwa 1965 galibi sun fi son yaɗuwar fasahar narkewar ƙarfe daga Carthage a cikin Sahara zuwa Afirka ta Yamma da / ko daga Meroe a kan kogin Nilu zuwa tsakiyar Afirka. Wannan bi da bi an yi tambaya ta hanyar bincike na baya-bayan nan wanda ke ba da hujjar ƙirƙira mai zaman kanta. [4]

Ƙirƙirar sadarwar rediyon a ƙarshen shekarun 1950 ya ba da damar haɗuwa da wuraren ƙarfe ta hanyar man gawayi da ake amfani da shi don narkewa da ƙirƙira. A ƙarshen 1960s an sami wasu abubuwan ban mamaki na farkon lokacin radiyo don wuraren aikin ƙarfe a cikin Nijar da tsakiyar Afirka (Rwanda, Burundi), tare da farfado da ra'ayin cewa ƴan Afirka a da hamadar Sahara ne suka ƙirƙira da a cikin 3600 KZ. [11] Waɗannan kwanakin sun rigaya sanannen tsohuwar aikin ƙarfe a cikin Carthage ko Meroe, yana raunana hasashe mai yaduwa. A cikin 1990s, an sami shaidar ƙarfe na Phoenician da ke narkewa a yammacin Bahar Rum (900-800 KZ), ko da yake musamman a Arewacin Afirka yana da alama kawai zuwa 5th zuwa 4th century KZ, ko karni na 7 KZ a farkon, na zamani zuwa ko kuma daga baya fiye da tsofaffin da aka sani daga karfe-ƙarfe na Afirka. [4] A cewar masanin ilmin kimiya na tarihi Manfred Eggert, "Ba za a iya dogara da Carthage matsayin tushen rage tama na sahara ba." Har yanzu ba a san lokacin da aka fara yin aikin ƙarfe a Kush da Meroe a cikin Sudan ta zamani ba, amma farkon sanannun kwanakin ƙarfe na ƙarfe daga Meroe da Masar ba su riga sun kasance daga yankin Saharar Afirka ba, don haka kogin Nilu kuma ana ɗaukarsa da wuya ya zama tushen ƙarfe na ƙarfe na kudu da hamadar Sahara.

Misalai na nau'ikan tanderun furanni na Afirka

Daga tsakiyar 1970s an sami sabbin da'awar ƙirƙirar ƙarfe mai zaman kanta a tsakiyar Nijar [1] [2] [3] da kuma daga 1994 zuwa 1999 UNESCO ta ba da gudummawar wani shiri na "Les Routes du Fer en Afrique/The Iron Routes in Africa" don bincika tushen da yaduwar ƙarfe a Afirka. Wannan ya ba da gudummawar duka taron kan ƙarfe na farko a Afirka da Bahar Rum [4] da kuma ƙarar, wanda UNESCO ta buga, wanda ya haifar da rikice-rikice saboda ya haɗa da marubuta kawai masu tausayi ga ra'ayi mai zaman kansa.

Bita biyu na shaidun daga tsakiyar shekarun 2000 sun sami lahani na fasaha a cikin binciken da ke da'awar ƙirƙira mai zaman kanta, yana haɓaka manyan batutuwa uku. [3] [2] Na farko shine ko kayan da aka rubuta ta radiocarbon yana cikin amintaccen haɗin gwiwar kayan tarihi tare da ragowar aikin ƙarfe. Yawancin dabino daga Nijar, alal misali, sun kasance a kan kwayoyin halitta a cikin tukwane da ke kwance a ƙasa tare da abubuwa na ƙarfe. Batu na biyu shi ne yiwuwar tasirin "tsohuwar carbon": itace ko gawayi da suka girme fiye da lokacin da aka narke baƙin ƙarfe. Wannan wata matsala ce ta musamman a Nijar, inda kututtukan tsoffin bishiyoyi ke iya haifar da gawayi, kuma a wasu lokuta ana yin kuskuren bayyana su a matsayin murhun wuta. Batu na uku shi ne raunin madaidaicin hanyar radiocarbon na kwanakin tsakanin 800 zuwa 400 KZ, wanda ke da alaƙa da samar da radiocarbon ba bisa ka'ida ba a sararin sama. Abin baƙin ciki shine yawancin kwanakin radiocarbon na farkon yaduwar ƙarfe a yankin Saharar Afirka sun faɗi cikin wannan kewayon.

Takaddama ta sake barkewa a shekara ta 2007 bayan da Etienne Zangato da abokan aikinsu suka buga tona asirin a Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya. A Oboui sun hako wani juzu'in ƙarfe wanda bai ƙare ba wanda ya haifar da daidaitattun kwanakin rediyocarbon guda takwas na 2000 KZ. Wannan zai sa Oboui ya zama wurin aikin ƙarfe mafi tsufa a duniya, kuma fiye da shekaru dubu fiye da kowace shedar baƙin ƙarfe a Afirka ta Tsakiya. Ra'ayi tsakanin masu binciken kayan tarihi na Afirka ya rabu sosai. Wasu ƙwararrun masana sun yarda da wannan fassarar, amma masanin ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi Bernard Clist ya yi jayayya cewa Oboui wuri ne mai cike da damuwa, tare da tsofaffin gawayi da aka kawo har zuwa matakin ƙirƙira ta hanyar tono ramuka zuwa tsofaffin matakan. Clist ya kuma tayar da tambayoyi game da yanayin da ba a saba gani ba na adana ƙarfe daga wurin. [11] Duk da haka, masu binciken kayan tarihi irin su Craddock, Eggert, da Holl sun bayar da hujjar cewa irin wannan hargitsi ko rushewar abu ne mai wuyar gaske idan aka yi la'akari da yanayin wurin. Bugu da ƙari, Holl, game da yanayin kiyayewa, ya yi jayayya cewa wannan abin lura ya dogara ne akan zane-zane da aka buga wanda ke wakiltar ƙaramin adadin abubuwan da aka adana da kyau waɗanda aka zaɓa don bugawa. [12] A Gbabiri, shi ma a cikin Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya, Eggert ya sami shaidar aikin rage ƙarfe na ƙarfe da kuma taron bita tare da farkon kwanakin 896-773 KZ da 907-796 KZ bi da bi. A arewa ta tsakiyar Burkina Faso, ragowar tanderun ƙarfe da ke kusa da Douroula shi ma an rubuta shi a ƙarni na 8 KZ, wanda ya kai ga ƙirƙira Tsoffin Rubutun Ƙarfa na Ƙarfe na Burkina Faso . [13] A yankin Nsukka na kudu maso gabashin Najeriya (yanzu Iboland ), an tono wuraren binciken kayan tarihi masu dauke da tanderun narkakar karfe tun daga shekara ta 750 KZ a Opi (Augustin Holl 2009) da 2,000 KZ a Lejja (Pamela Eze-Uzomaka 2009). [14] [15] A cewar Augustin Holl (2018), akwai shaidar aikin ƙarfe tun daga 2,153–2,044 KZ da 2,368–2,200 KZ daga wurin Gbatoro, Kamaru. [4]

Ilimin kimiyya na Archeometallurgical da ci gaban fasaha sun samo asali ne a yawancin cibiyoyin Afirka; Cibiyoyin asalin sun kasance a Yammacin Afirka, Afirka ta Tsakiya, da Gabashin Afirka ; Saboda haka, yayin da waɗannan cibiyoyi na asali suke a cikin Afirka ta ciki, waɗannan ci gaban archaeometallurgical don haka fasahar Afirka ce ta asali. [7] Ƙarfe na ƙarfe ya faru a 2631 KZ - 2458 KZ a Lejja, Nigeria, 2136 KZ - 1921 KZ a Obui, a Jamhuriyar Afrika ta Tsakiya, 1895 KZ - 1370 KZ a Tchire Ouma 147, a Nijar, da 1297 KZ - 1051 BCE a Dekpaware. [7]

A cikin 2014, masanin ilimin ƙarfe Manfred Eggert ya bayar da hujjar cewa, ko da yake har yanzu ba a gama ba, shaidun gabaɗaya sun nuna ƙirƙirar ƙarfe mai zaman kansa a yankin Saharar Afirka. A cikin binciken 2018, masanin ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi Augustin Holl shima yayi jayayya cewa ƙirƙira mai zaman kanta ta fi yiwuwa. [4]

Duk da yake tushen narke baƙin ƙarfe yana da wahalar zamani ta hanyar radiocarbon, akwai ƙarancin matsalolin amfani da shi don bin diddigin yaduwar aikin ƙarfe bayan 400 KZ. A cikin 1960s an ba da shawarar cewa masu magana da harsunan Bantu ne suka yada aikin ƙarfe, wanda masana ilimin harshe suka kasance ƙasarsu ta asali a cikin kwarin Benue na gabashin Najeriya da yammacin Kamaru. Ko da yake wasu sun tabbatar da cewa babu kalmomi na ƙarfe ko ƙarfe da za a iya gano su zuwa proto-Bantu da aka sake ginawa, sunaye a Afirka ta Yamma sun nuna in ba haka ba, misali (Okuta) Ilorin, a zahiri "shafin aikin ƙarfe". Masanin ilimin harshe Christopher Ehret yayi jayayya cewa kalmomin farko na aikin ƙarfe a cikin harsunan Bantu an aro su ne daga harsunan Sudan ta Tsakiya a kusa da Uganda da Kenya na zamani, yayin da Jan Vansina ya yi jayayya a maimakon haka cewa sun samo asali ne daga harsunan da ba na Bantu ba a Najeriya, kuma cewa ƙarfe na ƙarfe ya bazu zuwa kudu da gabas zuwa ga masu magana da Bantu, wanda ya riga ya mamaye yankin tafkin na Bantu. Shaidun archaeological sun nuna a fili cewa tun daga ƙarni na farko KZ, ƙarfe da noma (gero da dawa) sun bazu tare zuwa kudu daga kudancin Tanzaniya da arewacin Zambiya, har zuwa yankin gabashin Cape na Afirka ta Kudu ta yanzu a ƙarni na uku ko na huɗu AZ. Da alama mai yiwuwa hakan ya faru ta hanyar ƙaura na mutanen Bantu.

Dabaru

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tsarin aikin samar da ƙarfe na yau da kullun yana farawa tare da samun albarkatun ƙasa ta hanyar narkewa da smithing.

Dukkan hanyoyin narke baƙin ƙarfe na ƴan asalin Afirka bambance-bambancen tsarin furanni ne. An yi rikodin matakai da yawa na tsarin narkewa a cikin nahiyar Afirka fiye da sauran wurare a cikin Tsohon Duniya, watakila saboda ana amfani da furanni a cikin karni na 20 a yawancin sassan Afirka kudu da hamadar Sahara, yayin da a Turai da galibin sassan Asiya an maye gurbinsu da tanderun fashewa kafin a iya rubuta yawancin nau'ikan furanni. Tarin bayanan shaidun gani da ido na WW Cline na narkewar baƙin ƙarfe a cikin shekaru 250 da suka gabata a Afirka [1] yana da kima, kuma an ƙarasa shi da ƙarin binciken ethnoarchaeological da archaeological. Tanderun da aka yi amfani da su a ƙarni na 19 da 20 sun fito ne daga ƙananan murhun wuta, waɗanda aka haƙa daga ƙasa kuma ana amfani da su ta hanyar bellows, ta wutar lantarki mai ƙarfi har zuwa 1.5 m tsayi, zuwa 6.5m tanderun daftarin yanayi (watau tanderun da aka tsara don yin aiki ba tare da bellow ba kwata-kwata).

Fiye da yawancin wurare masu zafi na Afirka ma'adin da aka yi amfani da shi ya kasance laterite, wanda ke samuwa a ko'ina a kan tsofaffin cratons na nahiyar a Yamma, Tsakiya da Kudancin Afirka. Yashi na Magnetite, wanda aka tattara a cikin rafi ta hanyar ruwa mai gudana, ana amfani da shi sau da yawa a wurare masu tsaunuka, bayan an amfana don haɓaka yawan ƙarfe. Ma'aikatan ƙarfe na farko na mulkin mallaka a Afirka ta Kudu na yanzu har ma sun narkar da tamanin ƙarfe-titanium waɗanda ba a tsara tanda na zamani don amfani da su ba. Tanderun furanni ba su da amfani fiye da tanderun fashewa, amma sun fi dacewa da yawa.

Man fetur da aka yi amfani da shi ya kasance gawayi koyaushe, kuma samfuran sune furanni (ƙarfin ƙarfe mai ƙarfi) da slag (samfurin sharar ruwa). Masu aikin ƙarfe na Afirka a kai a kai suna samar da furannin ƙarfe mara kyau, musamman a cikin manyan tanderun da aka zana. Furen ba koyaushe yana ƙunshe da wasu sarƙaƙƙiya ba, kuma bayan an cire shi daga cikin tanderun dole ne a sake dumama da guduma don fitar da tukwane gwargwadon iko. An yi ciniki da sandunan ƙarfe ko ƙarfe da aka gama da su a wasu sassan Afirka ta Yamma, misali a Sukur da ke kan iyakar Najeriya da Kamaru, wanda a ƙarni na sha tara ke fitar da dubban sanduna a kowace shekara a arewa zuwa tafkin Chadi. Ko da yake yawancin ma'aikatan ƙarfe na Afirka suna samar da furannin ƙarfe, akwai 'yan kaɗan a cikin yankin Saharar Sahara har yanzu don taurin karfe ta hanyar kashewa da zafin rai ko kuma kera kayan aikin da aka haɗa tare da haɗakar da ƙarfe mai ƙarfi tare da jikin ƙarfe mai laushi amma tauri. Ba a taɓa yin ƙanƙantar ƙa'idodin ƙa'idar ƙarfe na tsoffin kayan aikin ƙarfe na Afirka ba tukuna, don haka ƙila za a iya gyara wannan ƙarshe ta aikin nan gaba.

Ba kamar masu aikin ƙarfe na ƙarfe a Turai, Indiya ko China ba, ma'aikatan ƙarfe na Afirka ba su yi amfani da wutar lantarki ba wajen hura wuta a cikin tanda mai girma da za a iya hura su da hannu. Wannan wani bangare ne saboda yankin kudu da hamadar sahara na da karancin karfin samar da ruwa fiye da sauran yankuna.[ana buƙatar hujja] amma kuma saboda babu dabarun injiniya da aka ɓullo da su don canza motsin juyawa zuwa motsi na layi. Masu aikin ƙarfe na Afirka sun ƙirƙira hanyar da za su ƙara girman tanderun da suke yi, kuma ta haka ne adadin ƙarfe da ake samarwa a kowane caji, ba tare da amfani da ƙwanƙwasa ba. Wannan ita ce tanderun daftarin yanayi, wanda aka tsara don isa yanayin yanayin da ake buƙata don samarwa da kuma zubar da shinge ta hanyar amfani da tasirin bututun hayaki - iska mai zafi yana barin batun tanderun yana jan iska mai yawa ta hanyar buɗewa a tushe. (Kada a ruɗe tanderun da aka zana na halitta da tanderun wutar lantarki, waɗanda ba koyaushe ƙanana ne ba). Tanderun daftarin yanayi ita ce sabuwar sabuwar Afirka a cikin ferrous karfe wanda ya bazu ko'ina. Tanderun daftarin yanayi sun kasance halayen musamman na gandun daji na savanna na Afirka, kuma an yi amfani da su a cikin bel guda biyu - a cikin gandun daji na Sahel daga Senegal a yamma zuwa Sudan a gabas, da kuma a cikin gandun daji na Brachystegia-Julbenardia (miombo) daga kudancin Tanzaniya zuwa arewacin Zimbabwe. Tsofaffi mafi daɗaɗɗen tanderun da aka samo har yanzu suna cikin Burkina Faso kuma sun kasance a cikin ƙarni na bakwai/8 Babban tarin slag (ton 10,000 zuwa 60,000) da aka lura a wasu wurare a cikin Togo, Burkina Faso da Mali suna nuna babban haɓakar samar da ƙarfe a Afirka ta Yamma bayan 1000 AZ wanda ke da alaƙa da yaɗuwar fasahar furna. Amma ba duk manyan sikelin ƙarfe da aka samar a Afirka an haɗa shi da tanderun daftarin yanayi ba - na Meroe (Sudan, na farko zuwa ƙarni na biyar AZ) an samar da su ne ta hanyar murhun wuta da aka yi amfani da su, da kuma manyan masana'antar ƙarfe na 18th-19th karni na ciyayi na Kamaru ta hanyar tanderun da ba a kunna wuta ba. Dukkanin narkakkar karfen da aka rubuta ya zuwa yanzu suna cikin yankunan Sahel da Sudan da suka taso daga Senegal a yamma zuwa Sudan a gabas; babu wani taro mai narkewar ƙarfe irin waɗannan a tsakiyar ko kudancin Afirka.

Akwai kuma shaidar cewa kakannin mutanen Haya sun yi ƙarfen carbon a Yammacin Tanzaniya tun a farkon shekaru 2,300-2,000 da suka gabata ta hanyar hadaddun tsari na "kafin dumama" barin yanayin zafi a cikin tanderu ya kai 1800 ° C. [16] [17]

Wadannan fasahohin yanzu sun bace a dukkan yankunan da ke kudu da hamadar Saharar Afirka, sai dai idan aka yi la’akari da wasu fasahohin, ga wasu yankuna masu nisa na Habasha. A yawancin yankuna na Afirka an daina amfani da su kafin 1950. Babban dalilin hakan shi ne karuwar samar da ƙarfe da ake shigo da su daga Turai. Maƙeran har yanzu suna aiki a yankunan karkara na Afirka don kera da gyara kayan aikin noma, amma ƙarfen da suke amfani da shi ana shigo da su ne, ko kuma ana sake sarrafa su daga tsoffin motoci.

Amfani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ra'ayin gaba da gefe na Mafa ƙasa-ƙasa nau'in ƙananan murhu

Ba ƙarfe ne kawai ƙarfe da ake amfani da shi a Afirka ba; An yi amfani da tagulla da tagulla sosai. Duk da haka ci gaba da yaɗuwar ƙarfe yana nufin dole ne ya kasance yana da kyawawan kaddarorin don amfani daban-daban. Dorewarsa akan jan karfe yana nufin an yi amfani da shi don yin kayan aiki da yawa tun daga guntun noma zuwa makami. An yi amfani da ƙarfe don kayan ado na sirri a cikin kayan ado, kayan fasaha masu ban sha'awa har ma da kayan aiki. An yi amfani da shi don tsabar kudi da agogo na nau'i daban-daban. Misali, kisi pennies; wani nau'in kudin ƙarfe na gargajiya da ake amfani da shi don kasuwanci a yammacin Afirka. Suna karkatattun sandunan ƙarfe daga <30 cm zuwa> 2m tsayi. Shawarwari don amfani da su sun bambanta daga ma'amalar aure, ko kuma kawai cewa sun kasance siffa mai dacewa don sufuri, narkewa da sake fasalin abin da ake so. Akwai nau'i-nau'i daban-daban na kudin ƙarfe, sau da yawa a yankuna daban-daban a siffar da darajar. Iron bai maye gurbin sauran kayan aiki ba, kamar dutse da kayan aikin katako, amma yawan samarwa da nau'ikan amfani da aka haɗu sun yi girma sosai idan aka kwatanta.

Muhimmancin al'adun zamantakewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yana da mahimmanci a gane cewa yayin da samar da ƙarfe ke da babban tasiri a kan Afirka duka a al'adu a kasuwanci da fadada (Martinelli, 1993, 1996, 2004), da kuma zamantakewa a cikin imani da al'ada, akwai babban bambancin yanki. Yawancin shaidun mahimmancin al'adu sun fito ne daga ayyukan da al'adun Afirka daban-daban suke aiwatarwa a yau. Bayanan ƙabilanci sun kasance da amfani sosai wajen sake gina abubuwan da suka shafi samar da ƙarfe a baya, duk da haka sake gina gine-ginen zai iya zama gurɓatacce ta lokaci da tasiri daga binciken masana ilimin ɗan adam.

Sarrafa samar da ƙarfe sau da yawa ya kasance ta hanyar ma'aikatan ƙarfe da kansu, ko "matsakaicin iko" a cikin manyan al'ummomi kamar masarautu ko jihohi (Barros 2000, p. 154). An yi imanin cewa buƙatar ciniki ta haifar da wasu al'ummomin da ke aiki kawai a matsayin masu sana'a ko smiths, waɗanda suka ƙware a ɗaya daga cikin ƙwararrun ƙwararrun da ake buƙata don aikin samarwa. Mai yiyuwa ne wannan kuma ya kai ga ’yan kasuwa da suka kware wajen jigilar kayayyaki da cinikin ƙarfe (Barros 2000, pg152). Duk da haka, ba kowane yanki ne ke cin gajiyar samar da ƙarfe na masana'antu ba, wasu sun haifar da matsalolin muhalli waɗanda suka taso saboda yawan saren dazuzzuka da ake buƙata don samar da gawayi don hura wutar lantarki (misali rikicin muhalli na yankin Mema (Holl 2000, pg48)).

Masu gyaran ƙarfe da maƙera sun sami matsayi daban-daban na zamantakewa dangane da al'adarsu. Wasu sun kasance ƙasa a cikin al'umma saboda yanayin aikin hannu da ƙungiyoyi tare da maita, misali a cikin Maasai da Abzinawa (Childs et al. 2005 shafi 288). A wasu al'adu sau da yawa ana ba da basirar ta hanyar iyali kuma za su sami babban matsayi na zamantakewa (wani lokaci ma ana daukar su a matsayin masu sihiri) a cikin al'ummarsu. Ilimi mai ƙarfi ya ba su damar samar da kayan da dukan al'umma suka dogara da su. A wasu al'ummomi an yi imani da cewa suna da irin ƙarfin ikon allahntaka wanda ya sa ake ɗaukansu a matsayin sarki ko sarki. Misali, wani tono a kabarin sarki Rugira (Great Lakes, Gabashin Afirka) ya sami wasu magudanan ƙarfe guda biyu da aka sanya a kansa (Childs et al. 2005, p. 288 a cikin Herbert 1993: ch.6). A wasu al'adu an gina labarun tatsuniya a kusa da ginin ƙarfe na ƙarfe wanda ke jaddada mahimmancinsu irin na allah.

Abubuwan ibada

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sau da yawa ana aiwatar da aikin narkawa daga sauran al'umma. Ma’aikatan ƙarfe suna yin al’ada da aka tsara don ƙarfafa samarwa mai kyau da kuma kawar da mugayen ruhohi, gami da waƙa da addu’o’i, da ba da magunguna da sadaukarwa. Yawancin lokaci ana saka na ƙarshe a cikin tanderun kanta ko kuma an binne su a ƙarƙashin gindin tanderun. Misalan waɗannan sun samo asali ne tun farkon zamanin ƙarfe a Tanzaniya da Ruwanda (Schmidt 1997 a cikin Childs et al., 2005 p. 293). Maza waɗanda suka mallaki ilimi da basira don yin aiki da ƙarfe, suna da matsayi mai girma na zamantakewa kuma ana girmama su sau da yawa don gwaninta. Akidar da ke tattare da hakan ita ce, wadannan ‘masu aikin maƙera’ suna da wasu iyakoki na ruhaniya da na ɗan adam wanda ya ba su damar fitar da furen daga ƙarfen ƙarfe, wanda a ƙarshe ya sami matsayi mafi girma na zamantakewa.

Wasu al'adu sun haɗa alamar jima'i tare da samar da ƙarfe. An haɗu da narkewa tare da haɓakar al'ummarsu, An kwatanta samar da furen da tunanin mutum da haihuwa. Akwai haramtacciyar jima'i da ke kewaye da tsarin. Maza ne suka aiwatar da aikin narkar da shi gaba ɗaya kuma galibi daga ƙauyen. Don mata su taɓa kowane kayan ko kasancewa a wurin na iya kawo cikas ga nasarar samarwa. An kuma yi wa tanderun ƙawanya kamar mace, uwar fure. [18]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Chirikure_2015
  2. 1 2 3 Alpern, Stanley B. (2005). "Did They or Didn't They Invent It? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa". History in Africa. 32: 41–94. doi:10.1353/hia.2005.0003. Retrieved 2024-11-01.
  3. 1 2 3 Killick, David (2004-06-01). "Review Essay. What do we know about African iron working?". Journal of African Archaeology. 2: 97–112. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10021.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Holl, Augustin F. C. (June 2020). "The Origins of African Metallurgies". Oxford Research Encyclopedias. 22 (4): 415–438 (PDF pp. 1–45). doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.63. ISBN 9780190854584. OCLC 7869925414.
  5. ↑ Chirikure, Shadreck (2010). "On Evidence, Ideas and Fantasy: The Origins of Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa Thoughts on É. Zangato & A.F.C. Holl's "On the Iron Front"". Journal of African Archaeology. 8 (1): 25–28. ISSN 1612-1651.
  6. ↑ Craddock, Paul (2010). "New Paradigms for Old Iron: Thoughts on É. Zangato & A.F.C. Holl's New Paradigms for Old Iron: Thoughts on É. Zangato & A.F.C. Holl's "On the Iron Front"". Journal of African Archaeology. 8 (1): 29–36. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10157.
  7. 1 2 3 Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023). "Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa". African Archaeological Review. 40 (3): 531–543. doi:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 10004759980 Check |oclc= value (help). S2CID 261858183 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  8. ↑ Eggert, Manfred K. H. (2010-10-25). "Too Old? Remarks on New Evidence of Ironworking in North-Central Africa". Journal of African Archaeology. 8 (1): 37–38. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10158.
  9. ↑ Champion, Louis; et al. (15 December 2022). "A question of rite—pearl millet consumption at Nok culture sites, Nigeria (second/first millennium BC)" (PDF). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 32 (3): 263–283. doi:10.1007/s00334-022-00902-0. S2CID 254761854 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  10. ↑ K. Shillington, History of Africa (3rd ed. 2005), 61–68[dead link].
  11. 1 2 Pringle, Heather (2009). "Seeking Africa's First Iron Men" (PDF). Science. 323 (5911): 200–202. doi:10.1126/science.323.5911.200. PMID 19131604. S2CID 206583802. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-27. Retrieved 2025-06-22.
  12. ↑ Holl, Augustin F. C. (June 2020). "The Origins of African Metallurgies". Oxford Research Encyclopedias. 22 (4): 12–13. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.63. ISBN 9780190854584. OCLC 7869925414.
  13. ↑ "Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy Sites of Burkina Faso". UNESCO World Heritage List. UNESCO. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
  14. ↑ Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. "Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja". Academia.edu. University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  15. ↑ Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy". Journal of World Prehistory. 22 (4): 415–438. doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6. S2CID 161611760.
  16. ↑ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–1089. Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. JSTOR 1746308. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350.
  17. ↑ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". Journal of Field Archaeology. 10 (4): 421–434. doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.
  18. ↑ Schmidt, Peter (2009). "Tropes, Materiality, and Ritual Embodiment of African Iron Smelting Furnaces as Human Figures". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 16 (3): 262–282. doi:10.1007/s10816-009-9065-0. S2CID 144168887.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karfe_na_ƙarfe_a_Afirka&oldid=645730"