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Kasashen common wealth

Bayanai
Iri intergovernmental organization (en) Fassara da commonwealth (en) Fassara
Ƙaramar kamfani na
Commonwealth Business Council (en) Fassara, Commonwealth Secretariat (en) Fassara, Commonwealth Foundation (en) Fassara da Commonwealth War Graves Commission (en) Fassara
Mulki
Shugaba Charles, Yariman Wales
Shugaba Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey
Hedkwata Marlborough House (en) Fassara
Subdivisions
Asturaliya
Birtaniya
Indiya
Kanada
Sabuwar Zelandiya
Tarihi
Ƙirƙira 11 Disamba 1931
Wanda yake bi Daular Biritaniya

thecommonwealth.org


Commonwealth of Nations sau da yawa ana kiranta da Commonwealth Commonwealth ko kuma kawai Commonwealth,[1] ] [2] ƙungiya ce ta ƙasa da ƙasa ta ƙasashe membobi 56, mafi yawansu tsoffin yankuna ne na Daular Biritaniya waɗanda daga ciki suka haɓaka.[3] An haɗa su ta hanyar amfani da harshen Ingilishi da alaƙar al'adu da tarihi. Manyan cibiyoyi na kungiyar su ne Sakatariyar Commonwealth, wacce ke mai da hankali kan dangantakar gwamnatoci, da Gidauniyar Commonwealth, wacce ke mai da hankali kan alakar da ba ta gwamnati ba tsakanin kasashe mambobinta[,[4] Ƙungiyoyi da yawa suna da alaƙa da aiki a cikin Commonwealth. [5] "[6] Ƙasar Commonwealth ta samo asali ne tun farkon rabin karni na 20 tare da kawar da mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya ta hanyar karuwar ikon mallakar yankunanta. An ƙirƙira shi azaman Ƙungiyar Commonwealth ta Biritaniya ta hanyar sanarwar Balfour a taron 1926 na Imperial, [7] kuma Burtaniya ta tsara ta ta Dokar Westminster a cikin 1931. A cikin 1949, sanarwar London ta ba da izinin Indiya ta ci gaba da kasancewa a cikin Commonwealth a [8] bsbmatsagshshvsyin jamhuriya, wanda ke nuna gagarumin juyin halittar ƙungiyar.[[9]] ,[10] [11] [12] [13] Shugaban Commonwealth shine Charles III. Shi sarki ne na kasashe membobi 15, wadanda aka fi sani da Commonwealth realms, yayin da wasu membobi 36 ke jamhuriya, wasu biyar kuma suna da sarakuna daban-daban. Ko da yake ya zama shugaban kasa bayan mutuwar mahaifiyarsa, Elizabeth II, matsayin ba gado ne na fasaha ba.[14]

Tarihi

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Asalin tunani Manyan labarai: Daular Burtaniya da Tarihi na Daular Burtaniya

Daftarin Yarjejeniyar Anglo-Irish ta 1921, tare da "Daular Biritaniya" ta ketare kuma "Ƙasashen Duniya na Birtaniyya" an ƙara da hannu.[15] ,[16] [17] [18] Firayim Minista na membobi biyar a taron Firayim Minista na Commonwealth na 1944: (L-R) Mackenzie King (Kanada), Jan Smuts (Afirka ta Kudu), Winston Churchill (Birtaniya), Peter Fraser (New Zealand) da John Curtin (Australia) Sarauniya Elizabeth ta biyu, a cikin jawabinta ga Kanada a Ranar Mulki a 1959, ta yi nuni da cewa Tarayyar Kanada a ranar 1 ga Yuli, 1867 ita ce haihuwar "ƙasa ta farko mai cin gashin kanta a cikin daular Burtaniya". Ta bayyana cewa: "Don haka, wannan kuma alama ce ta farkon wannan ƙungiyar 'yanci ta ƙasashe masu zaman kansu wanda a yanzu ake kira Commonwealth of Nations."[19]Commonwealth of Nations". Taro na Firayim Minista na Burtaniya da na mulkin mallaka sun faru lokaci-lokaci daga na farko a cikin 1887, wanda ya haifar da ƙirƙirar Taro na Imperial a 1911[20] [21] [22] Ƙungiyar Commonwealth ta haɓaka daga tarurrukan daular. Jan Smuts ya gabatar da takamaiman shawara a cikin 1917 lokacin da ya ƙirƙira kalmar "Ƙasashen Commonwealth na Burtaniya" kuma ya tsara "dangantakar tsarin mulkina gaba da gyare-gyare a ainihin"[23] a taron zaman lafiya na Paris na 1919, wanda wakilai daga Dominions da kuma United Kingdom suka halarta.[[24] ,[25] Kalmar ta farko ta sami amincewar doka ta sarauta a cikin Yarjejeniyar Anglo-Irish na 1921, lokacin da kalmar Burtaniya [26]

Tallace-tallace da kuma tsari

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A cikin sanarwar Balfour a taron Imperial na 1926, Ƙasar Ingila da yankunanta sun yarda cewa sun kasance "Ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu a cikin Daular Biritaniya, daidai da matsayi, ba za su kasance [27] karkashin juna ba a kowane bangare na al'amuran cikin gida ko na waje, ko da yagavke sun haɗu da haɗin kai ga Crown, kuma suna da dangantaka da 'yanci a matsayin mambobin kungiyar Commonwealth na Birtaniya." Kalmar [28]'Commonwealth' ta kasance a hukumance don bayyana al'umma.[29] [30] [31][32] [33]. [34] [35] Dokar Westminster ta tsara waɗannan bangarorin dangantakar a cikin 1931, wacce ta shafi Kanada ba tare da buƙatar tabbatarwa ba, amma Australia, New Zealand da Newfoundland dole ne su amince da dokar don ta fara aiki. Newfoundland bai taba yin haka ba saboda matsalar tattalin arziki da kuma bukatar taimakon kudi daga Landan, Newfoundland da son rai ta amince da dakatar da mulkin kai a shekara ta 1934 kuma mulki ya koma ga ikon kai tsaye daga London. Daga baya Newfoundland ta shiga Kanada a matsayin lardinta na goma a cikin 1949.[36] Ostiraliya da New Zealand sun amince da dokar a cikin 1942 da 1947 bi da bi.[37] [38] [39] Ko da yake Tarayyar Afirka ta Kudu ba ta cikin Masarautar da ke buƙatar yin amfani da Dokar Westminster don aiwatar da ita, dokoki biyu - Matsayin Dokar Tarayyar, 1934, da Dokar Gudanarwa na Sarauta da Dokar Hatimi, 1934 - Majalisar Afirka ta Kudu ta zartar da ita don tabbatar da matsayin Afirka ta Kudu a matsayin kasa mai 'yanci, da kuma shigar da doka ta Afirka ta Kudu.[40] [41] [42] Sarauniya Elizabeth ta II ta ba da sabon manufa ta bayan yakin Commonwealth a cikin watsa shirye-shiryenta na Ranar Kirsimeti ta 1953, wanda a cikinta ta hango Commonwealth a matsayin "sabon ra'ayi - wanda aka gina akan mafi girman halayen Ruhun Mutum: abota, aminci, da sha'awar 'yanci da zaman lafiya".[43] Duk da haka, baitul malin Biritaniya ya yi rauni sosai, ta yadda ba za ta iya yin aiki ba tare da Amurka ba. Bugu da ƙari kuma, asarar ayyukan tsaro da na kuɗi ya lalata hangen nesa na farkon ƙarni na 20 na Joseph Chamberlain na daular duniya wanda zai iya haɗa fifikon Imperial, tsaron juna da ci gaban zamantakewa. Bugu da kari, rawar da Birtaniyya ke takawa a cikin harkokin duniya ya zama mai iyaka, musamman tare da asarar Indiya da Singapore.[44] bYayin da 'yan siyasar Birtaniya da farko suka yi fatan cewa Commonwealth za ta kiyaye tare da aiwatar da tasirin Birtaniyya, sannu a hankali sun daina sha'awar su, in ji Krishnan Srinivasan. Hankalin farko ya ragu yayin da manufofin Birtaniyya suka shiga wuta a tarurrukan Commonwealth. Ra'ayin jama'a ya shiga cikin damuwa yayin da bakin haure daga kasashe da ba fararen fata suka zama manya ba (duba kuma: kasashen Commonwealth).[45] [46] Kalmar "Sabuwar Commonwealth" ta sami amfani a cikin Burtaniya (musamman a cikin 1960s da 1970s) don komawa zuwa ƙasashen da aka raba mulkin mallaka kwanan nan, galibi waɗanda ba fararen fata da ƙasashe masu tasowa ba. An yi amfani da shi sau da yawa a cikin muhawara game da ƙaura daga waɗannan ƙasashe[47] "[48] [49] [50] [51] [52]

jigajigen common wealth

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Ana yawan ganin sanarwar London a matsayin alamar farkon Commonwealth na zamani. Bayan tsarin Indiya, wasu al'ummomi sun zama jumhuriya, ko masarautun tsarin mulki tare da nasu sarakuna. Yayin da wasu ƙasashe ke riƙe da sarauta iri ɗaya da Burtaniya, masarautunsu sun sami ci gaba daban-daban kuma nan da nan suka zama (ko kuma sun riga sun zama) da gaske masu zaman kansu daga masarautar Burtaniya. Ana daukar sarki a matsayin wani mutum na shari'a na daban a kowace daula, duk da cewa mutum daya ne sarkin kowace masarauta.[[53] [54] ][55] [56] [57] [58] Shawarwari don haɗa da Turai A daidai lokacin da Jamus da Faransa tare da Belgium, da Italiya, da Luxembourg, da Netherlands, suke tsara yadda za su zama Tarayyar Turai, da kuma ƙasashen Afirka da suka sami 'yancin kai, suka shiga cikin ƙungiyar Commonwealth, an yi ta yawo da sabbin ra'ayoyi don hana Birtaniya zama saniyar ware a harkokin tattalin arziki. Cinikin Biritaniya da Commonwealth ya ninka kasuwancinta da Turai sau hudu. A cikin 1956 da 1957, gwamnatin Biritaniya, a ƙarƙashin Firayim Minista Anthony Eden, ta ɗauki "Shirin G" don ƙirƙirar yankin ciniki cikin 'yanci na Turai yayin da kuma ke kare matsayin da aka fi so na Commonwealth.[59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67]

Fadadawa

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Memba na farko da aka yarda ba tare da wata alaƙa da tsarin mulki ba da Masarautar Biritaniya ita ce Mozambique - tsohuwar mulkin mallaka na Portugal - a cikin 1995 bayan zaɓen dimokuradiyya na farko. Shigarta ta gabaci sanarwar Edinburgh da ka'idojin zama membobin yanzu.[68] A shekara ta 2009, Rwanda ta zama kasa ta biyu da ta shiga cikin kungiyar[69] ba wata. da wata alaka da tsarin mulkin kasar ba. Ƙasar amintacciyar ƙas<ar Beljiyam ce wadda ta kasance gundumar Jamus ta Gabashin Afirvzka har zuwa yakin duniya na ɗaya.[70] [71] A cikin 2022, Togo, tsohon yanki na Faransanci, da Gabon, tsohuwar mulkin mallaka na Faransa, sun shiga Commonwealth, duk da cewa ba su taɓa kasancewa ƙarƙashin mulkin Birtaniyya ba.[72] ministan harkokin wajen Togo Robert Dusseyya bayyana cewa, yana sa ran zama mambobin kungiyar Commonwealth za su samar da damammaki ga 'yan kasar Togo don koyon Turanci, tare da fadada damarsu ta samun ilimi da al'adu. Dussey ya kuma bayyana cewa kasar na neman kusanci da duniyar Anglophone[73]An dakatar da Gabon a wani bangare daga kungiyar Commonwealth a watan Satumba na 2023 bayan juyin mulkin da sojoji suka yi, tare da shekaru biyu da kungiyar Ministocin Commonwealth ta ba kasar don gudanar da sabon zabe kafin a yi la’akari da cikakken dakatar da zama membobin Commonwealth.[74]] A shekarar 2024, ciniki tsakanin Togo da Biritaniya ya karu da kashi 94 cikin dari; kasar kuma ta nemi fadada kasuwanci da Indiya.[l[75] [76] [77] [78] ,,[79] [80] [81]

Tsarin shugaban

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Shugaban Commonwealth Babban labarin: Shugaban Commonwealth

Sarauniya Elizabeth ta biyu, shugabar kungiyar Commonwealth, ta shafe shekaru 70 tana mulki. A ƙarƙashin tsarin sanarwar London, Charles III shine Shugaban Commonwealth.[[82] [83] koyarwa, idan sarki ya mutu, wanda zai gaje shi ba zai zama sabon shugaban Commonwealth ba kai tsaye.[84] Duk da haka, a taron da suka yi a watan Afrilun 2018, shugabannin Commonwealth sun amince cewa Yarima Charles ya gaji mahaifiyarsa Elizabeth ta biyu a matsayin shugaba bayan rasuwarta.[85] Matsayin alama ne, yana wakiltar ƙungiyar 'yanci na membobin 'yanci, [86] yawancinsu (36) jumhuriya ne, kuma biyar suna da sarakunan gidajen sarauta daban-daban (Brunei, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malaysia da Tonga). [87]

Taron shugabannin Commonwealth

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Babban labarin: Taron shugabannin Commonwealth Babban taron yanke shawara na kungiyar shine taron shugabannin Commonwealth na shekara-shekara (CHOGM), inda shugabannin gwamnatocin Commonwealth, ciki har da (a tsakanin sauran) Firayim Minista da shugabanni, . Haka kuma ana gudanar da tarurrukan ma’aikatun kudi, ma’aikatun shari’a, ma’aikatun lafiya da sauran su. Membobi masu bin bashin, a matsayin membobi na musamman a gabansu, ba a gayyatar su don aika wakilai zuwa ko dai taron ministoci ko CHOGMs[88]

Shugaban gwamnati da ke karbar bakuncin CHOGM ana kiransa kujera-in-ofis (CIO) kuma yana rike da mukamin har zuwa CHOGM mai zuwa[89]

Sakatariyar Commonwealth

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Babban labarin: Sakatariyar Commonwealth [90] Marlborough House, London, hedkwatar Sakatariyar Commonwealth, babbar cibiyar gwamnatocin Commonwealth.[91] Sakatariyar Commonwealth, wacce aka kafa a cikin 1965, ita ce babbar hukumar kula da gwamnatocin Commonwealth, da ke ba da damar tuntubar juna da hadin gwiwa tsakanin gwamnatocin kasashe da kasashe.[92] yana da alhakin gwamnatocin membobin gaba ɗaya. Sakatariya ce ke wakilta Commonwealth of Nations a babban taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a matsayin mai sa ido. Sakatariyar ta shirya tarurrukan Commonwealth, tarurrukan ma'aikatu, tarukan shawarwari da tattaunawa ta fasaha; yana taimakawa ci gaban manufofi da bayar da shawarwarin manufofi, da kuma sauƙaƙe sadarwa tsakanin gwamnatocin mambobi. Hakanan yana ba da taimakon fasaha don taimakawa gwamnatoci a cikin ci gaban zamantakewa da tattalin arziƙin ƙasashensu da kuma [93] mahimman ƙimar siyasa ta Commonwealth.[94] [95]

Sakatariyar dai na karkashin jagorancin babban sakatare ne, wanda shugabannin gwamnatocin Commonwealth ke zabar wa’adin da bai wuce wa’adi biyu na shekaru hudu ba. Babban sakatare da mataimakan manyan sakatarorin biyu ne ke jagorantar sassan Sakatariyar. [96] nemi fasfo na gaggawa na Biritaniya.[97] Ostiraliya tana ba da Takaddun Shaida a cikin yanayi na musamman ga mazaunan Commonwealth waɗanda ba za su iya samun ingantattun takaddun balaguro daga ƙasashensu na asali ba kuma dole ne su yi tafiya cikin gaggawa.[98] [99] Ƙungiya ta kud da kud a tsakanin ƙasashen Commonwealth tana bayyana a cikin ka'idojin diflomasiyya. Misali, lokacin da ake yin cudanya da juna, gwamnatocin Commonwealth suna musayar manyan kwamishinoni maimakon jakadu.,[100] [101]

Ƙarin abubuwa

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Haɗin kai tsakanin ƙungiyoyin ƙasashen Commonwealth sun haɗa da waɗanda ke wanzu ta tsarin shari'a da na soja. [102] [103] [104] [105] [106]

Shari'a

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Kwamitin shari'a na majalisar masu zaman kansu ita ce babbar kotun daukaka kara ga kasashen Commonwealth da dama. Kwamitin shari'a na majalisar masu zaman kansu shine babban kotun koli na kasashe 14 na Commonwealth, ciki har da tsibirin Cook da Niue waɗanda ke ƙarƙashin Mulkin New Zealand (ko da yake ita kanta New Zealand ba ta yin ƙarar zuwa majalisar masu zaman kansu).[107] ,[108] 'Yan ƙasa na Commonwealth sun cancanci nadawa zuwa Babban Kotun Fiji, tare da kotun ta dogara da alkalai daga sauran ƙasashen Commonwealth.[109] [110]

Soja

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Sojoji na Sojojin Indiya 5th Gurkha Rifles a Japan bayan yakin Japan a matsayin wani bangare na Rundunar Ma'aikata ta Burtaniya, 1946 Jama'ar Commonwealth sun cancanci yin aiki a cikin Sojojin Burtaniya. A cewar rundunar sojojin Burtaniya, "Sojoji na gama gari su ne, kuma koyaushe za su kasance, wani muhimmin bangare mai kima da kima na tsarin sojojin Burtaniya."[111] [112] [113]

Memba

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Membobin Commonwealth suna inuwa gwargwadon matsayinsu na siyasa. Ana nuna masarautun Commonwealth da shuɗi, yayin da jumhuriyar launin ruwan hoda, kuma membobin da ke da nasu masarautu ana nuna su cikin kore. Ma'auni[114] [115] ,[116] Babban labarin: Ma'auni na membobin Commonwealth na Ƙasashen[117] Sharuɗɗan zama memba na Commonwealth of Nations sun haɓaka cikin lokaci daga jerin takaardu daban-daban. Dokar Westminster 1931, a matsayin ainihin takaddar kafa ƙungiyar, ta shimfida cewa zama memba yana buƙatar iko. [118] bayan guguwar mulkin mallaka a cikin 1960s, waɗannan ka'idodin tsarin mulki sun haɓaka ta hanyar siyasa, tattalin arziki, da zamantakewa. An tsara na farko a cikin 1961, lokacin da aka yanke shawarar cewa mutunta daidaiton launin fata zai zama abin da ake bukata don zama memba, wanda kai tsaye ya kai ga janye aikace-aikacen Afirka ta Kudu (wanda aka bukaci su yia karkashin tsarin sanarwar London kan zama jamhuriya). Baki 14 na .[119]

Waɗannan sharuɗɗan sun kasance ba za a iya aiwatar da su ba tsawon shekaru ashirin, [120] har zuwa 1991, an fitar da sanarwar Harare, tare da sadaukar da shugabanni don yin amfani da ka'idodin Singapore don kammala mulkin mallaka, ƙarshen yakin cacar baki, da ƙarshen wariyar launin fata a Afirka ta Kudu.[121] hanyoyin da za a yi amfani da waɗannan ka'idodin an ƙirƙira su ne, kuma hanyar da aka bayyana, ta hanyar 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, wanda ya haifar da Ƙungiyar Ayyukan Ministoci (CMAG), [122] [123]

Membobi

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Babban labarin: Membobin Commonwealth of Nations [124] ,[125] Tutocin kasashen Commonwealth a dandalin majalisar dokokin birnin Landan a ranar Commonwealth [126] Tutar Commonwealth na shawagi a majalisar dokokin Canada a Ottawa[127] Ƙungiyar Commonwealth ta ƙunshi ƙasashe 56, a duk nahiyoyin da ke zaune.[128] Membobi 33 ƙananan jihohi ne, ciki har da 25 ƙananan jihohi masu tasowa. A cikin 2023, Commonwealth tana da yawan jbma'a biliyan 2.5.[129] Commonwealth ita ce babbar ƙungiyar 'Duniya ta uku' ko 'Ƙasashen Duniya ta Kudu'.[130]

Tare da yawan jama'a biliyan 1.4 a cikin 2023, Indiya ita ce ƙasa mafi yawan al'umma ta Commonwealth. Tuvalu ita ce mafi ƙarancin mamba, tana da kusan mutane 12,000 a lokacin.,[131]

Ana amfani da matsayin "memba a arrears" don nuna waɗanda ke bin bashin biyan kuɗin shiga. Asalin matsayin an san shi da “mamba na musamman”, amma an sake masa suna a cikin shawarar kwamitin membobin Commonwealth.[132] A halin yanzu babu membobi da ake bin bashin. Memba na ƙarshe da ake bin bashi, Nauru, ya koma cikakken memba a watan Yuni 2011.[133] baya Nauru ya canza tsakanin na musamman da cikakken memba tun lokacin da ya shiga Commonwealth, ya danganta da yanayin kuɗin sa.[134]

Masu nema

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Duba kuma: Membobin Commonwealth of Nations § Membobi masu zuwa,[135] A cikin 1997 shugabannin Commonwealth sun yarda cewa, don zama memba na Commonwealth, mai neman ƙasar ya kamata, a matsayin mai mulkin, ta sami ƙungiyar tsarin mulki tare da memba na Commonwealth; cewa yakamata ta bi dabi'u, ka'idoji da fifiko kamar yadda aka tsara a cikin sanarwar Harare; da kuma cewa ta yarda da ka'idoji da ka'idoji na Commonwealth[136] [137] ,[138] [139] 'Yan siyasar Sudan ta Kudu sun nuna sha'awar shiga kungiyar Commonwealth.,[140] wata babbar majiyar Commonwealth ta bayyana a cikin 2006 cewa "mutane da yawa sun ɗauki sha'awar Isra'ila, amma babu wata hanya ta yau da kullun".,[141] isreal da Falasdinu duka biyu ne masu yuwuwar zama mamba.[142] [143] [144] Shugaba Yahya Jammeh ba tare da wani bangare ba ya janye Gambia daga kungiyar Commonwealth a watan Oktoban 2013.[145] Sai dai sabon zababben shugaban kasar Adama Barrow ya mayar da kasar ga kungiyar a watan Fabrairun 2018[146] [147]

Dakatarwa

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Babban labarin: Dakatarwa daga Commonwealth of Nations[148] Ana iya dakatar da membobin "daga majalisun Commonwealth" saboda "tsanani ko ci gaba" na sanarwar Harare, musamman wajen kawar da alhakinsu na samun mulkin dimokuradiyya.[149] Kungiyar Ayyukan Ministoci ta Commonwealth (CMAG) ce ta amince da dakatarwa, wanda ke yin taro akai-akai don magance yuwuwar keta sanarwar Harare. Membobin da aka dakatar ba su da wakilci a tarurrukan shugabannin Commonwealth da ministoci, duk da cewa sun kasance membobin kungiyar.[150] [151]"L[152] ,,[153] An dakatar da Zimbabwe daga cikin Commonwealth a lokacin shugabancin Robert Mugabe (hoton), daga baya kuma ya fice. Kasar ta nemi shiga ne bayan saukar Mugabe daga mulki.[154] An dakatar da Najeriya tsakanin 11 ga Nuwamba 1995 zuwa 29 ga Mayu 1999, [155] bayan kisan da aka yi wa Ken Saro-Wiwa a jajibirin 1995 CHOGM.,[156]I Pakistan ita ce kasa ta biyu da aka dakatar, a ranar 18 ga Oktoban 1999, bayan juyin mulkin da sojoji suka yi wa Pervez Musharraf.[[157] [158] an dakatar da Zimbabwe a shekara ta 2002 saboda damuwa game da manufofin zabe da gyara filaye na gwamnatin Robert Mugabe ta ZANU-PF,[[159] hkafin ta fice dagabh. kungiyar a shekara ta 2003.[160] a ranar 15 ga Mayu 2018, Zimbabwe ta nemi shiga Commonwealth.[[161] [162] [163] [164] [165]

Janyewa da ƙarewa

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Duba kuma: Membobin Ƙungiyar Ƙasashen Duniya § Tsofaffin mambobi, da Membobin Ƙungiyar Ƙasashen Duniya § Membobin da aka rushe[166] [167] [168] Kamar yadda kasancewa memba na son rai ne kawai, gwamnatocin membobin zasu iya zaɓar kowane lokaci don barin Commonwealth. Jiha ta farko da ta fara yin hakan ita ce Ireland a 1949 bayan yanke shawarar ayyana kanta a matsayin jamhuriya, ko da yake ba ta shiga cikin Commonwealth tun 1932. A lokacin, duk membobin sun yarda da sarkin Burtaniya a matsayin shugaban kasa a matsayin sharadi na zama memba.[169] [170] [171] [172] Pakistan ta fita ne a ranar 30 ga Janairun 1972 don nuna rashin amincewa da amincewar Commonwealth ta ballewar Bangladesh, amma ta koma a ranar 2 ga Agusta 1989. An dakatar da zama mamba a Zimbabwe a 2002 saboda zargin take hakkin dan Adam da rashin gwamnati da gangan, kuma gwamnatin Zimbabwe ta dakatar da zama mamba a 2003.[173] Gambiya ta bar Commonwealth a ranar 3 ga Oktoba 2013, [174] kuma ta shiga ranar 8 ga Fabrairu 2018.[175] [176] [177] ,[178] Maldives sun fice daga Commonwealth a ranar 13 ga Oktoba 2016, [179] [180] ambaton "ayyukan azabtarwa ga Maldives tun daga 2012" bayan zargin tilastawa shugaban Maldives Mohamed Nasheed murabus daga cikin dalilan janyewa.[181] bayan zaben Ibrahim Mohamed Solih a matsayin shugaban kasa a watan Nuwamba 2018, Maldives ta bayyana aniyar ta ta sake neman shiga kungiyar Commonwealth.[182] ya koma ranar 1 ga Fabrairu, 2020.[183] [184] [185]

[186] [187]

Siyasa

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Manufa da ayyuka An fara zayyana manufofin Commonwealth a cikin sanarwar Singapore ta 1971, wacce ta sadaukar da Commonwealth ga kafa zaman lafiya a duniya; inganta dimokuradiyya mai wakilci da 'yancin kai; neman daidaito da adawa da wariyar launin fata; yaki da talauci da jahilci da cututtuka; da ciniki na kyauta[188] Ga waɗannan an ƙara adawa da wariya kan jinsi ta sanarwar Lusaka na 1979, [189] da dorewar muhalli ta sanarwar Langkawi na 1989.[190]An ƙarfafa waɗannan manufofin da sanarwar Harare a 1991.[191]

Babhban fifiko na Commonwealth ya shafi haɓaka dimokuradiyya da ci gaba, kamar yadda aka bayyana a cikin 2003 Aso Rock Declaration, [192] wanda ya gina kan waɗanda ke cikin Singapore da Harare kuma suka fayyace sharuɗɗan su, yana mai cewa, "Mun himmatu ga dimokuradiyya, kyakkyawan shugabanci, 'yancin ɗan adam, daidaiton jinsi, da kuma daidaita daidaiton raba fa'idodin haɗin gwiwar duniya.[193]

iyawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A watan Oktobar 2010, an buga wata sanarwa da babban Sakatare ya bayar na ba wa ma’aikata umarnin cewa kada su yi magana kan ‘yancin ɗan adam, wanda ya kai ga zargin cewa Commonwealth ba ta yin magana sosai a kan ainihin kimarta.[194] [195] [196] Taron shugabannin Commonwealth na 2011 ya yi la'akari da wani rahoto da wani kwamiti na Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group (EPG) ya bayar wanda ya tabbatar da cewa kungiyar ta rasa mahimmancinta kuma tana rugujewa saboda rashin hanyar da za a yi la'akari da kasashe mambobi lokacin da suka keta haƙƙin ɗan adam ko ka'idodin dimokiradiyya.[197] [198] [199] [200]

Bayan yakin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, daular Burtaniya ta taka rawar gani wajen tallafawa kudaden Burtaniya. An tattara asusun ajiyar kuɗin waje a London, don amfani da shi don yaƙin. A zahiri Burtaniya ta sayi fam biliyan 2.3, wanda fam biliyan 1.3 daga Indiya ta Burtaniya ta fito. An gudanar da bashin ne a cikin tsarin tsaro na gwamnatin Biritaniya kuma an san shi da "ma'auni". A shekara ta 1950, Indiya, Pakistan da Ceylon sun kashe mafi yawan kuɗin su, yayin da wasu ƙasashe suka tara. Yankin mafi girma ya ƙunshi duk Commonwealth ban da Kanada, tare da wasu ƙananan ƙasashe musamman a cikin Tekun Farisa. Sun gudanar da musaya na kasashen waje a Sterling, suna kare wannan kudin daga gudanar da kasuwanci da kuma sauƙaƙe kasuwanci da saka hannun jari a cikin Commonwealth. dangantaka ce ta yau da kullun tare da ƙayyadaddun farashin musaya, tarurruka na lokaci-lokaci a taron kolin Commonwealth don daidaita manufofin kasuwanci, da manufofin tattalin arzikin cikin gida. Ƙasar Ingila ta sami rarar kuɗin kasuwanci, kuma sauran ƙasashe galibi masu samar da albarkatun ƙasa ne da ake siyar da su ga Burtaniya. Dalilin kasuwanci a hankali ya kasance mai ban sha'awa ga Commonwealth; duk da haka, samun damar shiga kasuwar babban birnin Landan ya kasance muhimmiyar fa'ida ga sabbin al'ummomin da suka sami 'yancin kai. Yayin da Burtaniya ta kara matsawa kusa da Turai, duk da haka, dangantakar dogon lokaci ta fara zama cikin shakka[201] [202]

Birtaniya ta shiga cikin Ƙungiyar Tattalin Arzikin Turai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A shekara ta 1961, tare da durkushewar tattalin arziki, Burtaniya ta yi ƙoƙarin shiga cikin Ƙungiyar Tattalin Arzikin Turai, amma Charles de Gaulle ya yi watsi da hakan.[203] daga karshe dai an samu shiga a shekarar 1973. Sarauniya Elizabeth ta kasance daya daga cikin 'yan tsirarun alakar dake tsakanin Burtaniya da Commonwealth. Masanin tarihi Ben Pimlott ya bayar da hujjar cewa shiga Turai "ya kasance mataki mafi yanke hukunci duk da haka a ci gaba da yanke alakar iyali tsakanin Burtaniya da tsohuwar daularta... Ya rage ragowar alakar da ke tattare da jin dadi da al'adu, da kyawawan dabi'un shari'a."[204] [205] [206] Sababbin 'yan cin gashin kai na kasashen Afirka da Asiya sun mayar da hankali ne kan ci gaban harkokinsu na cikin gida da na siyasa da tattalin arziki, wani lokacin kuma suna taka rawa a yakin cacar baka. Amurka, hukumomin kasa da kasa, da Tarayyar Soviet sun zama 'yan wasa masu mahimmanci, kuma rawar Birtaniyya ta ja da baya. Yayin da ake adawa da shigar Birtaniyya cikin EEC daga ƙasashe da yawa, irin su Ostiraliya, wasu sun fi son fa'idar tattalin arziƙin da Birtaniyya ta kawo zuwa Kasuwar gama gari.[207] Dangantaka mai cike da tarihi tsakanin kasashen da suka yi mulki da Burtaniya na cikin sauri. Tattalin Arzikin Kanada ya ƙara mayar da hankali kan kasuwanci da Amurka, ba kan kasuwanci da Burtaniya ko wasu ba." [208] [209]

Ciniki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙarin bayani: Kasuwancin kyauta na Commonwealth[210] Duk da cewa Commonwealth ba ta da yarjejeniyar ciniki tsakanin bangarori daban-daban, binciken da kungiyar Royal Commonwealth Society ta gudanar ya nuna cewa ciniki da wani memba na Commonwealth ya kai kashi 50% fiye da wanda ba memba a matsakaici, tare da kananan kasashe masu arziki da masu karfin tattalin arziki da ke da karfin kasuwanci a cikin Commonwealth.[211] a taron koli na 2005 a Malta, shugabannin gwamnatocin sun amince da gudanar da kasuwanci cikin 'yanci a tsakanin mambobin Commonwealth bisa ga bangarorin biyu.[212] ,[213] Bayan kuri'ar da aka kada a watan Yuni 2016 don ficewa daga Tarayyar Turai, [214] wasu a Burtaniya sun ba da shawarar Commonwealth a matsayin madadin zama memba a cikin EU;[215] duk da haka, ya kasance a bayyane cewa wannan zai ba da isasshen fa'idar tattalin arziki don maye gurbin tasirin ficewa daga EU ko kuma zama karbuwa ga sauran kasashe mambobi.[216] A cikin 2021, bayan ficewar Burtaniya daga Tarayyar Turai, Ostiraliya da Burtaniya sun rattaba hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Kasuwancin Kyauta ta Ostiraliya-United Kingdom, wanda akan amincewa da kawar da jadawalin kuɗin fito da ƙarin damar motsi tsakanin ƙasashen biyu.[[217] [218] Kanada ta keɓe mafi yawan kayayyaki daga ƙasashen Commonwealth Caribbean, wanda ya ƙunshi ƙasashen Commonwealth da Birtaniyya na ketare a yankin, daga ayyukan shigo da kaya.[219] [220] [221] [222]

Wasannin Commonwealth

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Babban labarin: Wasannin Commonwealth

Wasannin Commonwealth su ne na uku mafi girma na wasanni da yawa a duniya, wanda ya haɗu da shahararrun wasanni na duniya da kuma wasanni na musamman na "Commonwealth", irin su rugby bakwai, wanda aka nuna a nan a 2006 Games a Melbourne.[223] Wasannin Commonwealth, taron wasanni da yawa, ana gudanar da shi ne duk bayan shekaru hudu; An gudanar da wasannin Commonwealth na 2018 a Gold Coast, Australia, 2022 Commonwealth Games a Birmingham da 2026 Commonwealth Games a Glasgow. Kazalika da wasannin motsa jiki da aka saba yi, kamar a wasannin Olympics na lokacin rani, wasannin sun hada da wasanni musamman shahararru a cikin kasashen Commonwealth, kamar kwano, kwallon raga, da rugby bakwai. An fara shi a cikin 1930 a matsayin Wasannin Daular, an kafa wasannin ne bisa tsarin wasannin motsa jiki na Olympics, amma da gangan aka tsara su don zama "Wasanni na Abokai", [224] da manufar haɓaka dangantaka tsakanin ƙasashen Commonwealth da kuma bikin al'adun wasanni da al'adu.[225] [226] [227] Wasan sune ayyukan da ake gani na Commonwealth,[228] kuma sha'awar gudanar da ayyukan Commonwealth na karuwa sosai idan ana gudanar da wasannin.[229] Akwai cece-kuce kan ko wasannin-da wasanni gabaɗaya—ya kamata su shiga cikin manyan matsalolin siyasa na Commonwealth.,[230] [231] [232]

Adabi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Duba kuma: Commonwealth English, Postcolonial Literature, Migrant Literature, da Journal of Commonwealth Literature Tarihin haɗin gwiwar kasancewar Birtaniyya ya samar da ɗimbin rubutun rubuce-rubuce a cikin yaruka da yawa, waɗanda aka sani da adabin Commonwealth.,[233] ][234] Ƙungiyar Ƙwararrun Adabi da Nazarin Harshe ta Commonwealth (ACLALS) tana da rassa 11 a dukan duniya kuma tana gudanar da taron kasa da kasa a kowace shekara uku.[235]

[236] Mawallafin marubuci 'yar Uganda-British Jennifer Nansubuga Makumbi ta lashe kyautar Gajerun Labari na Commonwealth a cikin 2014. A cikin 1987, Gidauniyar Commonwealth ta kafa lambar yabo ta Marubuta ta Commonwealth na shekara-shekara "don ƙarfafawa da ba da lada ga haɓaka sabbin almara na Commonwealth da tabbatar da cewa ayyukan cancanta sun isa ga masu sauraro da yawa a wajen ƙasarsu ta asali". Ana ba da kyaututtuka don mafi kyawun littafi da mafi kyawun littafin farko a cikin Commonwealth; Hakanan akwai kyaututtukan yanki don mafi kyawun littafi da mafi kyawun littafin farko a kowane yanki huɗu. Kodayake ba shi da alaƙa a hukumance tare da Commonwealth, babbar lambar yabo ta Man Booker, ɗayan vmafi girman girmamawa a cikin adabi, [237] ana ba da ita kawai ga marubutan ƙasashen Commonwealth ko tsoffin membobin kamar Ireland da Zimbabwe. Tun daga shekara ta 2014, duk da haka, marubutan kowane ɗan ƙasa sun cancanci samun lambar yabo ta samar da cewa sun rubuta asali cikin Ingilishi kuma ƙwararrun mawallafa a Burtaniya ne suka buga littattafansu.[238] A yau, Gidauniyar Commonwealth ta ba da lambar yabo ga Gajerun Labari na Commonwealth na shekara-shekara.[239]

[240] [241]

Commonwealth na ilimi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Babban labarin: Commonwealth of Learning Commonwealth of Learning (COL) ƙungiya ce ta tsakanin gwamnatoci da shugabannin gwamnatoci suka ƙirƙira don ƙarfafa haɓakawa da musayar ilimin ilmantarwa / nesa da ilimi, albarkatu da fasaha. COL yana taimaka wa kasashe masu tasowa su inganta samun ingantaccen ilimi da horo.[242]

Taron Karamar Hukumar Commonwealth

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Babban labarin: Taron Kananan Hukumomin Commonwealth Ƙungiyar Ƙananan Hukumomin Commonwealth (CLGF) ƙungiyar ƙananan hukumomi ce ta duniya, tana haɗa ƙananan hukumomi, ƙungiyoyin su na ƙasa da ma'aikatun da ke da alhakin ƙananan hukumomi a cikin ƙasashe mambobi na Commonwealth. CLGF tana aiki tare da gwamnatocin ƙasa da na ƙananan hukumomi don tallafawa haɓaka dabi'un dimokuradiyya da kyakkyawan shugabanci na gari kuma ƙungiya ce mai alaƙa da shugabannin gwamnatocin Commonwealth suka amince da ita a matsayƙungiyar wakilai ta ƙananan hukumomi a cikinCommonwealth.[243] [244] CLGF ya kebanta wajen hada sassan tsakiya, lardi da na kananan hukumomi masu hannu a manufofin kananan hukumomi da yanke shawara. Membobin CLGF sun haɗa da ƙungiyoyin ƙananan hukumomi, daidaikun ƙananan hukumomi, ma'aikatun da ke da alaƙa da ƙananan hukumomi, da ƙungiyoyin bincike da kwararru waɗanda ke aiki da ƙananan hukumomi. Mai aiki zuwa tallafin mai aiki yana cikin ainihin [245] [246]

Siyasa da shari'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

House House, New Delhi, India. Yarjejeniya ta Commonwealth ta bayyana sadaukarwar Commonwealth ga dimokuradiyya, kuma yawancin ƙasashen Commonwealth suna amfani da tsarin Westminster. [247] Haskaka fitilar jubili ga Sarauniya Elizabeth ta II ta Platinum Jubilee a cikin 2022 a Wellington, New Zealand[248] Ƙasashen Commonwealth suna da tsarin shari'a iri ɗaya da na gwamnati, yayin da Yarjejeniya ta Commonwealth ta ƙunshi alkawurra ga dimokuradiyya, 'yancin ɗan adam da bin doka. Yawancin ƙasashe na Commonwealth suna da tsarin Westminster na dimokuradiyya na majalisa, tare da zaɓaɓɓun majalisu, zaɓen jam'iyyu da yawa, gwamnati mai alhakin da sau da yawa ɗakuna biyu[249] kungiyar majalissar dokokin Commonwealth tana sauƙaƙe haɗin kai tsakanin majalisu a fadin Ƙungiyoyin Ƙungiyar Ƙwararrun ƘwararrunƘwararrun Ƙwararru kuma na inganta kyakkyawan shugabanci a tsakanin jami'an kananan hukumomi.[250]

Duk da haka, an soki jagorancin Commonwealth da amincewa da Gabon a matsayin mamba a taron Commonwealth na 2022 a Kigali, Rwanda - kasar da ba ta da hakkin dan adam - duk da cewa Gabon ta shafe shekaru 56 a karkashin jagorancin dangin Bongo na kleptocratic, har sai da aka hambarar da su a juyin mulki a 2023.[251]

Yawancin ƙasashen Commonwealth suna amfani da doka ta gama gari, wanda aka ƙirƙira akan dokar Ingilishi.[252] Ka'idodin Gidan Latimer da aka karɓa a cikin 2003 suna nuna rabuwar iko.[253] ana nada alkalai ta kwamitoci masu zaman kansu a yawancin ƙasashen Commonwealth, canjin da ya faru a cikin Commonwealth a ƙarshen 20th da farkon ƙarni na 21st kuma yana nunawa a cikin ƙa'idodin Cape Town.[254]

Alamomi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Commonwealth ta karɓi alamomi da yawa waɗanda ke wakiltar ƙungiyar membobinta. An gane harshen Ingilishi a matsayin alamar gadon membobin; kamar yadda kuma ana ɗaukarta alama ce ta Commonwealth, amincewa da ita a matsayin "hanyar sadarwar Commonwealth" wani abu ne da ake buƙata don zama membobin Commonwealth.

Tutar Commonwealth ta ƙunshi alamar sakatariyar Commonwealth, duniyar zinare kewaye da haskoki masu fitowa, akan filin shuɗi mai duhu; An tsara shi don CHOGM na biyu a cikin 1973, kuma an karbe shi a hukumance a ranar 26 ga Maris 1976. 1976 kuma ta ga ƙungiyar ta amince da ranar gama gari wacce za ta yi bikin ranar Commonwealth, Litinin ta biyu a cikin Maris, ta ci gaba daban a ranaku daban-daban daga bukukuwan ranar Empire.[225]

Hakanan don bikin cika shekaru 60 (Diamond Jubilee) na Commonwealth a 2009, Sakatariyar Commonwealth ta umurci Paul Carroll ya shirya "The Commonwealth Anthem". An ɗauko waƙoƙin waƙar daga cikin shelar yancin ɗan adam ta duniya ta 1948.[226] Kungiyar Orchestra ta Matasa ta Commonwealth ta buga fassarar waƙar tare da kuma ba tare da labarin gabatarwa ba.[227][228

manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Srinivasan, Krishnan (2008). The rise, decline, and future of the British Commonwealth (Paperback ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-230-20367-9.
  2. ↑ Profile: The Commonwealth". BBC News. February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 September 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2015
  3. ↑ About Us". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
  4. ↑ "Commonwealth Family". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 31 August 2007. Retrieved 29 July 2007
  5. ↑ Profile: The Commonwealth". BBC News. February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 September 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  6. ↑ The Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  7. ↑ Imperial Conference 1926 Inter-Imperial Relations Committee Report, Proceedings and Memoranda" (PDF). November 1926. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2005. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
  8. ↑ About Us". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
  9. ↑ Our history". Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
  10. ↑ "The London Declaration". Commonwealth of Nations. 26 April 1949. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2013
  11. ↑ "Commonwealth Charter". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  12. ↑ Srinivasan, Krishnan (2008). The rise, decline, and future of the British Commonwealth (Paperback ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave
  13. ↑ Our history". Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
  14. ↑ "The Commonwealth". The Victoria League for Commonwealth Friendship. 21 May 2019. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  15. ↑ History – Though the modern Commonwealth is just 60 years old, the idea took root in the 19th century". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 29 July
  16. ↑ Pakenham, Frank (1972). Peace by ordeal: an account, from first-hand sources of the negotiation and signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921. Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-97908-8.
  17. ↑ "The Commonwealth". The Victoria League for Commonwealth Friendship. 21 May 2019. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  18. ↑ Commonwealth Charter". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  19. ↑ Elizabeth II (1 July 1959). Queen Elizabeth's 1959 Dominion Day Message. Government House (Rideau Hall), Ottawa: CBC. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  20. ↑ "Seminars for statesmen': the evolution of the Commonwealth summit"
  21. ↑ "The Colonial and Imperial Conferences, 1887-1911: A Study in Imperial Organization"
  22. ↑ January 1884". Journal of Liberal History. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
  23. ↑ McDonald, Simon (12 March 2018). "Commonwealth Heads Of Government Meeting 2018". civilservice.blog.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  24. ↑ Crafford, Smuts: A Biography (2005),
  25. ↑ Pakenham, Frank (1972). Peace by ordeal: an account, from first-hand sources of the negotiation and signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921. Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-97908-8.
  26. ↑ account, from first-hand sources of the negotiation and signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921. Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-97908-8.
  27. ↑ High Commissioner in United Kingdom (24 November 1952). "Royal Style and Titles". Documents on Canadian External Relations > Royal Style and Titles. 18 (2). DEA/50121-B-40. Archived from the original on 23 November 2011.
  28. ↑ , Josh (28 November 2009). "Rwanda Joins British Commonwealth". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  29. ↑ Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism
  30. ↑ British Commonwealth Occupation Force 1945–52". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
  31. ↑ "The London Declaration". Commonwealth of Nations. 26 April 1949. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
  32. ↑ "Constituent Assembly Debates (India)". Delhi: Parliament of India. 16 May 1949. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  33. ↑ Constituent Assembly Debates (India)". Delhi: Parliament of India. 16 May 1949. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  34. ↑ 978-0-19-829334-7
  35. ↑ Smy, William A. (2008). "Royal titles and styles". The Loyalist Gazette. XLVI (1). Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
  36. ↑ "Our history". Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
  37. ↑ Webb, Jeff A. (January 2003). "The Commission of Government, 1934–1949". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  38. ↑ Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942
  39. ↑ Turner, Camilla (22 June 2022). "Togo and Gabon to become newest members of Commonwealth this week". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  40. ↑ Dugard, John; Bethlehem, Daniel; Plessis, Max du; Katz, Anton (2005). International law: a South African perspective. Lansdowne, South Africa: Juta. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7021-7121-5.
  41. ↑ "Celebrating thecommonwealth@60". Commonwealth Secretariat. 26 April 2009. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  42. ↑ Chris Cook and John Paxton, Commonwealth Political Facts (Macmillan, 1978).
  43. ↑ Chris Cook and John Paxton, Commonwealth Political Facts (Macmillan, 1978).
  44. ↑ Brian Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom 1951—1970 (Oxford UP, 2009), p. 102.
  45. ↑ Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom 1951—1970, p. 103.
  46. ↑ "History of the Creation of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan". Commonwealth Air Training Plan Museum. 28 September 2010. Archived from the original on 28 September 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2025.
  47. ↑ Krishnan Srinivasan, "Nobody's Commonwealth? The Commonwealth in Britain's post-imperial adjustment." Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 44.2 (2006): 257–269.
  48. ↑ de Villiers, Marq (1998). "Review of The Ambiguous Champion: Canada and South Africa in the Trudeau and Mulroney Years by Linda Freeman". International Journal. 53 (4): 783–785 : 783. doi:10.2307/40203728. ISSN 0020-7020. JSTOR 40203728.; Miles, Robert (2016). "The Racialization of British Politics". Political Studies. 38 (2): 277–285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1990.tb01493.x. ISSN 0032-3217. S2CID 145691345.
  49. ↑ Merriman, J.; Winter, J., eds. (2006). "British Empire". Europe since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-684-31366-5. OCLC 68221208.
  50. ↑ , J. H. (2010). "Economic crisis and political cold war, 1949-57". In Hill, J. R. (ed.). A New History of Ireland. Vol. VII: Ireland, 1921–84. Oxford University Press. p. 277 (footnote 20). ISBN 978-0-19-161559-7. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2019. The Republic of Ireland Act, 1948...repealed the external relations act, and provided for the declaration of a republic, which came into force on 18 Apr. 1949, when Ireland left the commonwealth.
  51. ↑ "Staying loyal to George". Indian Express. 19 February 2010. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  52. ↑ Barbados to remove Queen Elizabeth as head of state". BBC News. 16 September 2020. Archived from the original on 11 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  53. ↑ The Monarchy and the Constitution
  54. ↑ Commissioner in United Kingdom (24 November 1952). "Royal Style and Titles". Documents on Canadian External Relations > Royal Style and Titles. 18 (2). DEA/50121-B-40. Archived from the original on 23 November 2011.
  55. ↑ Smy, William A. (2008). "Royal titles and styles". The Loyalist Gazette. XLVI (1). Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2011
  56. ↑ Toporoski, Richard. "The Invisible Crown". Monarchy Canada. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
  57. ↑ Toporoski, Richard. "The Invisible Crown". Monarchy Canada. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
  58. ↑ January 1884". Journal of Liberal History. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
  59. ↑ ]James R. V. Ellison, "Perfidious Albion? Britain, Plan G and European Integration, 1955–1956", Contemporary British History (1996) 10#4 pp 1
  60. ↑ R. V. Ellison, "Perfidious Albion? Britain, Plan G and European Integration, 1955–1956", Contemporary British History (1996) 10#4 pp 1–,
  61. ↑ Martin Schaad, "Plan G – A "Counterblast"? British Policy Towards the Messina Countries, 1956", Contemporary European History (1998) 7#1 pp 39–
  62. ↑ Clout, Laura (15 January 2007). "France offered to 'merge' with UK in 1950s". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
  63. ↑ Thomson, Mike (15 January 2007). "UK – When Britain and France nearly married". BBC News. Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  64. ↑ Thomson, Mike (15 January 2007). "UK – When Britain and France nearly married". BBC News. Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  65. ↑ British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945–63: Scrutinising the Official Mind
  66. ↑ Rwanda: Joining the Commonwealth". The New Times. AllAfrica. 27 November 2009
  67. ↑ Josh (28 November 2009). "Rwanda Joins British Commonwealth". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  68. ↑ Rwanda: Joining the Commonwealth". The New Times. AllAfrica. 27 November 2009.
  69. ↑ , John Paul. "Canada races to revive Commonwealth ties with its U.S. relationship on shaky ground". CBC. Archived from the original on 11 March 2025. Retrieved 11 March 2025.
  70. ↑ Josh (28 November 2009). "Rwanda Joins British Commonwealth". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  71. ↑ Harris, Rob (11 March 2025). "Rubio says Ukraine may need to do 'difficult things' to get peace deal". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 March 2025. British Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer will host what he has called "a coalition of the willing" – a group of mainly European and Commonwealth countries.
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