Kashewa ga farar hula
 Kashewa ga farar hula |
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Cin zarafin farar hula shine amfani da gangan na tashin hankali a kan wadanda ba masu yaƙi ba a cikin rikici. Ya haɗa da nau'ikan tashin hankali masu kisa (kamar kashe-kashen), da kuma nau'ikan da ba masu kisa ba kamar azabtarwa, fitar da tilas, da fyade.[1] Dangane da wannan ma'anar, cin zarafin farar hula wani bangare ne kawai na cutar da ke faruwa ga fararen hula a lokacin rikici, ban da abin da aka yi la'akari da lalacewar ayyukan soja. Koyaya, "bambanci tsakanin tashin hankali da gangan da ba da gangan ba yana da matukar damuwa" kuma yana da wuyar tantancewa a lokuta da yawa.[2]
Masana sun gano dalilai daban-daban waɗanda zasu iya samar da ƙarfafawa don amfani da tashin hankali a kan fararen hula, ko ƙirƙirar ƙarfafawa don hanawa. Rikicin fararen hula yana faruwa a cikin nau'ikan rikice-rikicen farar hula, [3] kuma yana iya haɗawa da duk wani aikin da ake amfani da karfi don cutar da fararen hula ko fararen hula. Zai iya zama mai kisa ko wanda ba mai kisa ba. A lokacin rikice-rikicen makamai, akwai tsarin, 'yan wasan kwaikwayo, da matakai a matakai da yawa waɗanda ke shafar yiwuwar tashin hankali ga fararen hula.[4]
Rikicin da aka yi wa fararen hula ba "rashin hankali ba ne, bazuwar, ko kuma sakamakon ƙiyayya ta dā tsakanin kabilun. " [5]: 91 Maimakon haka, ana iya amfani da tashin hankali a kan fararen hula ta hanyar dabarun ta hanyoyi da yawa, gami da ƙoƙarin kara hadin gwiwar farar hula da tallafi; kara farashin ga abokin adawar ta hanyar kaiwa ga magoya bayan farar hula; kuma a zahiri raba abokin adawar daga magoya bayansa na farar hula ta hanyar cire farar hula daga wani yanki. [6]
Ana iya bayyana tsarin tashin hankali ga fararen hula a matakai daban-daban kuma an gano wasu abubuwan da ke haifar da tashin hankali ga masu zaman kansu.
Bayyana alamu na tashin hankali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Francisco Gutiérrez-Sanín da Elisabeth Jean Wood sun ba da shawarar fahimtar tashin hankali na siyasa wanda ke bayyana wani ɗan wasan kwaikwayo dangane da tsarin tashin hankali, [4] bisa ga "repertoire, manufa, mita, da kuma dabarar da yake shiga akai-akai. " [7] 'Yan wasan kwaikwayo na iya haɗawa da duk wani rukuni da ke gwagwarmaya don manufofin siyasa. Repertoire ya rufe nau'ikan tashin hankali da aka yi amfani da su; ƙaddamarwa tana nuna waɗanda aka kai farmaki dangane da ƙungiyar jama'a; mitar ita ce abin da za a iya auna tashin hankali; kuma dabarun sune nau'ikan makamai ko fasaha da aka yi aiki. Ana iya amfani da wannan tsarin ga abubuwan da aka lura da tashin hankali ba tare da la'akari da niyya mai wasan kwaikwayo ba.[7] Sauran tsarin suna mai da hankali kan motsawar ɗan wasan kwaikwayo.[4][4]
Bayanan na iya haɗawa da nau'ikan tashin hankali masu kisa ga fararen wuka kamar kisan kai, kisan kiyashi, bama-bamai, da hare-haren ta'addanci, da kuma nau'ikan ta'addancin da ba na mutuwa ba, [4] kamar tilasta ƙaura [8] da tashin hankali na jima'i. [9] A cikin tashin hankali na kai tsaye ana amfani da manyan makamai kamar tankuna ko Jiragen yaki daga nesa da kuma kai tsaye. A cikin tashin hankali kai tsaye masu aikata laifuka suna yin fuska da fuska tare da wadanda abin ya shafa ta amfani da kananan makamai kamar machetes ko bindigogi.[4]
Ana iya zaɓar manufofi gaba ɗaya, a matsayin membobin wata kabilanci, addini, ko Ƙungiyar siyasa. Wannan wani lokacin ana kiransa tashin hankali.[10] Hakanan ana iya zaɓar manufofi ta hanyar zaɓaɓɓu, gano takamaiman mutane waɗanda ake gani a matsayin masu adawa da ƙungiyar siyasa ko kuma taimaka wa abokan adawarsu.
Hanyoyi na iya bambanta sosai dangane da matakin fasaha da adadin albarkatun da ke akwai ga masu gwagwarmaya. Akwai tasirin fasaha mai yawa a tsawon lokaci, gami da gabatar da sabbin fasahohin tawaye. Misali, canje-canje a cikin kayan aikin sadarwa na iya shafar tashin hankali ga fararen hula. Idan irin wannan fasahar ta sauƙaƙa shirya ta ƙungiyoyi masu makamai kuma ta ƙara gasa a kan yankin, tashin hankali a kan fararen hula a waɗancan yankuna na iya ƙaruwa.[11] Yayin da sa ido na gwamnati game da bayanan dijital ke ƙaruwa, an nuna cewa amfani da tashin hankali da aka yi niyya, na zaɓaɓɓen tashin hankali a kan fararen hula ta gwamnatoci ya karu.[12]
Binciken matakan tashin hankali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Bayanan ka'idoji a matakai daban-daban na bincike na iya kasancewa tare da hulɗa da juna. Matakan bincike masu zuwa na iya zama da amfani wajen fahimtar irin wannan yanayin: [4]
Kasashen Duniya
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A matakin kasa da kasa, cibiyoyi, akidar da rarraba iko da albarkatu suna tsara fasahar tawaye da hulɗar siyasa, gami da yaƙe-yaƙe na kasa da na cikin gida. A lokacin Yaƙin Cold, Amurka da Tarayyar Soviet sun ba da tallafin soja da na kudi ga gwamnatoci da kungiyoyin 'yan tawaye, waɗanda suka shiga cikin yaƙe-yaƙe na basasa. Irin waɗannan rikice-rikice galibi sun haɗa da amfani da tashin hankali don sarrafa fararen hula da yankin.[4] Shekaru goma bayan rushewar Tarayyar Soviet sun kasance alama ce ta raguwar mutuwar yaƙi a duniya da kuma yawan rikice-rikicen makamai a duniya.[13]
Ka'idoji da ra'ayoyin kasa da kasa suma suna tasiri ga rikici da amfani da tashin hankali ga fararen hula.[4] Lokacin da ya biyo bayan yakin duniya na biyu, daga 1946 zuwa 2013, an kuma dauke shi a matsayin nuna raguwar rikici. Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya amince da Sanarwar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya a 1946. [14] 'Yan wasan kwaikwayo na kasa da kasa sun sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Kisan kiyashi a 1948 da Yarjejeniyar Geneva a 1949, suna tsara kariya ga wadanda ba masu yaƙi ba da ka'idojin kasa da kasa don haƙƙin ɗan adam da ka'idodin jin kai. Kungiyoyin da ba na gwamnati ba kamar su Human Rights Watch da Amnesty International sun zama masu aiki a cikin fitowar bayanai, ba da shawara ga haƙƙin ɗan adam, tattara ra'ayin jama'a na duniya, da kuma rinjayar ka'idojin zamantakewa da dokar duniya.
Ma'amala tsakanin gwamnatocin kasashen waje da kungiyoyin 'yan tawaye da ke karɓar goyon bayansu na iya shafar tashin hankali ga fararen hula. Kungiyoyin da ke karɓar tallafin waje sun zama marasa dogaro da fararen hula na cikin gida kuma suna da ƙarancin ƙarfafawa don iyakance tashin hankali ga fararen hula. Taimako na kasashen waje ga 'yan tawaye yana da alaƙa da matakan da suka fi girma na mutuwar da ke da alaƙa tilasta wa farar hula. Koyaya, 'yan wasan kasashen waje waɗanda ke da dimokuradiyya ko kuma suna da masu fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam ba su da damar tallafawa kungiyoyin da ke shiga cikin tashin hankali ga fararen hula[15]
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named ":0". - ↑ Besaw, Clayton; Ritter, Kellan; Tezcür, Güneş Murat (12 July 2023). "Beyond Collateral Damage: The Politics of Civilian Victimization in a Civil War". Global Studies Quarterly. 3 (3). doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksad050.
- ↑ Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv Nygård, Håvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (11 May 2019). "The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence". Annual Review of Political Science. 22 (1): 361–377. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Balcells, Laia; Stanton, Jessica A. (11 May 2021). "Violence Against Civilians During Armed Conflict: Moving Beyond the Macro- and Micro-Level Divide". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 45–69. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102229. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Balcells" defined multiple times with different content. - ↑ Valentino, Benjamin A. (11 May 2014). "Why We Kill: The Political Science of Political Violence against Civilians". Annual Review of Political Science. 17 (1): 89–103. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937.
- ↑ Kydd, Andrew H.; Walter, Barbara F. (July 2006). "The Strategies of Terrorism". International Security. 31 (1): 49–80. doi:10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.49. S2CID 57564130.
- 1 2 Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco; Wood, Elisabeth Jean (March 2017). "What Should We Mean by "Pattern of Political Violence"? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique". Perspectives on Politics. 15 (1): 20–41. doi:10.1017/S1537592716004114. S2CID 152120740. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
- ↑ Lichtenheld, Adam G. (2020). "Explaining Population Displacement Strategies in Civil Wars: A Cross-National Analysis". International Organization. 74 (2): 253–294. doi:10.1017/S0020818320000089. S2CID 226864410. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
- ↑ Nordås, Ragnhild; Cohen, Dara Kay (11 May 2021). "Conflict-Related Sexual Violence". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 193–211. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102620.
- ↑ Goodwin, J. (1 June 2006). "A Theory of Categorical Terrorism" (PDF). Social Forces. 84 (4): 2027–2046. doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0090. S2CID 9059799. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
- ↑ Pierskalla, Jan H.; Hollenbach, Florian M. (May 2013). "Technology and Collective Action: The Effect of Cell Phone Coverage on Political Violence in Africa". American Political Science Review. 107 (2): 207–224. Bibcode:2013AmPSR.107..207P. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000075. S2CID 86861315. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ↑ Gohdes, Anita R. (July 2020). "Repression Technology: Internet Accessibility and State Violence" (PDF). American Journal of Political Science. 64 (3): 488–503. doi:10.1111/ajps.12509. S2CID 212686303. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ↑ Pettersson, Therése; Wallensteen, Peter (July 2015). "Armed conflicts, 1946–2014". Journal of Peace Research. 52 (4): 536–550. doi:10.1177/0022343315595927. S2CID 117599247.
- ↑ Green, Chandler (December 5, 2018). "70 Years of Impact: Insights on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations Foundation. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ↑ Salehyan, Idean; Siroky, David; Wood, Reed M. (2014). "External Rebel Sponsorship and Civilian Abuse: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Atrocities". International Organization. 68 (3): 633–661. doi:10.1017/S002081831400006X. S2CID 51759138. Retrieved 20 August 2021.