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Kimiyya ta bincike

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Kimiyya ta bincike
academic discipline (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na ilmi
Gudanarwan forensic scientist (en) Fassara

kimiyya ta shari'a, wanda aka fi sani da masu aikata laifuka, [1] aikace-aikacen ka'idodin kimiyya da hanyoyin don tallafawa yanke shawara na shari'a a cikin batutuwan aikata laifula da dokar farar hula.

Masana kimiyya na shari'a suna tattara, adanawa, da kuma nazarin shaida yayin binciken. Yayinda wasu masana kimiyya ke tafiya zuwa wurin aikata laifuka don tattara shaidar da kansu, wasu suna da matsayi na dakin gwaje-gwaje, suna yin bincike kan abubuwan da wasu mutane suka kawo musu.[2] Sauran suna da hannu a cikin nazarin kudi, banki, ko wasu bayanai na lambobi don amfani a cikin binciken laifukan kudi, kuma ana iya amfani da su a matsayin masu ba da shawara daga kamfanoni masu zaman kansu, malamai, ko kuma ma'aikatan gwamnati.[3]

Baya ga aikin su na dakin gwaje-gwaje, masana kimiyya suna ba da shaida a matsayin ƙwararrun shaidu a cikin shari'o'in laifi da na farar hula kuma suna iya aiki don ko dai masu gabatar da kara ko masu karewa. Duk da yake kowane filin na iya zama na fasaha, wasu sassan sun bunkasa a tsawon lokaci don kunshe da mafi yawan shari'o'in da suka shafi shari'a.[4]

Kalmar forensic ta samo asali ne daga kalmar Latin, forēnsis (3rd declension, adjective), ma'ana "na wani taro, wurin taro".[5] Tarihin kalmar ya samo asali ne a zamanin Roman, lokacin da tuhumar aikata laifuka ta nufin gabatar da karar a gaban ƙungiyar jama'a a cikin taron. Dukkanin mutumin da ake zargi da laifin da kuma wanda ake zargi za su ba da jawabai bisa ga bangarorin su na labarin. Za a yanke shawarar shari'ar a madadin mutumin da ke da mafi kyawun gardama da isar da shi. Wannan asalin shine tushen amfani biyu na zamani na kalmar forensic - a matsayin nau'in shaidar shari'a; kuma a matsayin wani nau'i na gabatarwar jama'a.[6]

A cikin amfani na zamani, ana amfani da kalmar forensics a maimakon "kimiyya ta forensic".

Kalmar "kimiyya", an samo ta ne daga kalmar Latin don 'sani' kuma a yau tana da alaƙa da Hanyar kimiyya, hanyar da ta dace don samun ilimi. Tare, kimiyyar shari'a tana nufin amfani da hanyoyin kimiyya da matakai don warware laifuka.

Tarihi

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Asalin kimiyyar shari'a da hanyoyin farko

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  1. ↑ "Criminology Vs. Criminalistics: What's the Difference?". Study.com. Criminalistics, also known as forensic science, is the application of scientific principles to provide evidence in criminal cases.
  2. ↑ "Job Description for Forensic Laboratory Scientists". Crime Scene Investigator EDU. 12 November 2013. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
  3. ↑ "Prosecutors just got millions of pages of Trump documents. His taxes are only the beginning". NBC News (in Turanci). 25 February 2021. Retrieved 2021-02-27.
  4. ↑ "Sections". American Academy of Forensic Sciences. 27 August 2015. Archived from the original on 30 August 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
  5. ↑ "forensic (adj.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  6. ↑ "Forensic Science". study.com. Retrieved 2023-06-08.

Duniyar tsohuwar duniya ba ta da daidaitattun ayyukan bincike, wanda ya ba masu laifi damar tserewa daga hukunci. Binciken aikata laifuka da shari'o'i sun dogara sosai da ikirarin tilasta da shaida shaidu. Koyaya, tsoffin tushe suna ƙunshe da asusun da yawa na dabarun da ke nuna ra'ayoyi a cikin kimiyyar shari'a da aka haɓaka ƙarni da yawa daga baya.

Labarin farko da aka rubuta game da amfani da magani da ilimin ƙwayoyin cuta don warware shari'o'in aikata laifuka an danganta shi da littafin <i id="mwUg">Xi Yuan Lu</i> (wanda aka fassara a matsayin Washing Away of Wrongs [1]), wanda Song Ci ya rubuta a kasar Sin a cikin 1248 ([[[[[[[[, 1186-1249), darektan shari'a, kurkuku da kulawa, a lokacin Daular Song.[10]

Song Ci ya gabatar da ka'idoji game da rahotanni na autopsy ga kotu, yadda za a kare shaidar a cikin tsarin jarrabawa, kuma ya bayyana dalilin da ya sa ma'aikatan bincike dole ne su nuna rashin son kai ga jama'a. [11][12] Ya kirkiro hanyoyin yin maganin antiseptic da kuma inganta sake bayyana ɓoyayyun raunin ga gawawwakin da ƙasusuwa (ta amfani da hasken rana da ruwan inabi a ƙarƙashin laima mai ja); don lissafin lokacin mutuwa (yana ba da izinin yanayi da aikin kwari); ya bayyana yadda za a wanke da bincika gawawwakinsu don tabbatar da dalilin mutuwa.[13][14][15] A wannan lokacin littafin ya bayyana hanyoyin da za a rarrabe tsakanin kashe kansa da kashe kansa.[16] Ya rubuta littafin kan forensics yana mai cewa duk raunuka ko gawawwakin ya kamata a bincika su, ba a guje su ba. Littafin ya zama nau'i na farko na wallafe-wallafen don taimakawa wajen tantance dalilin mutuwa.

A daya daga cikin asusun Song Ci (Washing Away of Wrongs), wani mai bincike ne ya warware batun wanda aka kashe da takobi wanda ya umarci kowane wanda ake zargi da kawo takobi zuwa wuri daya. (Ya fahimci cewa shi shi takobi ne ta hanyar gwada takalma daban-daban a kan gawawwakin dabba da kuma kwatanta raunukan.) Tsuntsaye, wanda ƙanshin jini ya ja hankalin su, daga ƙarshe sun taru a kan takobi ɗaya. A cikin hasken wannan, mai mallakar wannan lauje ya furta kisan. Littafin ya kuma bayyana yadda za a rarrabe tsakanin nutsewa (ruwa a cikin huhu) da maƙurewa (karyewar wuyan wuyan da aka karye), kuma ya bayyana shaidu daga nazarin gawawwakin don sanin ko mutuwar ta haifar da kisan kai, kashe kansa ko hadari.[18]

Hanyoyi daga ko'ina cikin duniya sun haɗa da hawaye da nazarin baki da harshe don tantance rashin laifi ko laifi, a matsayin mai gabatarwa ga Gwajin polygraph. A tsohuwar Indiya, an sanya wasu wadanda ake zargi su cika bakinsu da busassun shinkafa kuma su tofa shi. Hakazalika, a tsohuwar kasar Sin, wadanda ake zargi da aikata laifi za su sanya foda shinkafa a bakinsu.[2] A cikin al'adun tsohuwar gabas ta tsakiya, an sanya wadanda ake tuhuma su yi amfani da sandunan ƙarfe masu zafi a takaice. An yi tunanin cewa waɗannan gwaje-gwaje suna da inganci [3] tunda mutum mai laifi zai samar da karancin hanci kuma saboda haka yana da baki mai bushewa; [4] wanda ake tuhuma za a dauke shi da laifi idan shinkafa yana mannewa a bakinsu da yawa ko kuma idan harsunan su sun kone sosai saboda rashin kariya daga hanci.[5]

Ilimi da Horarwa

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Bincike na farko, ilimin bincike na iya bayyana a matsayin sabon bangare na kimiyyar bincike wanda aka inganta ta hanyar ci gaba a cikin fasahar bayanai kamar kwamfutoci, bayanan bayanai, da software na gudanar da bayanai. Koyaya, bincike mai zurfi ya nuna cewa bayanan bincike yana wakiltar ainihin sha'awar da ke fitowa tsakanin masu aikin bincike don shiga cikin dabarun bincike da 'yan sanda. A yin haka, yana bayyana ayyukan da ke akwai a cikin wallafe-wallafen kimiyya, yana ba da shawara don sauya tsarin daga ra'ayi na kimiyya a matsayin tarin horo kawai don taimakawa tsarin shari'a na laifi. Maimakon haka, yana ƙarfafa hangen nesa wanda ke kallon kimiyyar shari'a a matsayin horo da ke nazarin yiwuwar bayanai na alamomi - ragowar ayyukan aikata laifuka. Karɓar wannan canjin canji yana haifar da babbar ƙalubale ga ilimi, yana buƙatar canji a cikin tunanin masu koyo don karɓar ra'ayoyi da hanyoyin da ke cikin ilimin shari'a.[6]

Kira na baya-bayan nan da ke ba da shawara don haɗa masana kimiyya a cikin tsarin shari'a na aikata laifuka, da kuma aikin 'yan sanda da na leken asiri, sun jaddada bukatar kafa shirye-shiryen ilimi da horo a fagen leken asiri. Wannan labarin ya yi jayayya cewa akwai gibin da za a iya ganewa da kuma ainihin fahimtar bayanan shari'a tsakanin masu tilasta bin doka da manajojin kimiyya na shari'a, suna nuna cewa ana iya gyara wannan asymmetry ne kawai ta hanyar shiga tsakani na ilimi [7]

Babban ƙalubalen a cikin ilimin leken asiri da horo an gano shi azaman tsara shirye-shiryen da aka tsara don haɓaka wayar da kan jama'a, musamman tsakanin manajoji, don rage haɗarin yin yanke shawara mara kyau a cikin sarrafa bayanai. Takardar ta nuna darussan Turai guda biyu na baya-bayan nan a matsayin misalai na kokarin ilimi, bayyana darussan da aka koya da kuma ba da shawarar jagororin nan gaba.

Babban ƙarshe shine cewa ƙara mayar da hankali kan ilimin likitanci yana da damar sake farfado da tsarin da ya dace da kimiyyar likitanci, inganta ingancin ƙididdiga, da haɓaka ƙarin shiga cikin bincike da yanke shawara na gudanarwa. Wani sabon kalubale na ilimi an tsara shi don shirye-shiryen jami'ar kimiyya a duk duniya: canji a cikin jaddadawa daga nazarin laifuka zuwa tsarin warware matsalar tsaro.

Ci gaban kimiyyar shari'a

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Ayyukan tiyata na Ambroise Paré sun kafa tushe don ci gaban dabarun bincike a cikin ƙarni masu zuwa.

A cikin karni na 16 a Turai, likitoci a cikin sojoji da jami'o'i sun fara tattara bayanai game da dalilin da kuma hanyar mutuwa. Ambroise Paré, likitan soja na Faransa, ya yi nazarin tasirin mutuwar tashin hankali a gabobin ciki. Likitoci biyu na Italiya, Fortunato Fidelis da Paolo Zacchia, sun kafa harsashin ilimin cututtukan zamani ta hanyar nazarin canje-canjen da suka faru a cikin tsarin jiki sakamakon cutar. A ƙarshen karni na 18, rubuce-rubuce a kan waɗannan batutuwa sun fara bayyana. Wadannan sun hada da A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French likitan Francois Immanuele Fodéré da The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German likitan Johann Peter Frank .

Yayinda dabi'u masu ma'ana na zamanin Haskakawa suka kara mamaye al'umma a karni na 18, binciken aikata laifuka ya zama hanyar da ta fi dacewa, hanyar da ta dace - an rage amfani da azabtarwa don tilasta ikirari, kuma imani da maita da sauran ikon sihiri ya daina rinjayar yanke shawara na kotun. Misalai guda biyu na kimiyyar shari'a ta Ingilishi a cikin shari'o'in shari'a na mutum suna nuna karuwar amfani da ma'ana da tsari a cikin binciken aikata laifuka a lokacin. A shekara ta 1784, a Lancaster, an gwada John Toms kuma an yanke masa hukunci saboda kisan Edward Culshaw da bindiga. Lokacin da aka bincika gawar Culshaw, wani wad na bindiga (takardar da aka yi amfani da ita don tabbatar da foda da kwallaye a cikin bakinsa) da aka samu a cikin raunin kansa ya dace da jaridar da aka samu cikin aljihun Toms, wanda ya haifar da hukunci.

Wannan misali ne da bayani game da alamun mai fitarwa / mai fitarwa a kan casings.

A Warwick 1816, an yi wa wani ma'aikacin gona shari'a kuma an yanke masa hukunci kan kisan wata budurwa. An nutsar da ita a cikin wani tafki mai zurfi kuma tana da alamun mummunan hari. 'Yan sanda sun sami sawun sawun da kuma ra'ayi daga zane mai laushi tare da sutura a cikin ƙasa mai laushi kusa da tafkin. Har ila yau, akwai hatsi da aka warwatsa na alkama da ciyawa. An bincika breeches na wani ma'aikacin gona wanda ke niƙa alkama a kusa kuma ya dace daidai da ra'ayi a ƙasa kusa da tafkin.

Wani labarin da ya bayyana a cikin Scientific American a cikin 1885 ya bayyana amfani da microscopy don rarrabe tsakanin jinin mutane biyu a cikin wani laifi a Chicago.

Chromatography wata dabara ce ta yau da kullun da ake amfani da ita a fagen Kimiyya. Chromatography wata hanya ce ta raba abubuwan da ke cikin cakuda daga matakin hannu.[8] Chromatography kayan aiki ne mai mahimmanci da aka yi amfani da shi a kimiyyar bincike, yana taimaka wa masu sharhi ganowa da kwatanta samfurori da suka hada da ruwa mai ƙonewa, kwayoyi, da samfurori na halitta. Yawancin dakunan gwaje-gwaje suna amfani da gas chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC / MS) don bincika waɗannan samfurori; wannan bincike yana ba da saurin kuma abin dogaro da bayanai don gano samfurori da ake tambaya.[9]

Ilimin guba

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Hanyar gano arsenious oxide, arsenic mai sauƙi, a cikin gawawwakin an tsara shi ne a cikin 1773 ta hanyar likitan Sweden, Carl Wilhelm Scheele . An fadada aikinsa, a cikin 1806, ta hanyar likitan Jamus Valentin Ross, wanda ya koyi gano guba a cikin ganuwar ciki na wanda aka azabtar.

Na'urar gwajin arsenic, wanda James Marsh ya kirkira

James Marsh shine na farko da ya yi amfani da wannan sabon kimiyya ga fasahar forensics. Masu gabatar da kara sun kira shi a cikin shari'ar kisan kai don ba da shaida a matsayin likitan sunadarai a 1832. Wanda ake tuhuma, John Bodle, an zarge shi da guba ga kakansa da kofi mai laushi. Marsh ya yi gwajin misali ta hanyar hada samfurin da ake zargi da hydrogen sulfide da hydrochloric acid. Duk da yake ya sami damar gano arsenic a matsayin rawaya arsenic trisulfide, lokacin da aka nuna wa juri ya lalace, yana ba da damar wanke wanda ake zargi saboda shakku mai ma'ana.[10]

Da yake fushi da hakan, Marsh ya samar da gwaji mafi kyau. Ya haɗu da samfurin da ke dauke da arsenic tare da sulfuric acid da zinc mara arsenic, wanda ya haifar da iskar Arsine. An kunna iskar gas ɗin, kuma ya lalace zuwa arsenic na ƙarfe mai tsabta, wanda, idan ya wuce zuwa wuri mai sanyi, zai bayyana a matsayin ajiyar baƙar fata. Gwajin ya kasance mai hankali sosai, wanda aka sani da Gwajin Marsh, wanda zai iya gano kadan kamar kashi ɗaya cikin biyar na milligram na arsenic. Ya fara bayyana wannan gwajin a cikin The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal a cikin 1836. [11]

Harkokin harbi da bindigogi

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  Ballistics shine "kimiyya ta motsi na makamai masu linzami a cikin jirgin".[12] A cikin kimiyyar shari'a, masu sharhi suna nazarin alamu da aka bari a kan harsashi da katako bayan an fitar da su daga makami. Lokacin da aka harbe shi, ana barin harsashi tare da alamomi da alamomi waɗanda suka kasance na musamman ga ganga da kuma bindigar harsashi wanda ya fitar da harsashi. Wannan binciken na iya taimakawa masana kimiyya gano yiwuwar yin da kuma samfuran makamai da ke da alaƙa da laifi.

Henry Goddard a Scotland Yard ya fara amfani da kwatancin harsashi a 1835. Ya lura da lahani a cikin harsashi wanda ya kashe wanda aka azabtar kuma ya sami damar gano wannan zuwa ga ƙirar da aka yi amfani da ita a cikin tsarin masana'antu.[13]

Raunin shigarwa / fita bisa ga nisan da aka fitar da bindigar

Anthropometry

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Frontispiece daga Bertillon's Identification anthropométrique (1893), yana nuna ma'aunin da ake buƙata don tsarin gano kansa na anthropometric

Jami'in 'yan sanda na Faransa Alphonse Bertillon shine na farko da ya yi amfani da fasahar ilimin ɗan adam na Anthropometry ga tilasta bin doka, don haka ya kirkiro tsarin ganewa bisa ga ma'aunin jiki. Kafin wannan lokacin, ana iya gano masu laifi ne kawai ta hanyar suna ko hoto.[14][15] Ba ya gamsu da hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su don gano masu aikata laifuka da aka kama a Faransa a cikin shekarun 1870, ya fara aikinsa na haɓaka ingantaccen tsarin anthropometrics don rarraba ɗan adam.[16]

Bertillon ya kirkiro wasu dabarun bincike da yawa, gami da jarrabawar takardun bincike, amfani da mahaɗan galvanoplastic don adana sawun sawun, ballistics, da Dynamometer, wanda aka yi amfani da shi don tantance matakin ƙarfin da aka yi amfani dashi wajen karyawa da shiga. Kodayake hanyoyinsa na tsakiya ba da daɗewa ba za a maye gurbin su ta hanyar yatsan hannu, "sauran gudummawarsa kamar harbi muguna da tsarin daukar hoto na aikata laifuka sun kasance a wurin har zuwa yau. "[15]

Alamar yatsunsu

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Sir William Herschel na ɗaya daga cikin na farko da ya ba da shawarar yin amfani da yatsan yatsa wajen gano masu aikata laifuka. Yayinda yake aiki ga Ma'aikatan Jama'a na Indiya, ya fara amfani da yatsun yatsa a kan takardu a matsayin matakin tsaro don hana ƙin sa hannu a 1858.

Alamar yatsunsu da William Herschel ya ɗauka 1859/60

A shekara ta 1877 a Hooghly (kusa da Kolkata), Herschel ya kafa amfani da yatsan yatsa a kan kwangila da ayyuka, kuma ya yi rajistar yatsan yatta na masu fansho na gwamnati don hana tattara kudi ta dangi bayan mutuwar mai fansho.[17]

A cikin 1880, Henry Faulds, likitan Scotland a asibitin Tokyo, ya buga takarda ta farko a kan batun a cikin mujallar kimiyya Nature, yana tattauna amfanin yatsan hannu don ganowa da kuma ba da shawarar hanyar yin rikodin su tare da tawada. Ya kafa rarrabuwa ta farko kuma shi ne na farko da ya gano yatsan yatsa da aka bari a kan kwalba.[18] Da ya dawo Burtaniya a 1886, ya ba da ra'ayin ga 'yan sanda na Metropolitan a London, amma an sallame shi a wannan lokacin.[19]

Faulds ya rubuta wa Charles Darwin tare da bayanin hanyarsa, amma, ya tsufa kuma ba shi da lafiya don yin aiki a ciki, Darwin ya ba da bayanin ga dan uwansa, Francis Galton, wanda ke da sha'awar ilimin ɗan adam. Da yake an yi wahayi zuwa gare shi don nazarin yatsan yatsa na tsawon shekaru goma, Galton ya buga cikakken tsarin kididdiga na nazarin yatsan hannu da ganowa kuma ya karfafa amfani da shi a kimiyyar shari'a a cikin littafinsa Finger Prints . Ya lissafa cewa damar "mahimmanci mara kyau" (mutane biyu daban-daban da ke da yatsunsu iri ɗaya) kusan 1 cikin biliyan 64.[20]

Ma'aikatan mata na Sashen 'Yan Sanda na LA suna samun sawun yatsa da daukar hoto a cikin 1928

Juan Vucetich, babban jami'in 'yan sanda na Argentina, ya kirkiro hanyar farko ta yin rikodin yatsan mutane a cikin fayil. A shekara ta 1892, bayan nazarin nau'ikan tsarin Galton, Vucetich ya kafa ofishin sawun yatsa na farko a duniya. A wannan shekarar, an sami Francisca Rojas na Necochea a cikin wani gida tare da raunin wuyansa yayin da aka sami 'ya'yanta maza biyu sun mutu tare da yanke makogwaronsu. Rojas ya zargi maƙwabci, amma duk da tambayoyi masu tsanani, wannan maƙwabcin ba zai furta laifuffukan ba. Sufeto Alvarez, abokin aiki na Vucetich, ya tafi wurin kuma ya sami alamar yatsa mai jini a ƙofar. Lokacin da aka kwatanta shi da bugawa na Rojas, an gano ya zama daidai da yatsan hannu na dama. Daga nan sai ta furta kisan 'ya'yanta maza.

An kafa Ofishin Fingerprint a Calcutta (Kolkata), Indiya, a cikin 1897, bayan Majalisar Gwamna Janar ta amince da rahoton kwamitin cewa ya kamata a yi amfani da yatsan hannu don rarraba bayanan aikata laifuka. Yin aiki a Ofishin Anthropometric na Calcutta, kafin ya zama Ofishin Fingerprint, sune Azizul Haque da Hem Chandra Bose. Haque da Bose sun kasance masana yatsan yatsa na Indiya waɗanda aka yaba da ci gaban farko na tsarin rarraba yatsan yatta wanda aka sanya masa suna bayan mai kula da su, Sir Edward Richard Henry . [21][22] An karɓi Tsarin rarraba Henry, wanda Haque da Bose suka tsara, a Ingila da Wales lokacin da aka kafa Ofishin Fingerprint na farko na Burtaniya a Scotland Yard, hedkwatar 'yan sanda ta Metropolitan, London, a cikin 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry daga baya ya sami ci gaba a cikin dactyloscopy.[23]

A Amurka, Henry P. DeForrest ya yi amfani da yatsan yatsa a cikin Ma'aikatar Harkokin Jama'a ta New York a cikin 1902, kuma a watan Disamba na shekara ta 1905, Mataimakin Kwamishinan Sashen 'Yan Sanda na Birnin New York Joseph A. Faurot, gwani a tsarin Bertillon kuma mai ba da shawara ga yatsan yatta a hedikwatar' yan sanda, ya gabatar da yatsan hannu na masu laifi a Amurka.[24]

Gwajin Uhlenhuth

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Gwajin Uhlenhuth, ko gwajin antigen-antibody precipitin don jinsuna, Paul Uhlenhuth ne ya kirkireshi a cikin 1901 kuma zai iya rarrabe jini mutum daga jinin dabba, bisa ga binciken cewa jinin jinsuna daban-daban yana da furotin guda ɗaya ko fiye. Gwajin ya wakilci babban ci gaba kuma ya zama da muhimmancin gaske a kimiyyar shari'a. An ci gaba da inganta gwajin don amfani da shi ta hanyar likitan Switzerland Maurice Müller a cikin shekara ta 1960.[25]

DNA

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An fara amfani da Nazarin DNA na bincike a shekarar 1984. Sir Alec Jeffreys ne ya kirkireshi, wanda ya fahimci cewa za'a iya amfani da bambancin tsarin kwayar halitta don gano mutane da kuma gaya wa mutane ban da juna. Aikace-aikacen farko na bayanan DNA Jeffreys ya yi amfani da shi a cikin asirin kisan kai sau biyu a cikin ƙaramin garin Ingila na Narborough, Leicestershire, a cikin 1985. An yi wa wata yarinya 'yar shekara 15 mai suna Lynda Mann fyade kuma an kashe ta a asibitin Carlton Hayes. 'Yan sanda ba su sami wanda ake zargi ba amma sun sami samfurin maniyyi.

A shekara ta 1986, Dawn Ashworth, mai shekaru 15, an kuma yi mata fyade kuma an maƙure ta a ƙauyen Enderby da ke kusa. Shaidar bincike ta nuna cewa masu kisan biyu suna da nau'in jini iri ɗaya. Richard Buckland ya zama wanda ake zargi saboda ya yi aiki a asibitin Carlton Hayes, an hango shi a kusa da wurin kisan Dawn Ashworth kuma ya san cikakkun bayanai game da jikin. Daga baya ya furta kisan Dawn amma ba na Lynda ba. An kawo Jefferys cikin shari'ar don nazarin samfurori na maniyyi. Ya kammala cewa babu wata wasa tsakanin samfurori da Buckland, wanda ya zama mutum na farko da za a cire shi ta hanyar amfani da DNA. Jefferys ya tabbatar da cewa bayanan DNA sun kasance iri ɗaya ga samfurori biyu na kisan kai. Don samun mai aikata laifin, an tattara samfurori na DNA daga dukkan maza, sama da 4,000 masu shekaru daga 17 zuwa 34, daga garin. Dukansu an kwatanta su da samfurori na maniyyi daga laifin. An ji wani aboki na Colin Pitchfork yana cewa ya ba da samfurinsa ga 'yan sanda yana da'awar cewa shi ne Colin. An kama Colin Pitchfork a shekarar 1987 kuma an gano cewa bayanan DNA dinsa ya dace da samfurori na maniyyi daga kisan.

Saboda wannan yanayin, an haɓaka bayanan DNA. Akwai bayanan kasa (FBI) da na kasa da kasa da kuma kasashen Turai (ENFSI: Cibiyar Nazarin Kimiyya ta Turai). Ana amfani da waɗannan bayanan bayanan bincike don daidaita bayanan DNA na aikata laifuka ga waɗanda suka riga sun kasance a cikin bayanan.

Girma

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Cartoon of a man holding a bloody knife looking contemptuously at a display of half-a-dozen supposed and dissimilar likenesses
'Yan sanda sun kawo sabbin dabarun kimiyya a kokarin da suke yi na ganowa da kuma kama mai kisan gilla Jack the Ripper.

A farkon karni na 20, kimiyyar forensics ta zama mafi yawa a fannin binciken aikata laifuka. Binciken kimiyya da tiyata ya yi amfani da shi sosai ta hanyar 'yan sanda na Metropolitan yayin da suke bin Jack the Ripper mai ban mamaki, wanda ya kashe mata da yawa a cikin shekarun 1880. Wannan shari'ar ta kasance canji ne a aikace-aikacen kimiyyar shari'a. Manyan kungiyoyin 'yan sanda sun gudanar da bincike gida-gida a ko'ina cikin Whitechapel. An tattara kayan bincike kuma an bincika su. An gano wadanda ake zargi, an gano su kuma an bincika su sosai ko kuma an kawar da su daga binciken. Ayyukan 'yan sanda suna bin wannan tsari a yau. Fiye da mutane 2000 ne aka yi hira da su, an bincika "fiye da mutane 300", kuma an tsare mutane 80.

The investigation was initially conducted by the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid. Later, Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline, Henry Moore, and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist. Initially, butchers, surgeons and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations. The alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated, with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry. Some contemporary figures thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe. Whitechapel was close to the London Docks, and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday. The cattle boats were examined, but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat's movements, and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out.

A ƙarshen Oktoba, Robert Anderson ya nemi likitan 'yan sanda Thomas Bond ya ba da ra'ayinsa game da girman ƙwarewar tiyata da ilimi na mai kisan kai.[26] Ra'ayin da Bond ya bayar game da halin "mai kisan gilla" shine farkon Bayanan mai laifi.[27] Binciken Bond ya dogara ne akan bincikensa na wanda aka fi lalata da shi da kuma bayanan Bayan mutuwa daga kisan gillar da suka gabata. A ra'ayinsa mai kisan dole ne ya kasance mutum ne mai halaye masu zaman kansu, wanda ke ƙarƙashin "harin kisan kai da lalata", tare da halin yankan da ke nuna "satyriasis".[28] Bond ya kuma bayyana cewa "matsayin kisan kai na iya samo asali ne daga fansa ko yanayin tunani, ko kuma cewa mania na addini na iya zama cutar ta asali amma ban tsammanin ko dai ra'ayi ne mai yiwuwa".[28]

Shahararren halin almara Sherlock Holmes ya kasance a hanyoyi da yawa a gaban lokacinsa a cikin amfani da bincike na bincike.

Littafin hannu don Coroners, jami'an 'yan sanda,' yan sanda na soja an rubuta shi ne ta hanyar lauyan aikata laifuka na Austrian Hans Gross a cikin 1893, kuma an yarda da shi gabaɗaya a matsayin haihuwar fagen aikata laifukan. Aikin ya haɗu a cikin tsarin tsarin ilimi guda ɗaya wanda ba a haɗa shi ba a baya, kamar ilimin halayyar mutum da kimiyyar jiki, kuma wanda za'a iya amfani dashi da nasara akan aikata laifuka. Gross ya daidaita wasu fannoni don bukatun binciken aikata laifuka, kamar daukar hoto na aikata laifukan. Ya ci gaba da kafa Cibiyar Criminalistics a 1912, a matsayin wani ɓangare na Jami'ar Graz' Law School. Wannan Cibiyar ta biyo bayan irin wannan cibiyoyin a duk duniya.

A cikin 1909, Archibald Reiss ya kafa Institut de police scientifique na Jami'ar Lausanne (UNIL) , makarantar farko ta kimiyyar shari'a a duniya. Dokta Edmond Locard, ya zama sananne da "Sherlock Holmes na Faransa". Ya tsara ka'idar asali ta kimiyyar bincike: "Kowane lamba ya bar alama", wanda aka sani da Ka'idar musayar Locard. A shekara ta 1910, ya kafa abin da zai iya zama dakin gwaje-gwaje na farko a duniya, bayan ya shawo kan Sashen 'yan sanda na Lyon (Faransa) don ba shi ɗakuna biyu da mataimakan biyu.

Alamar sabon matsayi na forensics da kuma amfani da tunani a cikin aikin bincike shine shahararren halin Sherlock Holmes, wanda Arthur Conan Doyle ya rubuta a ƙarshen karni na 19. Ya kasance babban wahayi ga kimiyyar shari'a, musamman ga yadda binciken da ya yi game da wani wurin aikata laifuka ya samar da ƙananan alamomi game da ainihin jerin abubuwan da suka faru. Ya yi amfani sosai da shaidu irin su takalma da taya, da kuma yatsun yatsa, ballistics da nazarin rubuce-rubuce, wanda yanzu aka sani da jarrabawar takardun tambaya. Ana amfani da irin wannan shaidar don gwada ka'idodin da 'yan sanda suka ɗauka, alal misali, ko kuma mai binciken da kansa. Dukkanin dabarun da Holmes ya ba da shawarar daga baya sun zama gaskiya, amma galibi suna cikin jariri a lokacin da Conan Doyle ke rubutu. A yawancin shari'o'in da ya ruwaito, Holmes akai-akai yana gunaguni game da yadda wasu suka gurɓata wurin aikata laifuka, musamman 'yan sanda, suna jaddada muhimmancin kiyaye mutuntakarsa, sanannen fasalin binciken wurin aikata laphuka. Ya yi amfani da ilmin sunadarai na nazari don nazarin Ragowar jini da kuma binciken toxicology da ƙuduri ga guba. Ya yi amfani da ballistics ta hanyar auna Calibres na harsashi da daidaita su da makamin kisan kai.

Karni na 20

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An yi amfani da takalma na dogon lokaci don daidaita takalma biyu zuwa wurin aikata laifuka.

Edmond Locard ya fadada aikin Gross tare da Locard's Exchange Principle wanda ya bayyana "duk lokacin da abubuwa biyu suka haɗu da juna, ana musayar kayan tsakanin su". Wannan yana nufin cewa duk wani hulɗa da mai laifi ya bar alama.

Alphonse Bertillon masanin laifuka ne na Faransa kuma wanda ya kafa Anthropometry (bincike na kimiyya game da ma'auni da daidaitattun jikin mutum). Ya yi amfani da anthropometry don ganewa, yana mai cewa, tunda kowane mutum na musamman ne, ta hanyar auna fannoni na bambancin jiki akwai yiwuwar tsarin ganewa na mutum. Ya kirkiro tsarin Bertillon a kusa da 1879, hanyar gano masu laifi da 'yan ƙasa ta hanyar auna sassa 20 na jiki. A cikin 1884, an kama masu laifi sama da 240 ta amfani da tsarin Bertillon, amma tsarin ya fi maye gurbin sawun yatsa.

Frances Glessner Lee, wacce aka fi sani da "mahaifiyar kimiyyar shari'a", [29] ta taimaka wajen ci gaban kimiyyar Shari'a a Amurka. Ta yi kira da a maye gurbin masu binciken shari'a da ƙwararrun likitoci, ta ba da kyautar Harvard Associates a Kimiyya ta 'yan sanda, kuma ta gudanar da tarurruka da yawa don ilimantar da masu binciken kisan kai. Ta kuma kirkiro Nazarin Nutshell na Mutuwa da ba a Bayyanawa ba, dioramas masu rikitarwa da aka yi amfani da su don horar da masu bincike, waɗanda har yanzu ana amfani da su a yau.

Karni na 20

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Alec Jeffreys ya kirkiro fasahar rarraba DNA a shekarar 1984.

Daga baya a cikin karni na 20 da yawa daga cikin likitocin Burtaniya, Mikey Rochman, Francis Camps, Sydney Smith da Keith Simpson sun fara sababbin hanyoyin kimiyya. Alec Jeffreys ya fara amfani da Bayanan DNA a kimiyyar shari'a a shekarar 1984. Ya fahimci girman yatsa na DNA, wanda ke amfani da bambance-bambance a cikin lambar kwayar halitta don gano mutane. Hanyar ta zama mahimmanci a kimiyyar shari'a don taimakawa aikin bincike na 'yan sanda, kuma ya tabbatar da amfani wajen warware rikice-rikicen iyaye da shige da fice.[30] An fara amfani da yatsan hannu na DNA a matsayin gwajin 'yan sanda don gano mai fyade da mai kisan matasa biyu, Lynda Mann da Dawn Ashworth, wadanda aka kashe a Narborough, Leicestershire, a 1983 da 1986 bi da bi. An gano Colin Pitchfork kuma an yanke masa hukuncin kisan kai bayan samfurori da aka karɓa daga gare shi sun dace da samfurori na maniyyi da aka karba daga 'yan mata biyu da suka mutu.

Kimiyyar kimiyya ta sami ci gaba ta hanyar wasu kungiyoyi masu ilimin kimiyya na kasa da kasa ciki har da Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Amurka (wanda aka kafa a 1948), masu wallafa Jaridar Kimiyya ta Kimiyya; [31] Kungiyar Kimiyya ta Kanada (wanda aka samo a 1953), masu wallafa mujallar Kimiyyar Kimiyya ta Kimiyyar Kimiyyar Kanada; [32] (wanda aka gina a 1959), wanda aka sani da Cibiyar Kimiyya ta Forensic ta Kimiyya ta Kimiyye ta Kimiywar Kimiyyar Turai; [33] (wanda aka kirkiro da Cibiyar Nazarin Kimiyya ta Turai; da Cibiyar Harkokin Kimiyya ta Duniya ta Kimiyyan Kimiyya ta Nazarin Kimiyar Kimiyya (wanda aka Kafa a 1967),[34][35]

Karni na 21

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A cikin shekaru goma da suka gabata, rubuce-rubuce na al'amuran bincike sun zama mafi inganci. Masana kimiyya sun fara amfani da laser scanners, drones da photogrammetry don samun girgije na 3D na haɗari ko wuraren aikata laifuka. Sake gina wani wurin hatsari a kan babbar hanya ta amfani da drones ya haɗa da lokacin samun bayanai na minti 10-20 kawai kuma ana iya yin sa ba tare da rufe zirga-zirga ba. Sakamakon ba kawai daidai ba ne, a cikin centimeters, don a gabatar da ma'auni a kotu amma kuma yana da sauƙin adanawa ta hanyar dijital a cikin dogon lokaci.Yanzu, a cikin karni na 21, yawancin makomar kimiyyar shari'a tana cikin tattaunawa. Cibiyar Nazarin Ka'idoji da Fasaha ta Kasa (NIST) tana da shirye-shirye da yawa da suka shafi kimiyyar shari'a: CSAFE, Cibiyar NIST ta Kwarewa a Kimiyya ta Shari'a, Hukumar Kasa kan Kimiyya ta Kimiyya (yanzu an kammala), da kuma gudanar da Kwamitin Yankin Kimiyya na Kimiyya (OSAC). [36] Ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan da NIST ta ƙara kwanan nan shine takardar da ake kira NISTIR-7941, mai taken "Forensic Science Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Relocation". Littafin yana ba da cikakken tsari don kusantar kimiyyar shari'a. Bayanan sun haɗa da irin ma'aikatan da ya kamata a hayar su don wasu mukamai.[37]

Rarrabawar

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Jami'an Sashen Binciken Laifuka na Sojojin Amurka suna binciken wani wurin aikata laifuka.
Binciken 'yan sanda a Ashton-under-Lyne, Ingila, ta amfani da alfarwa don kare wurin aikata laifuka
  • Art forensics ya shafi shari'ar tabbatar da fasaha don taimakawa wajen binciken sahihancin aikin. Ana amfani da hanyoyin tabbatar da fasaha don ganowa da gano karya, karya da kwafin ayyukan fasaha, misali zane-zane.
  • Binciken tsarin jini shine binciken kimiyya na tsarin zubar da jini da aka samu a wurin aikata laifuka don sake gina abubuwan da suka faru na aikata laifukan.
  • Nazarin kwatankwacin shine aikace-aikacen dabarun kwatanta gani don tabbatar da kamanceceniyar shaidar jiki. Wannan ya haɗa da nazarin yatsan yatsa, nazarin alamun kayan aiki, da nazarin ballistic.
  • Kwamfuta ta lissafi ta shafi ci gaban algorithms da software don taimakawa jarrabawar shari'a.
  • Criminalistics shine aikace-aikacen kimiyyar daban-daban don amsa tambayoyin da suka shafi jarrabawa da kwatanta Shaidar halittu, shaidar ganowa, shaidar burgewa (kamar yatsan yatsa, shaidar takalma, da waƙoƙin taya), abubuwa masu sarrafawa, ballistics, bindiga da gwajin kayan aiki, da sauran shaidu a cikin binciken aikata laifuka. A yanayi na yau da kullun, ana aiwatar da shaidu a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje na aikata laifuka.
  • Digital forensics shine aikace-aikacen tabbatar da hanyoyin kimiyya da dabarun don dawo da bayanai daga kafofin watsa labarai na lantarki / dijital. Masana ilimin lissafi na dijital suna aiki a fagen da kuma a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.
  • Ana amfani da nazarin buga kunne a matsayin hanyar ganowa da aka nufa a matsayin kayan aiki na ganowa mai kama da yatsan yatsa. Alamar kunne ita ce haihuwar nau'i biyu na sassan kunne na waje waɗanda suka taɓa takamaiman farfajiyar (yawanci helix, antihelix, tragus da antitragus).
  • Shari'ar zabe ita ce amfani da kididdiga don tantance ko sakamakon zabe na al'ada ne ko kuma ba daidai ba. Hakanan ana amfani dashi don bincika da gano shari'o'in da suka shafi gerrymandering.
  • Lissafin lissafi shine nazarin da fassarar shaidar lissafi, bayanin kuɗi wato: Takardar Balance, Sanarwar Income, Sanarutar Cash flow.
  • Hotunan sama na bincike shine nazarin da fassarar shaidar daukar hoto ta sama.
  • Ilimin ilimin ɗan adam na shari'a shine aikace-aikacen ilimin ɗan adam ya zahiri a cikin tsarin doka, yawanci don dawowa da gano ragowar ɗan adam.
  • Ilimin binciken archaeology shine aikace-aikacen haɗuwa da dabarun archaeological da kimiyyar forensic, yawanci a tilasta bin doka.
  • ilimin taurari na bincike yana amfani da hanyoyin daga ilimin taurari don tantance taurari na sama da suka gabata don dalilai na bincike.
  • Forensic botany shine nazarin rayuwar shuke-shuke don samun bayanai game da yiwuwar laifuka.
  • Kimiyyar ilmin sunadarai shine nazarin ganowa da gano magungunan haramtacciya, masu hanzari da aka yi amfani da su a lokuta na ƙonewa, fashewa da raguwar bindiga.
  • Forensic dactyloscopy shine nazarin yatsan yatsa.
  • Binciken takardun bincike ko jarrabawar takardun da aka yi tambaya ya amsa tambayoyi game da takaddar da ake jayayya ta amfani da matakai da hanyoyin kimiyya daban-daban. Gwaje-gwaje da yawa sun haɗa da kwatanta takardar da aka yi tambaya, ko abubuwan da ke cikin takardar, tare da saitin ka'idojin da aka sani. Irin jarrabawar da aka fi sani da ita ta haɗa da rubutun hannu, inda mai jarrabawa ke ƙoƙarin magance damuwa game da yiwuwar marubuci.
  • Binciken DNA na bincike yana amfani da bambancin DNA na mutum don amsa tambayoyin bincike kamar gwajin iyaye / haihuwa da sanya wanda ake zargi a wurin aikata laifuka, misali a cikin Binciken fyade.
  • Injiniyanci shine binciken kimiyya da nazarin tsarin da samfuran da suka shafi gazawar su ko dalilin lalacewa.
  • Ilimin ilimin ƙwayoyin cuta yana hulɗa da nazarin kwari a ciki, a kan da kewayen gawar mutum don taimakawa wajen ƙaddamar da lokaci ko wurin mutuwa. Hakanan yana yiwuwa a tantance ko an motsa jikin bayan mutuwa ta amfani da ilimin ƙwayoyin cuta.
  • Ilimin ilimin ƙasa yana hulɗa da shaidar a cikin ƙasa, ma'adanai da man fetur.
  • Geomorphology na bincike shine nazarin ƙasa don neman wuri mai yuwuwa (s) na abin da aka binne (s). [38]
  • Geophysics na bincike shine aikace-aikacen dabarun geophysical kamar radar don gano abubuwan da aka ɓoye a ƙarƙashin ƙasa ko ƙarƙashin ruwa. [39][40]
  • Tsarin leken asiri na bincike yana farawa tare da tattara bayanai kuma yana ƙare tare da haɗa sakamakon cikin nazarin laifuka a ƙarƙashin bincike.[41]
  • Ana gudanar da tambayoyin bincike ta amfani da kimiyya ta hanyar amfani da ƙwarewa don gudanar da tambayoyolin bincike iri-iri tare da wadanda abin ya shafa, shaidu, wadanda ake zargi ko wasu tushe don tantance gaskiyar game da tuhuma, zarge-zarge ko takamaiman abubuwan da suka faru a ko dai tsarin jama'a ko masu zaman kansu.
  • Histopathology na shari'a shine aikace-aikacen dabarun histological da gwaji ga aikin ilimin cututtukan shari'a.
  • Forensic limnology shine nazarin shaidar da aka tattara daga wuraren aikata laifuka a cikin ko kusa da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa. Binciken kwayoyin halitta, musamman diatoms, na iya zama da amfani wajen haɗa wadanda ake zargi da wadanda abin ya shafa.
  • Harshen harshe na shari'a yana hulɗa da batutuwa a cikin tsarin shari'a wanda ke buƙatar ƙwarewar harshe.
  • Ilimin yanayi na bincike shine takamaiman bincike na yanayin yanayi na baya don asarar.
  • Forensic metrology shine aikace-aikacen metrology don tantance amincin shaidar kimiyya da aka samu ta hanyar ma'auni
  • Ilimin kimiyyar halittu shine nazarin Necrobiome.
  • Nursing forensic shine aikace-aikacen kimiyyar Nursing ga laifuka masu cin zarafi, kamar cin zarafin yara, ko cin zarafin jima'i. Rarraba raunuka da rauni, tattara ruwa na jiki da goyon bayan motsin rai wasu daga cikin ayyukan ma'aikatan jinya ne.
  • Ilimin hakora shine nazarin bambancin hakora, wanda aka fi sani da nazarin hakora.
  • Forensic optometry shine nazarin tabarau da sauran kayan ido da suka shafi wuraren aikata laifuka da binciken aikata laifukan.
  • Ilimin Cututtukan shari'a wani bangare ne wanda ake amfani da ka'idodin magani da cututtukani don tantance dalilin mutuwa ko rauni a cikin mahallin binciken shari'a.
  • Forensic podiatry aikace-aikace ne na nazarin sawun ƙafa ko takalma da alamun su don nazarin wurin aikata laifuka da kuma kafa asalin mutum a cikin jarrabawar forensic.
  • Forensic psychiatry reshe ne na musamman na psychiatry kamar yadda aka yi amfani da shi kuma bisa ga ilimin laifuka na kimiyya.
  • Ilimin halayyar mutum shine nazarin tunanin mutum, ta amfani da hanyoyin forensic. Yawancin lokaci yana ƙayyade yanayin da ke bayan halayyar mai laifi.
  • Ilimin girgizar ƙasa shine nazarin dabarun don rarrabe siginar girgizar kasa da fashewar nukiliya ta ƙasa ta haifar da waɗanda girgizar ƙasar ta haifar.
  • Forensic serology shine nazarin ruwa na jiki.[42]
  • Ayyukan zamantakewa na shari'a shine ƙwararren nazarin ka'idodin aikin zamantakewa da aikace-aikacen su ga asibiti, shari'ar aikata laifuka ko yanayin ilimin halayyar mutum. Masu aiki da aikin zamantakewa da ke da alaƙa da tsarin shari'a na aikata laifuka galibi ana kiransu masu kula da zamantakewa, yayin da sauran ke amfani da lakabi masu musayar ma'aikacin zamantakewa, ƙwararren mai kiwon lafiya ko likitan likita kuma suna gudanar da ƙwarewar ƙwarewa game da haɗari, tsara kulawa da aiki a matsayin jami'in kotun.
  • Ilimin toxicology shine nazarin tasirin kwayoyi da guba a / a cikin jikin mutum.
  • Binciken bidiyo na bincike shine binciken kimiyya, kwatankwacin da kimanta bidiyon a cikin batutuwan shari'a.
  • Kayan bincike na wayar hannu shine binciken kimiyya da kimantawa na shaidar da aka samu a cikin wayoyin hannu, misali Tarihin Kira da SMS da aka share, kuma ya haɗa da SIM Card Forensics.
  • Binciken shaidar alama shine bincike da kwatanta shaidar alama ciki har da gilashi, fenti, fiber da gashi (misali, ta amfani da micro-spectrophotometry).
  • Kimiyya ta ilimin kimiyyar namun daji tana amfani da fannoni daban-daban na kimiyya ga shari'o'in shari'a da suka shafi shaidar halittu marasa rai, don warware laifuka kamar farauta, Cin zarafin dabbobi, da cinikayya a cikin nau'in da ke cikin haɗari.

Hanyoyin da ake tuhuma

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Wasu dabarun bincike, waɗanda aka yi imanin suna da kyau a kimiyya a lokacin da aka yi amfani da su, daga baya sun zama suna da ƙarancin ƙwarewar kimiyya ko babu.[43] Wasu irin wadannan dabarun sun hada da:

  • FBI ta yi amfani da bincike na harsashi sama da shekaru arba'in, farawa da Kisan John F. Kennedy a 1963. Ka'idar ita ce kowane rukuni na harsashi yana da sinadarin sinadarai daban-daban don a iya gano harsashi zuwa wani rukuni ko ma wani akwati. Nazarin ciki da binciken waje na Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Kasa sun gano cewa dabarar ba ta da tabbas saboda fassarar da ba ta dace ba, kuma FBI ta watsar da gwajin a shekara ta 2005.
  • Likitan hakora ya shiga cikin wuta: a kalla uku an yi amfani da shaidar alama don yanke wa mutane hukunci kan kisan kai waɗanda daga baya aka sake su ta hanyar shaidar DNA. Wani binciken da aka yi a 1999 da wani memba na Hukumar Kula da Kula da Kulawa ta Amurka ya gano kashi 63 cikin dari na ganewar ƙarya kuma ana yawan ambaton shi a cikin labarun labarai na kan layi da shafukan yanar gizo na makirci. Nazarin ya dogara ne akan wani bita na al'ada a lokacin taron ABFO, wanda yawancin mambobi ba su yi la'akari da ingantaccen yanayin kimiyya ba. Ka'idar ita ce kowane mutum yana da saiti na musamman da na musamman na hakora, wanda ke barin tsari bayan ya ci wani. Suna nazarin halaye na hakora kamar girman, siffar, da kuma siffar baka. [44]
  • A shekara ta 2009, masana kimiyya sun iya nuna cewa yana yiwuwa a ƙirƙiri shaidar DNA, don haka "ya rushe amincin abin da aka ɗauka a matsayin ma'auni na zinariya na hujja a cikin shari'o'in laifi".
  • 'Yan sanda Samun damar zuwa bayanan Genealogy Databases: Akwai damuwa game da sirri tare da' yan sanda suna iya samun damar samun damar bayanan kwayar halitta na mutum wanda ke kan ayyukan asali.[45] Kowane mutum na iya zama masu ba da labari ga iyalansu ko ga kansu kawai ta hanyar shiga cikin bayanan asalin kwayar halitta. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) wani bayanan da FBI ke amfani da shi don riƙe bayanan kwayar halitta na duk sanannun masu laifi, masu laifi, da waɗanda aka kama.[45] Wasu mutane suna jayayya cewa mutanen da ke amfani da bayanan asali ya kamata su kasance da tsammanin sirri a cikin bayanan su wanda shine ko kuma za a iya keta shi ta hanyar binciken kwayar halitta ta hanyar tilasta bin doka.[45] Wadannan ayyuka daban-daban suna da alamun gargadi game da masu iya amfani da bayanan su, amma yawancin mutane ba sa karanta yarjejeniyar sosai. Dangane da binciken da Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, da Amy McGuire suka yi, sun gano cewa yawancin mutanen da suka ɗauki binciken suna tallafawa binciken 'yan sanda na shafukan yanar gizo na kwayoyin halitta waɗanda ke gano dangi na kwayoyin.[45] Mutanen da suka amsa binciken sun fi tallafawa ayyukan 'yan sanda ta amfani da asalin kwayar halitta lokacin da yake da manufar gano masu aikata laifuka na tashin hankali, wadanda ake zargi da aikata laifukan yara ko mutanen da suka bace. Bayanan daga binciken da aka bayar sun nuna cewa mutane ba su damu da binciken 'yan sanda ba ta amfani da bayanan kwayar halitta na mutum idan ya dace. An gano a cikin wannan binciken cewa masu laifi suna da ƙarancin kuɗi da baƙar fata kuma matsakaicin mutumin Gwajin kwayar halitta yana da arziki da fari. Sakamakon binciken ya sami sakamako daban-daban.[45] A cikin 2016, an yi wani binciken da ake kira National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) wanda Ofishin Kididdiga na Adalci na Amurka ya bayar. A cikin wannan binciken, an gano cewa kashi 1.3% na mutanen da ke da shekaru 12 ko sama da haka sun sha wahala daga laifukan tashin hankali, kuma 8.85 na iyalai sun sha wahala da laifukan dukiya.[45] Akwai wasu batutuwa tare da wannan binciken duk da haka. NCVS tana samar da ƙididdigar shekara-shekara kawai game da zalunci. Binciken da Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, da Amy McGuire suka samar sun tambayi mahalarta game da abubuwan da suka faru na zalunci a rayuwar mutum.[45] Binciken da suka yi bai kuma iyakance wasu 'yan uwa ga iyali daya ba.[45] Kimanin kashi 25% na mutanen da suka amsa binciken sun ce suna da dangin da suka yi aiki da su ta hanyar tilasta bin doka wanda ya hada da masu tsaro da masu ba da izini.[45] A cikin waɗannan binciken, an gano cewa akwai tallafin jama'a don tilasta bin doka don samun damar bayanan asalin kwayoyin halitta.

Kimiyya ta shari'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

"Kimiyyar shari'a" tana bayyana bincike ko bayanan da aka haɓaka ko aka samar don amfani a cikin gwaji da waɗanda aka samar a yayin bincike mai zaman kansa. Kotun daukaka kara ta Amurka ta 9 ce ta yi wannan bambancin yayin kimanta yarda da masana.

Wannan yana amfani da shaidar nunawa, wanda shine shaidar da aka kirkira a shirye-shiryen shari'a ta hanyar lauyoyi ko masu ba da izini.

Yawan jama'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin Amurka akwai sama da masu fasahar kimiyya 17,200 a shekarar 2019. [46]

Tasirin kafofin watsa labarai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masu binciken aikata laifuka na ainihi da masana kimiyya sun yi gargadi cewa shahararrun shirye-shiryen talabijin ba sa ba da hoto na ainihi na aikin, sau da yawa suna karkatar da yanayin sa, da kuma wuce gona da iri, saurin, tasiri, wasan kwaikwayo, glamour, tasiri da matakin ta'aziyya na ayyukansu - wanda suka bayyana a matsayin mafi yawan duniya, mai gajiyarwa da banƙyama.

Wasu suna da'awar cewa waɗannan shirye-shiryen talabijin na zamani sun canza tsammanin mutane game da kimiyyar bincike, wani lokacin ba daidai ba - tasirin da ake kira "Tasirin CSI". [47]

Bugu da ƙari, bincike ya ba da shawarar cewa kuskuren jama'a game da masu aikata laifuka na iya haifar, a cikin tunanin mai shari'a, tsammanin da ba daidai ba na shaidar shari'a - wanda suke sa ran gani kafin yanke hukunci - wanda ke nuna bambanci ga mai shari'ar ga wanda ake tuhuma. Da yake ambaton "tasirin CSI," aƙalla wani mai bincike ya ba da shawarar tantance masu juri don matakin tasirin su daga irin waɗannan shirye-shiryen TV.

Rashin jituwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tambayoyi game da wasu fannoni na kimiyyar bincike, kamar shaidar yatsan hannu da kuma zaton da ke bayan waɗannan horo an kawo su a cikin wasu wallafe-wallafen [48] ciki har da New York Post . [49][50] Labarin ya bayyana cewa "Babu wanda ya tabbatar da ainihin zaton: cewa yatsan kowa da kowa na musamman ne. " Labarin ya kuma bayyana cewa "Yanzu ana tambayar irin waɗannan zaton - kuma tare da shi yana iya zuwa canji mai mahimmanci a yadda sassan 'yan sanda da masu gabatar da kara ke amfani da kimiyyar shari'a. " Farfesa Jessica Gabel ya ce a kan NOVA cewa kimiyyar bincike "ba ta da tsananin, ka'idoji, kula da inganci da hanyoyin da muke samu, yawanci, a kimiyya. "[50]]

Cibiyar Nazarin Ka'idoji da Fasaha ta Kasa ta sake nazarin tushen kimiyya na nazarin alamar cinyewa da aka yi amfani da shi a kimiyyar shari'a. Binciken alamar cinyewa wata fasaha ce ta kimiyya wacce ke nazarin alamun da ke kan fatar wanda aka azabtar idan aka kwatanta da hakoran da ake zargi. [51]NIST ta sake nazarin binciken Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Kasa, Injiniya, da Medicine 2009. Masana kimiyya na kasa, Injiniya, da Magunguna sun gudanar da bincike don magance batutuwan amintacce, daidaito, da amintacce na nazarin bitmark, inda suka kammala cewa akwai rashin isasshen tushe na kimiyya don tallafawa bayanan.[52] Duk da haka har yanzu ana amfani da dabarar a kotu a matsayin shaida. NIST ta ba da kuɗin taron 2019 wanda ya kunshi likitocin hakora, lauyoyi, masu bincike da sauransu don magance gibin a wannan fagen. [53]

A Amurka, a ranar 25 ga Yuni 2009, Kotun Koli ta ba da shawarar 5-to-4 a cikin Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts da ke nuna cewa ba za a iya amfani da rahotanni na dakin gwaje-gwaje na aikata laifuka a gaban shari'a ba sai dai idan masu sharhi da ke da alhakin kirkirar su ba da shaida kuma su fuskanci kansu.[54] Kotun Koli ta ambaci rahoton Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Kasa ta Ƙarfafa Kimiyya a Amurka a cikin shawarar da suka yanke. A rubuce-rubuce ga mafi rinjaye, Mai Shari'a Antonin Scalia ya yi magana game da rahoton Majalisar Bincike ta Kasa a cikin ikirarinsa cewa "Shaida ba ta da kariya daga haɗarin magudi".

A Amurka, wani bangare na kimiyyar shari'a wanda ya kasance cikin tambaya a cikin 'yan shekarun nan shine rashin dokokin da ke buƙatar izini ga dakunan gwaje-gwaje. Wasu jihohi suna buƙatar izini, amma wasu jihohi ba sa. Saboda wannan, [55] [56] an kama dakunan gwaje-gwaje da yawa suna yin aiki mara kyau wanda ya haifar da hukunce-hukuncen ƙarya ko wankewa. Alal misali, an gano shi bayan binciken da Sashen 'yan sanda na Houston a 2002 cewa dakin gwaje-gwaje ya ƙirƙiri shaidar da ta haifar da George Rodriguez da yanke masa hukunci da fyade ga yarinya mai shekaru goma sha huɗu. Tsohon darektan dakin gwaje-gwaje, lokacin da aka tambaye shi, ya ce jimlar adadin shari'o'in da za a iya gurɓata su ta hanyar aiki mara kyau na iya kasancewa a cikin kewayon 5,000 zuwa 10,000.[57]

The Innocence Project [58] bayanan bayanan DNA ya nuna cewa yawancin kuskuren da ba daidai ba sun ƙunshi kuskuren kimiyya. Dangane da aikin Innocence da Ma'aikatar Shari'a ta Amurka, kimiyyar shari'a ta ba da gudummawa ga kusan kashi 39 zuwa kashi 46 cikin dari na hukunce-hukuncen da ba daidai ba. [59]Kamar yadda rahoton Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Kasa ya nuna Karfafa Kimiyya ta Shari'a a Amurka, wani ɓangare na matsalar shi ne cewa yawancin kimiyyar shari'a ta gargajiya ba a taɓa tabbatar da su ba; kuma wani ɓangare na matsala shi ne cewa duk masu jarrabawa suna ƙarƙashin son zuciya na tabbatar da shari'a kuma ya kamata a kare su daga bayanan da ba su dace da hukuncin da suke yi ba.

Bincike da yawa sun gano bambanci a cikin raunin da ya shafi fyade wanda aka bayar da rahoto bisa ga launin fata, tare da fararen wadanda suka kamu da cutar suna ba da rahoton yawan raunin da suka fi baƙar fata.[60] Koyaya, tunda dabarun jarrabawar shari'a na yanzu bazai kasance mai hankali ga duk raunin da ke kewayon launuka na fata ba, ana buƙatar gudanar da ƙarin bincike don fahimtar idan wannan yanayin ya faru ne saboda fata da ke rikitar da masu ba da kiwon lafiya yayin nazarin raunin ko kuma idan fata mai duhu ya shimfiɗa wani abu mai kariya.[60] A cikin aikin asibiti, ga marasa lafiya da fata mai duhu, wani binciken ya ba da shawarar cewa dole ne a mai da hankali ga cinya, labia majora, baya fourchette da fossa navicularis, don haka babu wani raunin da ya shafi fyade da aka rasa a kan binciken kusa.[60]

Kimiyya da aikin jin kai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kwamitin Red Cross na Duniya (ICRC) yana amfani da kimiyyar bincike don dalilai na jin kai don bayyana makomar mutanen da suka ɓace bayan rikici, bala'o'i ko ƙaura, [61] kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin ayyukan da suka shafi Maido da Dangantakar Iyali da Mutanen da suka ɓoye. Sanin abin da ya faru da dangi da ya ɓace sau da yawa zai iya sauƙaƙa ci gaba da aikin baƙin ciki kuma ya ci gaba da rayuwa ga iyalai na mutanen da suka ɓace.

Sauran kungiyoyi daban-daban suna amfani da kimiyyar bincike don bayyana makomar da inda mutanen da suka ɓace suke. Misalan sun haɗa da kungiyar NGO Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, tana aiki don bayyana makomar mutanen da suka ɓace a lokacin mulkin kama-karya na soja na 1976-1983. Hukumar Kasa da Kasa kan Mutanen da suka Rubuce (ICMP) ta yi amfani da kimiyyar bincike don gano mutanen da suka ɓace, [62] misali bayan rikice-rikice a cikin Balkans. [63]

Da yake fahimtar rawar da kimiyyar shari'a ke takawa don dalilai na jin kai, da kuma muhimmancin binciken shari'a wajen cika nauyin jihar don bincika take hakkin dan adam, ƙungiyar masana a ƙarshen shekarun 1980 sun kirkiro Littafin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Rigakafi da Bincike na Kashe-Kare, Arbitrary da Summary, wanda aka sani da Minnesota Protocol. Ofishin Babban Kwamishinan 'Yancin Dan Adam ya sake fasalin wannan takarda kuma ya sake bugawa a cikin 2016. [64]

  • Ƙungiyar Makamai da Kayan aiki - Ƙungiyar ba da riba ta duniya
  • Kungiyar Bayyanawa ta Kanada
  • Kimiyyar kwamfuta - Sashen kimiyyar bincike na dijital
  • Kimiyya ta aikata laifuka - nazarin aikata laifuka don neman hanyoyin hana shiShafuka da ke nuna bayanin wikidata a matsayin fallback
  • Diplomatics - Nazarin ilimi na ladabi na takardu (forensic paleography)
  • Epigenetics a cikin kimiyyar bincike - Bayani na gaba ɗaya
  • Ruwan shaida - Kayan kwalliya na musamman don shaidar jiki
  • Ilimin halittu na bincike - Aikace-aikacen bincike na nazarin ilmin halitta
  • Tattalin Arziki
  • Bayyanawa na bincike - Bayyanawa ta doka game da takamaiman abubuwa da kayan aiki
  • Injiniyan kayan bincike - reshe na injiniyan bincikeShafuka da ke nuna bayanin wikidata a matsayin fallback
  • Hotunan bincike - Fasahar samar da daidaitattun hotuna na wani wuri na aikata laifuka
  • Injiniyan polymer na bincike - Nazarin gazawar a cikin samfuran polymeric
  • Bayanan bincike - Nazarin shaidar a cikin binciken aikata laifuka
  • Rubutun safofin hannu - Mark ya bar a saman da safofin hannu da aka yi amfani da shi
  • Tarihin daukar hoto
  • Ƙungiyar Ƙasashen Duniya don Bayyanawa
  • Masana binciken ruwa
  • Bayani game da kimiyyar bincike - Bayani na gaba da jagora na yau da kullun ga kimiyyar bincike
  • Bayani (kimiyya ta bayanai)  - Tsarin gini da aikace-aikacen bayanan mai amfani da aka samar ta hanyar nazarin bayanai na kwamfuta
  • Binciken baya - Ayyukan gano rashin lafiya bayan mutuwar mai haƙuri
  • Jerin Bayyanawa Mai Saurin Ruwa (RSID)
  • Hotuna na jami'in aikata laifuka - Jami'in da ke tattara shaidu ga 'yan sanda na Burtaniya
  • Alamar tsalle - Markus ya bar wani abu mai ƙarfi wanda ke motsawa da wani
  • Jami'ar Florida shirin ilimi na nesa

Bayanan da aka ambata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "Forensics Timeline". Cbsnews.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  2. ↑ McCrie, Robert D. "General Managerial Fundamentals and Competencies". Security Operations Management. 1st ed. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann/Elsevier, 2007. 93. Print.
  3. ↑ "The History of Forensic Science and it's evolution". IFF Lab. 29 December 2017. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
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  5. ↑ "ANCIENT JUDICIAL METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF DECEPTION". The British Polygraph Society. Retrieved 31 March 2024. ORDEAL OF RICE CHEWING — ANCIENT CHINA — CIRCA 500 BC
  6. ↑ Alvarez-Cubero, Maria Jesus; Saiz, Maria; Martínez-García, Belén; Sayalero, Sara M.; Entrala, Carmen; Lorente, Jose Antonio; Martinez-Gonzalez, Luis Javier (2017-10-03). "Next generation sequencing: an application in forensic sciences?". Annals of Human Biology (in Turanci). 44 (7): 581–592. doi:10.1080/03014460.2017.1375155. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 28948844.
  7. ↑ Prego-Meleiro, Pablo; García-Ruiz, Carmen; Sanz-Pareja, Miguel; Recalde Esnoz, Irantzu; Quintanilla, M Gloria; Montalvo, Gemma (2022-08-01). "Forensic intelligence-led prevention of drug-facilitated sexual assaults". Forensic Science International. 337: 111373. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111373. ISSN 0379-0738. PMID 35803167 Check |pmid= value (help).
  8. ↑ "Chromatography | Definition, Types, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-03-30.
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  16. ↑ (Thomas ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  17. ↑ Herschel, William James (25 November 1880). "Skin furrows of the hand" (PDF). Nature. 23 (578): 76. Bibcode:1880Natur..23...76H. doi:10.1038/023076b0. S2CID 4068612. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
  18. ↑ Faulds, Henry (28 October 1880). "On the skin-furrows of the hand" (PDF). Nature. 22 (574): 605. Bibcode:1880Natur..22..605F. doi:10.1038/022605a0. S2CID 4117214. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
  19. ↑ Reid, Donald L. (2003). "Dr. Henry Faulds – Beith Commemorative Society". Journal of Forensic Identification. 53 (2). See also this on-line article on Henry Faulds: Tredoux, Gavan (December 2003). "Henry Faulds: the Invention of a Fingerprinter". galton.org. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
  20. ↑ Galton, Francis (1892). "Finger Prints" (PDF). MacMillan and Co. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2006.
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  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bond
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  39. ↑ Pringle, JK; Ruffell, A; Jervis, JR; Donnelly, L; McKinley, J; Hansen, J; Morgan, R; Pirrie, D; Harrison, M (2012). "The use of geoscience methods for terrestrial forensic searches". Earth-Science Reviews. 114 (1–2): 108–123. Bibcode:2012ESRv..114..108P. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.05.006.
  40. ↑ Parker, R; Ruffell, A; Hughes, D; Pringle, JK (2010). "Geophysics and the search of freshwater bodies: A review". Science & Justice. 50 (3): 141–149. doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2009.09.001. PMID 20709275.
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  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 Guerrini, Christi; Robinson, Jill; Petersen, Devan; McGuire, Amy (October 1, 2018). "Should Police have Access to Genetic Genealogy Databases? Capturing the Golden State Killer and other Criminals Using a Controversial New Forensic Technique". PLOS Biology. 16 (10): e2006906. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2006906. PMC 6168121. PMID 30278047.
  46. ↑ "Forensic Science." U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 22 February 2021. Web.
  47. ↑ Holmgren, Janne A.; Fordham, Judith (January 2011). "The CSI Effect and the Canadian and the Australian Jury". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 56 (S1): S63–S71. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01621.x. PMID 21155799. S2CID 21221066.
  48. ↑ "'Badly Fragmented' Forensic Science System Needs Overhaul". The National Academies. 18 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-09.
  49. ↑ "National Academy of Sciences Finds 'Serious Deficiencies' in Nation's Crime Labs". National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers. 18 February 2009. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Katherine Ramsland (6 March 2009). "CSI: Without a clue; A new report forces Police and Judges to rethink forensic science". The New York Post, PostScript. Archived from the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
  51. ↑ "Bite Mark Analysis | NC PRO". ncpro.sog.unc.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  52. ↑ "Forensic Bitemark Analysis Not Supported by Sufficient Data, NIST Draft Review Finds". NIST (in Turanci). 2022-10-11.
  53. ↑ "Forensic Bitemark Analysis Not Supported by Sufficient Data, NIST Draft Review Finds". NIST (in Turanci). 2022-10-11.
  54. ↑ Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts, 557 U.S.305 (2009). This article incorporates public domain material from this U.S government document.
  55. ↑ "The Impact of False or Misleading Forensic Evidence on Wrongful Convictions". National Institute of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
  56. ↑ "Justice Department Announces New Accreditation Policies to Advance Forensic Science". Office of Public Affairs. U.S Department of Justice. 7 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
  57. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nytimes.com
  58. ↑ "Innocence Project – Help us put an end to wrongful convictions!". Innocence Project.
  59. ↑ "When forensic science isn't so scientific (Rebroadcast)". 1A (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Baker RB, Fargo JD, Shambley-Ebron D, Sommers MS. "A source of healthcare disparity: Race, skin color, and injuries after rape among adolescents and young adults". Journal of Forensic Nursing, 2010; 6: 144–150
  61. ↑ "Forensic science and humanitarian action". ICRC. 28 July 2014. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  62. ↑ Forensic archeology and anthropology (28 February 2012). "Forensic archeology and anthropology". Ic-mp.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  63. ↑ "Southeast Europe". Ic-mp.org. 28 February 2012. Archived from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  64. ↑ "The Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death (2016): The Revised United Nations Manual on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions (2016)" (PDF). UN Human Rights. UN Human Rights Office of the Commissioner. Jan 1, 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
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