Kulle Afirka

Kulle Afirka
	;
Iri	rikici
Bangare na	Bauta a Afirka
Kwanan watan	1808
Wuri	Afirka

Kulle Afirka ya fara ne a cikin 1808 bayan da Ingila ta haramta Cinikin bayi na Atlantic, ta sa ya zama ba bisa ka'ida ba ga jiragen ruwa na Burtaniya don jigilar bayi. Royal Navy nan da nan ta kafa kasancewar Afirka don aiwatar da haramcin, wanda ake kira West Africa Squadron. Kodayake haramcin da farko ya shafi jiragen ruwa na Burtaniya ne kawai, Burtaniya ta tattauna yarjejeniyoyi tare da wasu ƙasashe don ba Royal Navy damar tsayar da bincika jiragen su don bayi.^[1]

Dokar 1807 da ta haramta shigo da bayi ta soke cinikin bayi tsakanin nahiyoyi a Amurka amma ba a tilasta shi ba. Daga 1819, Sojojin Ruwa na Amurka sun yi ƙoƙari don hana cinikin bayi. Wannan ya kunshi masu sintiri na bakin tekun Amurka da kuma tsakiyar Atlantic, wanda ya fi rashin nasara saboda wahalar tsayar da jiragen ruwa a tsakiyar teku. A matsayin wani ɓangare na Yarjejeniyar Webster-Ashburton ta 1842, an amince da cewa kasashen biyu za su yi aiki tare kan kawar da cinikin bayi, wanda aka ɗauka fashi, da kuma ci gaba da toshe Afirka. Harkokin Sojan Ruwa na Amurka sun ci gaba har zuwa farkon Yaƙin basasar Amurka, a 1861. A shekara mai zuwa, Gwamnatin Lincoln ta ba Burtaniya cikakken iko don tsayar da jiragen Amurka. Ba a soke bautar a Amurka ba har zuwa 1865, lokacin da Majalisa ta tabbatar da Kwaskwarimar 13. Rundunar Sojan Ruwa ta Royal ta ci gaba da aiki har zuwa 1870.

Kasancewar Burtaniya

Tarihi

Dokar Cinikin Bauta ta 1807 ta bayyana cewa:

Cinikin Bautar Afirka, da duk wani nau'i na ma'amala da ciniki a cikin Sayarwa, Sayarwa, Kasuwanci, ko Canja wurin Bawa, ko na Mutanen da aka nufa a sayar da su, canja wurin su, amfani da su, ko ma'amala su a matsayin Bawa, a ciki, zuwa, ko daga kowane ɓangare na Tekun ko Kasashen Afirka, za su kasance, kuma wannan an soke shi gaba ɗaya, an haramta shi, kuma an bayyana shi ba bisa doka ba.

A karkashin wannan aikin, idan aka kama jirgin tare da bayi, akwai tarar £ 100 ga kowane bawa. Wannan tarar yawanci ana biyan ta ne daga kyaftin din jirgin.^[2]

Don aiwatar da wannan, an aika jiragen ruwa biyu zuwa gabar Afirka, babban aikin su shine hana 'yan Burtaniya cinikin bayi da kuma rushe cinikin bayi na abokan gaba na Burtaniya a lokacin Yaƙe-yaƙe na Napoleon.

diflomasiyya

Dokar asali ta 1807 kawai ta ba da izinin bincika jiragen ruwa na Burtaniya kuma ta yi amfani da su ne kawai ga batutuwan Burtaniya. Cinikin bayi a bakin tekun Afirka ya ci gaba, kodayake ba tare da kasancewar masu bautar Burtaniya ba, aƙalla bisa doka. Koyaya, a cikin 1810, a ƙarƙashin matsin lamba na diflomasiyya, an sanya hannu kan yarjejeniya tare da Portugal, wanda ya faɗaɗa ikon Royal Navy. A cikin 1815, Portugal ta karfafa dokokin adawa da bautar ta hanyar soke duk cinikayya a arewacin ma'auni, ta ba da damar Royal Navy da 'yanci sosai. Tare da ƙarshen Yaƙe-yaƙe na Napoleon, Burtaniya ta sami yarjejeniyoyi tare da wasu iko da yawa, gami da Faransa, wanda ya soke kasuwancin ta gaba ɗaya a cikin 1815 (amma bai himmatu ga haƙƙin bincike ba), da Spain, wanda ya amince da dakatar da kasuwanci a arewacin ma'auni a cikin 1818, da kudancin ma'ana a cikin 1820. An kuma saka wani sashi a cikin Majalisa ta Vienna, wanda ya yi kira ga kawar da cinikayya ta duk masu sanya hannu. A cikin 1826, Brazil ta sanya hannu kan yarjejeniya mai kama da na Portugal kuma ta dakatar da kasuwanci a arewacin ma'auni.

Kokarin hana cinikin bayi na Burtaniya ya yi ƙoƙari ya kasance a cikin dokokin kasa da kasa na farko na lokacin: dole ne a gwada masu bautar a kotuna. An kai jiragen ruwa na Burtaniya zuwa kotunan mataimakin admiralty, kuma waɗanda ke cikin ƙasashen waje waɗanda ke da yarjejeniya da Burtaniya an kai su Kotun Mixed Commission. Kotunan hadin gwiwa suna da wakilci daga Burtaniya da sauran al'ummar da ake tambaya, don tabbatar da shari'a mai adalci. An kafa mutane da yawa a manyan wurare a bakin tekun Afirka da tsibirai. Koyaya, rashin son wasu iko ya rage ikon kotuna don aiki sosai. Wani lokaci, wakilan kasashen waje ba za su taɓa zuwa ba, ko kuma su zo da wuri. Jakadan Brazil, duk da bude kotun a 1826, bai isa ba sai 1828, kuma ya sauya duk hukunce-hukuncen da aka yi ba tare da shi ba lokacin da ya isa.

Baya ga batutuwan da ke tattare da Kotun Kwamitin Haɗin Kai, an kuma gano cewa aikin Sojan Ruwa na 'yan sanda cinikin ya ɓace kuma an gina shi a kan jerin yarjejeniyoyin diflomasiyya masu rikitarwa da sau da yawa marasa ƙarfi tsakanin wasu jihohi. An sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar ba tare da son rai ba sabili da haka sun kasance masu rauni sosai a aikace. Lokacin da ake yin 'yan sanda a jiragen ruwa na kasashen waje, dole ne a sami bayi a cikin jirgin a lokacin da aka kwace shi don a yanke wa bawa da ake zargi da shi hukunci. Ba kamar Dokar Burtaniya ta 1807 ba, babu wani sashi na kayan aiki, ma'ana jiragen bayi da ke dauke da abin da a bayyane yake kayan aiki ne don jigilar bayi, amma ba tare da bayi a cikin jirgin ba a lokacin bincike, ba za a iya kama su ba. Wannan babban kuskuren, wanda ya rage kokarin sojan ruwa sosai kuma ya sa wasu jami'an sojan ruwa su faɗi ƙasa da doka, ba a gyara shi ba har zuwa shekarun 1830. Da yake takaici da rashin ci gaba, a cikin 1839, gwamnatin Burtaniya ta ba da jiragen ruwa na Portugal ga ikon Burtaniya kuma ta yi haka ga jiragen ruwa na Brazil a cikin 1845. Wannan mataki ne da ba a taɓa gani ba, wanda ya sanya jiragen ruwa na kasashen waje ga dokar Burtaniya mai tsauri da kuma tsauri da yawa ga cinikin bayi.

Koyaya, wasu ƙasashe, kamar Amurka, sun yi tsayayya da tilasta wa Burtaniya. Amurka ta yi imani da karfi da 'yancin teku kuma a lokuta da yawa ta ki ba da damar Royal Navy na bincike. Sanin cewa masu bautar bayi da yawa za su tashi da tutar Amurka ta ƙarya don kauce wa shiga jirgi, har ma an yi rajista da wasu masu bautar a jihohin kudancin Amurka. Wannan ya haifar da abubuwan da suka faru na diflomasiyya da yawa, kamar yadda jami'an da suka yi takaici sukan shiga jiragen ruwa tare da tutar Amurka, kai tsaye sun saba wa umarnin su, don kama bayi. Akwai tsananin adawa da wannan a cikin Majalisa ta Amurka, kuma John Forsyth ya ce a cikin 1841 cewa "tsayawa" na jiragen ruwa na Burtaniya "ba daidai ba ne", "mai lalata abubuwan masu zaman kansu", kuma " lalata jituwa na ƙasashe biyu". A cikin 1842, an sami raguwa a dangantakar diflomasiyya, kuma Amurka ta ba da izinin ziyartar jiragen Amurka, amma kawai idan jami'in Amurka ya kasance.

Tare da farkon shekarun 1850, Portugal ta daina cinikin bayi gaba ɗaya (1836) kuma Spain ta ƙare, amma Cuba har yanzu tashar bayi ce mai aiki. Brazil ta ci gaba da kalubalantar shiga tsakani na Burtaniya, kuma ba a kashe kasuwancin Brazil ba har zuwa 1852, lokacin da Palmerston ya fara amfani da karfi a ƙarƙashin koyarwar Pax Britannica.

Rukunin Yammacin Afrika

Rundunar Sojin Ruwa ta Burtaniya ta kafa West Africa Squadron a shekarar 1807, sannan Rundunar Sojin Ruwa ta Amurka ta kafa nata a shekarar 1842. Aikin wannan runduna shi ne kare Afirka daga 'yan kasuwar bayi, kuma ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen kawo ƙarshen safarar bayi ta tekun Atlantika. Bayan West Africa Squadron, akwai Africa Squadron da ke da irin wannan aiki. Sai dai sun fuskanci ƙalubale wajen samun isassun ma'aikata. An ɗauki mutane daga yankin ruwan teku na Liberia, musamman daga ƙabilar Kru, wanda hakan ya baiwa West Africa Squadron damar sintiri a kan ruwan Afirka yadda ya kamata. Bayan dokar 1807, an tura jiragen ruwa biyu zuwa gabar Afirka domin sintirin hana safarar bayi.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

A shekarar 1818, rundunar ta ƙaru zuwa jiragen ruwa guda shida, kuma an kafa wata tashar jiragen ruwa a shekarar 1819 a inda ake kira Freetown a yau, tare da cibiyar kayayyaki a Ascension Island, wadda daga bisani aka mayar da ita Cape Town a shekarar 1832.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

Wadannan albarkatu sun ƙaru da ƙarfi: a tsakiyar karni na 19, akwai jiragen ruwa kusan 25 da ma'aikata 2,000, tare da karin ma'aikata na gida kusan 1,000. ^[3] Daga shekarar 1808 zuwa 1860, West Africa Squadron ta kama jiragen bayi guda 1,600 tare da 'yantar da mutane 150,000 daga Afirka. ^[4] Kimanin sojojin ruwa na Burtaniya 2,000 sun mutu yayin aikin su na 'yantar da bayi tare da West Africa Squadron. ^[5]^[6]

Karshen cinikin bayi

Duk da ƙoƙarin Burtaniya na kawo ƙarshen cinikin bayi ta hanyar diflomasiyya, cinikin bai daina ba. Ra'ayin jama'a ya fara canzawa kan yunkurin hana cinikin bayi saboda tsadar da yake jawo wa, tasirin diflomasiyya, da kuma illa ga sauran harkokin kasuwanci.^[7] Adawa da hakan ta bayyana a Majalisar Wakilai ta Biritaniya daga masu adawa da amfani da ƙarfi, wato waɗanda ba su goyi bayan amfani da karfin soji wajen tilasta wa wasu ƙasashe su dakatar da cinikin bayi ba. Wannan rukuni ya ƙunshi masu rajin ciniki kyauta da kuma masu adawa da cinikin bayi waɗanda suka yi imani cewa hanyar da ta dace ita ce kafa sahihin ciniki da Afirka. Shugabansu, Thomas Fowell Buxton, ya nemi a sake ƙarfafa yunkurin sojojin ruwa har sai an cimma wannan buri. A shekarar 1839, ya wallafa The African Slave Trade and its Remedy, wani littafi da ya yi cikakken sukar matakan da Biritaniya ta ɗauka zuwa lokacin. Wannan littafi ya yi tasiri sosai, kuma ya sa Buxton ya taka rawa a shirin tura jami’ai zuwa kogin Neja a 1841 domin kafa sansanonin kasuwanci da za su maye gurbin cinikin bayi. Sai dai wannan yunƙuri ya ƙare da mummunan sakamako, inda da dama daga cikin Turawa suka kamu da cututtuka. A shekarar 1845, Buxton ya rasu ba tare da cika burinsa ba.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

Daga shekarar 1845, masu adawa da amfani da ƙarfi sun kara tsananta ra'ayoyinsu, kuma suka daina nuna damuwa da halin da Afirkawa ke ciki; wannan "sabon zamani" na masu adawa da ƙarfi ba su haɗa da masu neman kawo ƙarshen bauta ba. Masu goyon bayan ciniki kyauta irin su William Hutt sun nuna adawa sosai da amfani da sojojin ruwa, inda suka ce cinikin zai ƙare da kansa, kuma sa hannun Biritaniya ba shi da amfani. Tasirinsu ya kai ga an gabatar da kudiri a Majalisar Wakilai na dakatar da duk wani aiki na sojin ruwa, wanda kusan ya haifar da rushe Rundunar Yammacin Afirka kuma ya kawo ƙarshen aikinsa Firayim Minista John Russell, wanda ya yi barazanar sauka daga mukaminsa idan aka amince da kudirin.^[8]

Don kauce wa maimaita haka, an ɗauki matakin gaggawa. Brazil, wacce har yanzu tana daya daga cikin manyan ƙasashen da ke cinikin bayi, ta ki amincewa da kiraye-kirayen diflomasiyyar Biritaniya na daina hakan. A shekarar 1846, Palmerston ya dawo matsayin sakataren harkokin waje, kuma a 1850 ya ba da izini ga jiragen ruwa na sojin Biritaniya su shiga ruwan Brazil domin katse hanyoyin masu cinikin bayi a bangarorin biyu na tekun Atlantika. Zuwa shekarar 1852, an iya cewa cinikin bayi daga Brazil ya ƙare.^[9] "A wurin Palmerston... yakin ruwa da aka yi a gabar Brazil ya kawo ƙarshen cinikin bayi daga Brazil cikin watanni goma sha biyu kacal".^[10]

Shekaru da dama na matsin lamba daga Biritaniya ga Amurka don ta shiga cikin yaki da cinikin bayi ba su yi tasiri ba saboda adawa daga jihohin kudu. Amma da zuwan yakin basasa a Amurka, gwamnatin Lincoln ta nuna sha’awa ta shiga domin dalilai na jin kai da na soji. A bangaren Arewa, adawa da cinikin bayi ta zama wata hanyar yakin da za ta cutar da tattalin arzikin Konfedereshin. Wannan ya jawo yabon duniya da goyon baya, tare da rage goyon bayan da Kudu ke samu daga ƙasashen waje, waɗanda ke kare hakkin su na riƙe bayi. A cikin Yarjejeniyar Lyons–Seward ta shekarar 1862, Amurka ta bai wa Biritaniya cikakken ikon hana cinikin bayi a tekun Atlantika idan jiragen ruwa na Amurka ne ke ciki.^[11] Da aka gama yaki, Biritaniya da Amurka suka ci gaba da haɗin kai, kuma a 1867, Cuba – sakamakon matsin lamba daga waɗannan ƙasashe biyu – ta daina cinikin bayi.

Shiga Amurka

Dokar Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Amurka na 1787 ta kare shigo da bayi na tsawon shekaru ashirin. Kungiyar 'Pennsylvania Abolition Society' ta gudanar da taronta na farko a babban birnin wucin gadi, wato Philadelphia, a shekarar 1794. A ranar 7 ga Afrilu, 1798, majalisa ta biyar ta zartar da wata doka da ke sanya tara na dala 300 akan kowanne bawa da aka shigo da shi ba bisa doka ba. Wannan ya nuna irin halayen da za su zama ruwan dare a majalisar dokoki.

A ranar Alhamis, 12 ga Disamba, 1805, a cikin majalisar tarayya ta tara, Sanata Stephen Roe Bradley daga jihar Vermont ya sanar da niyyarsa cewa zai kawo kudirin doka don haramta shigo da wasu mutane da aka bayyana "a kowanne tashar jiragen ruwa ko wurin da ke karkashin ikon Amurka, daga ranar farko ta watan Janairu", wanda zai kasance a shekarar 1808. Wannan magana tasa ta maimaitu sau da dama daga sauran 'yan majalisa. A ranar Litinin, 16 ga Disamba, 1805, an bayyana cewa wadancan "wasu mutane" da aka ambata su ne bayi.

Domin gujewa fusata masu mallakar bayi, majalisar dattawa ta yi wa kudirin doka canji kafin ta mika shi ga Majalisar Wakilai, inda aka duba shi sosai. Domin kauce wa haddasa fushi daga masu bayi, Majalisar Wakilai ta fitar da wani sabon kudiri don fayyace na majalisar dattawa. Wadannan dokoki biyu an hada su, inda na Majalisar Wakilai aka kira shi "H R 77", kuma kudirin na majalisar dattawa aka kira shi "Doka don haramta shigo da bayi a kowanne tashar ruwa ko wurin da ke karkashin ikon Amurka, daga ranar farko ta Janairu, a shekarar 1808". Wannan doka ta hada har da dokar cinikin bayi tsakanin gabar teku. Doka ta je wajen Shugaba Thomas Jefferson a ranar 2 ga Maris, 1807 don amincewarsa.

Dokar Majalisar Dokoki ta 1807 an sake gyara ta da kuma karawa a zaman majalisar ta 15. A shekarar 1819, majalisa ta bayyana shigo da bayi zuwa Amurka a matsayin "fashin teku". Duk wani dan kasa na Amurka da aka kama da wannan laifi zai iya fuskantar hukuncin kisa. Aikin rundunar sojan ruwa ya fadada zuwa sintiri a gabar tekun Cuba da Kudancin Amurka. Wannan aiki na sojan ruwa a yammacin tekun Atlantika ya zama "Sashin sintiri kan cinikin bayi na Afirka daga 1820–1861". A lokacin kuma ana ci gaba da "kulle hanyar Afirka" a gabashin tekun Atlantika.

Ayyukan Sashen Afirka

Jami’in sojan ruwa na Amurka Matthew Calbraith Perry ya kasance jami’in gudanarwa a kan HMS Cyane a shekarar 1819, wadda ta raka jirgin 'Elizabeth' wanda ke dauke da tsoffin bayi daga Amurka zuwa Afirka. Shugaba James Monroe ya umurci Sakataren Sojojin Ruwa da ya tabbatar da cewa jirgin Amurka ya raka 'Elizabeth' zuwa Afirka tare da tawagar farko ta bayi ’yantattu da 'American Colonization Society' ke komarwa. Daga cikin baki 86 a cikin 'Elizabeth', kashi daya cikin uku maza ne, sauran kuwa mata da yara ne. A shekarar 1821, Perry ya jagoranci USS Shark a cikin Sashen Afirka. USS Alligator, karkashin jagorancin Lieutenant Robert F. Stockton, ita ma tana cikin wannan sashen a shekarar 1821 kuma ta kama wasu jiragen bayi. Lieutenant Stockton ya kuma shawo kan wani sarkin Afirka ya mika wani yanki a kusa da Cape Mesurado, inda aka kafa Liberia daga bisani. Stockton ya zama kwamandan jirgin ruwa na farko da ke amfani da fasahar sukurkulon juyi na Amurka, wato USS Princeton, a shekarar 1843.

A ranakun 26 da 27 ga Nuwamba, 1842, a cikin USS Somers a Sashen Afirka, kwamanda Alexander Slidell Mackenzie ya bayar da umurnin kama wasu matukan jirgi guda uku da suke shirin kwace ikon jirgin. An kashe su a ranar 1 ga Disamba. Wannan ne kadai abin da aka tabbatar a tarihi na tawaye a cikin sojan ruwa na Amurka.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

A shekarar 1843, Commodore Perry ya karbi jagorancin Sashen Afirka. Wasu daga cikin jiragen da suka kama masu safarar bayi sun hada da USS Yorktown, USS Constellation ta farko, da USS Constellation ta biyu, wacce ta kama 'Cora' a ranar 26 ga Satumba, 1860, dauke da Afirka 705. USS San Jacinto ta farko ta kama 'Storm King' a ranar 8 ga Agusta, 1860, a bakin kogin Congo, dauke da mutane 619. ^[12]^[13] A karshen aikinta, USS Constitution ta kama 'H.N. Gambrill' a shekarar 1853.

Sojan ruwa na Amurka ya yi kokarin tare jiragen da ke safarar bayi daga 1808 (ko 1809) har zuwa 1866. Kadan daga cikin jiragen aka kama; wasu daga cikinsu na dauke da bayi, wasu kuma ba su dauke da bayi ba, amma aka kama su aka kora daga gabar tekun Afirka.

Bawon Baƙi (Black Ivory)

Sayar da Louisiana a shekarar 1803 ya kara bukatar karin bayi don aiki a sabbin filayen da aka samu. Jean Lafitte wani barawo ne da ya kawo bayi da dama zuwa Amurka kuma ya sayar da su ta hanyar wata hanya da aka tanadar a New Orleans tare da taimakon ’yan kasuwa na yankin. Bayan ya taimaka wa Andrew Jackson a yakin 1812, Shugaba James Madison ya bayar da afuwa gare shi da mutanensa a farkon shekarar 1815.

Sashen Afirka na Sojan Ruwa na Amurka, tare da Sashen Brazil da na cikin gida, sun samu umarni don su hana shigo da bayi daga Afirka zuwa kasuwar bayi, inda ake sayar da su a matsayin "bawon baƙi". Saboda yaki da Birtaniya na neman ’yanci ya yi tsada sosai, babu jiragen yaki da aka gina daga 1783 zuwa 1795. An kafa Ma’aikatar Sojan Ruwa a ranar 30 ga Afrilu, 1798. A ranar 27 ga Maris, 1794, bayan ganawa da Shugaba Washington, Majalisa ta amince a saya ko a gina jiragen yaki guda shida. Wadannan jiragen sun hada da USS Constellation na farko da aka kaddamar a ranar 7 ga Satumba, 1797, da USS Constitution, wanda aka dan yi amfani da shi a cikin Sashen Afirka. Kadan ne daga cikin sabbin jiragen da aka gina bayan 1801 har zuwa lokacin da aka kaddamar da USS Guerriere a ranar 20 ga Yuni, 1814, wanda ya kasance jarumi a yakin da aka yi da barayin ruwa na Barbary a shekarar 1815.

A daidai lokacin da wannan kokari ke gudana, ana kuma gudanar da wasu muhimman ayyuka kamar Yakin 1812, matsalolin da ba su kare ba da barayin ruwa na Barbary, kawar da barayin ruwa a tsibirin West Indies daga 1819 zuwa 1827, kare jiragen ruwan Amurka a Tekun Pasifik a 1830s, Yakin Amurka da Mexico a 1840s, tafiye-tafiye zuwa Japan a 1850s, da jigilar jakadu zuwa wasu kasashe — duk sun rage karfin da za a iya amfani da shi wajen aikin Sashen Afirka.

Manazarta

↑ Falola, Toyin; Warnock, Amanda (2007). Encyclopedia of the middle passage. Greenwood Press. pp. xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv. ISBN 9780313334801.
↑ "Notes on contributors". Slavery & Abolition. 17 (1): 155–156. April 1996. doi:10.1080/01440399608575180. ISSN 0144-039X.
↑ Lewis-Jones, Huw. "The Royal Navy and the Battle to End Slavery". BBC History.
↑ "Chasing Freedom Information Sheet". Royal Naval Museum. Archived from the original on 10 December 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
↑ "Royal Navy sailors died while preventing the slave trade, but not tens of thousands". Full Fact. 20 October 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
↑ "Chasing Freedom Information Sheet". National Museum of the Royal Navy. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
↑ Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning shafi na 116
↑ Reginald Coupland, Anti-Slavery Movement shafi na 182
↑ Wilson, H. H, 'Some Principal Aspects of British Efforts to Crush the African Slave Trade, 1807–1929' The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 44, No. 3 (1950)
↑ Lambert, A. 'Slavery, Free Trade, and Naval Strategy, 1840–1860' a cikin Slavery Diplomacy and Empire, ed. Hamilton K. & Salmon, P. (Eastbourne, Sussex Academic Press 2009) shafi na 72
↑ Conway W. Henderson, "The Anglo-American Treaty of 1862 in Civil War Diplomacy." Civil War History 15.4 (1969): 308–319. online
↑ "Two More Slavers Captured" (PDF). The New York Times. 27 September 1860. p. 5. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
↑ Hamersly, Lewis Randolph (1902). "Aaron Konkle Hughes". The Records of Living Officers of the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps: Compiled from Official Sources. New York, New York: L. R. Hamersly Co. pp. 28–30. Retrieved 16 December 2023.

Mahaɗa

Chasing Freedom: The Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 ga Augusta, 2000)
USS Somers at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 8 ga Yuni, 2011)
USS Alligator at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 ga Maris, 2004)
USS Constitution at the Wayback Machine (archived 19 ga Maris, 2004)
USS Chesapeake at the Wayback Machine (archived 15 ga Maris, 2004)
USS Saratoga at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 ga Afirilu, 2004)
USS Niagara at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 ga Maris, 2004)
USS Dolphin at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 ga Maris, 2004)

[1] Falola, Toyin; Warnock, Amanda (2007). Encyclopedia of the middle passage. Greenwood Press. pp. xxi, xxxiii–xxxiv. ISBN 9780313334801.

[2] "Notes on contributors". Slavery & Abolition. 17 (1): 155–156. April 1996. doi:10.1080/01440399608575180. ISSN 0144-039X.

[3] Lewis-Jones, Huw. "The Royal Navy and the Battle to End Slavery". BBC History.

[Naval_Museum_–_Chasing_Freedom-4] "Chasing Freedom Information Sheet". Royal Naval Museum. Archived from the original on 10 December 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2007.

[5] "Royal Navy sailors died while preventing the slave trade, but not tens of thousands". Full Fact. 20 October 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2021.

[6] "Chasing Freedom Information Sheet". National Museum of the Royal Navy. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2021.

[7] Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning shafi na 116

[8] Reginald Coupland, Anti-Slavery Movement shafi na 182

[9] Wilson, H. H, 'Some Principal Aspects of British Efforts to Crush the African Slave Trade, 1807–1929' The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 44, No. 3 (1950)

[10] Lambert, A. 'Slavery, Free Trade, and Naval Strategy, 1840–1860' a cikin Slavery Diplomacy and Empire, ed. Hamilton K. & Salmon, P. (Eastbourne, Sussex Academic Press 2009) shafi na 72

[11] Conway W. Henderson, "The Anglo-American Treaty of 1862 in Civil War Diplomacy." Civil War History 15.4 (1969): 308–319. online

[12] "Two More Slavers Captured" (PDF). The New York Times. 27 September 1860. p. 5. Retrieved 16 December 2023.

[13] Hamersly, Lewis Randolph (1902). "Aaron Konkle Hughes". The Records of Living Officers of the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps: Compiled from Official Sources. New York, New York: L. R. Hamersly Co. pp. 28–30. Retrieved 16 December 2023.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]