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Kwango na dutse

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Kwango na dutse
Scientific classification
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumArthropoda
ClassInsecta (mul) Insecta
OrderColeoptera
DangiCurculionidae (mul) Curculionidae
GenusDendroctonus (mul) Dendroctonus
jinsi Dendroctonus ponderosae
Hopkins, 1902

Dutsen Pine irin ƙwaro ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ) wani nau'in ƙwaro ne na haushin ƙwaro na asali daga dazuzzuka na yammacin Arewacin Amurka daga Mexico zuwa tsakiyar British Columbia . Yana da exoskeleton baƙar fata mai wuya, kuma yana auna kusan , kusan girman hatsin shinkafa.

A yammacin Arewacin Amirka, fashewar ƙwaro da abokanta na awayoyin cuta sun shafi wurare masu yawa na gandun daji na lodgepole pine, ciki har da fiye da 40 million acres (160,000 km2) na gandun daji a British Columbia. [1] Barkewar dajin Rocky Mountain National Park a Colorado ya fara ne a cikin 1996 kuma ya haifar da lalata miliyoyin kadada / hectare na ponderosa da bishiyoyin pine pine. A kololuwar barkewar cutar a cikin 2009, sama da 4.0 million acres (16,000 km2) abin ya shafa. [2] Barkewar ta ragu saboda ingantacciyar yanayin muhalli, amma an riga an lalata bishiyoyi da yawa masu rauni. [2] [3]

Mountain pine beetles suna zaune a ponderosa, whitebark, lodgepole, Scots, jack, limber, Rocky Mountain bristlecone, da Great Basin bristlecona.[4][5][6] Yawancin lokaci, waɗannan kwari suna taka muhimmiyar rawa a rayuwar gandun daji, suna kai farmaki ga tsofaffi ko bishiyoyi masu rauni, da kuma hanzarta ci gaban ƙaramin gandun daji. Koyaya, zafi mai ban mamaki, lokacin rani mai bushe da hunturu mai sauƙi a cikin 2004-2007 a duk faɗin Amurka da Kanada, tare da gandun daji da ke cike da furen lodgepole, ya haifar da annobar da ba a taɓa gani ba.[7]

Barkewar cutar na iya kasancewa cutar dajin mafi girma da aka gani a Arewacin Amurka tun bayan mulkin mallaka na Turai. Sake dasa al'adu guda ɗaya, da kuma ƙarni na kashe gobarar gandun daji sun ba da gudummawa ga girma da tsananin fashewar, kuma fashewar kanta na iya, tare da irin wannan cuta, yana da tasiri mai mahimmanci akan iyawar gandun daji na arewa don kawar da iskar gas (kamar CO 2 ) daga yanayi. [8]

Saboda tasirinsa a kan gandun daji, an tsara transcriptome [9] da kwayar halitta [10] na kwari. Wannan shi ne nau'in kwayar cuta na biyu da za a tsara.

Tsarin rayuwa

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Itacen Pine na lodgepole wanda kwari na dutse ya mamaye, tare da bututun farar da ake gani

Beetles suna tasowa ta hanyar matakai huɗu: kwai, tsutsotsi, pupa da manya. Sai dai na 'yan kwanaki a lokacin rani lokacin da manya suka fito daga bishiyoyi kuma suka tashi don kai farmaki ga sababbin bishiyoyi, duk matakan rayuwa ana ciyar da su a ƙarƙashin bark.[11]

A cikin ƙananan tsaunuka kuma a cikin shekaru masu dumi, ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin tsaunuka suna buƙatar shekara guda don kammala ƙarni. A tsaunuka masu tsawo, inda lokacin rani ya fi sanyi, yanayin rayuwa na iya bambanta daga shekara ɗaya zuwa biyu

Kwando na mata suna fara kai hare-hare. Yayin da suke cinyewa cikin ciki da phloem, ana saki pheromones, suna jan hankalin kwari maza da mata zuwa itacen daya. Beetles masu kai farmaki suna samar da karin pheromones, wanda ke haifar da hari mai yawa wanda ke shawo kan tsaron itacen, kuma yana haifar da hare-hare a kan bishiyoyi da ke kusa.

Masu cin nama na halitta na kwari na dutse sun haɗa da wasu tsuntsaye, musamman woodpeckers, da kwari daban-daban.


Cutar itatuwa

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Tasirin

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Bishiyoyi da kwari na dutse suka lalata a cikin Yellowstone National Park
Beetles na dutsen pine na iya lalata dukkan yankuna na gandun daji.

Beetles na Pine Mountain suna shafar itatuwan Pine ta hanyar sa qwai a ƙarƙashin bark. Beetles suna gabatar da blue stain fungus a cikin sapwood wanda ke hana itacen daga fitarwa da kashe beetles masu kai farmaki tare da kwararar bishiyoyi. Fungi kuma yana toshe ruwa da jigilar abinci mai gina jiki a cikin itacen. A waje na itace, wannan yana haifar da nau'ikan resin mai kama da popcorn, wanda ake kira "tubes na pitch", inda kwari suka shiga.[12] Ayyukan hadin gwiwa na ciyar da tsutsotsi da mulkin mallaka na fungal ya kashe itacen mai karɓar bakuncin a cikin 'yan makonni na nasarar kai farmaki (fungi da ciyar da tsutsar ya rufe itacen, yana yanke kwararar ruwa da abubuwan gina jiki). A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, yanayin fari ya kara raunana bishiyoyi, yana mai da su cikin haɗari kuma ba za su iya karewa daga hari ba. Lokacin da aka fara kai hari kan itacen, ya kasance kore. Yawancin lokaci a cikin shekara guda na hari, allunan za su zama ja. Wannan yana nufin itacen yana mutuwa ko ya mutu, kuma kwari sun koma wani itace. A cikin shekaru uku zuwa hudu bayan harin, an bar ƙananan ganye, don haka bishiyoyi sun yi launin toka.[13]

Yayin da yawan kwari ke ƙaruwa ko itatuwa da yawa suna damuwa saboda fari ko wasu dalilai, yawan jama'a na iya ƙaruwa da sauri kuma ya bazu. Ana kai farmaki ga itatuwa masu lafiya, kuma ana iya yin barazana ko kashe manyan wuraren bishiyoyi masu tsufa. Lokacin bazara mai zafi da hunturu mai sauƙi suna taka rawa a cikin rayuwar kwari da ci gaba da karuwar barkewar cutar. Yanayin yanayi mara kyau (kamar ƙananan hunturu na -40 °) na iya rage yawan kwari kuma ya rage yaduwar, amma kwari na iya murmurewa da sauri kuma su ci gaba da kai farmaki a kan gandun daji masu lafiya.

Yaduwar Yaduwa

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Yaduwar kwari na dutse ya fara ne lokacin da yawan jama'a suka tashi don tsallaka ƙofar fashewar fashewa, [14] wanda aka kiyasta daga bayanan filin kamar kimanin mata 650 da suka girma a kowace itace, ko kusan ɗaya zuwa biyu da aka samu nasarar kai hari ga itace a kowace hekta, [15] amma ya bambanta dangane da yanayin microclimate. [16] Hanyar ƙetare wannan ƙofar fashewa mara daidaituwa na iya faruwa ko dai lokacin da mutane na cikin gida daga yawan mutanen da ke cikin itatuwan da aka danne da waɗanda suka lalace suka taru don samar da hari mai nasara, ko kuma lokacin da adadi mai yawa suka yi ƙaura daga nesa.[17][18] Wannan ƙofar fashewar ta kasance a ƙasa da iyakokin aiki na sauƙin ganowa, wanda shine daya daga cikin dalilan da ya sa yawan jama'a ke da ƙalubale sosai ga sarrafawa: ganowa da wuri yana da mahimmanci don hana fashewar fashewa. [19][20] Lokacin da ba a gano yawan jama'a masu saurin girma da wuri ba, suna nuna ci gaba mai yawa daga ra'ayoyi masu kyau, kuma idan itatuwan pine, waɗanda ke girma a hankali, ana rarraba su sosai, babban barkewar cutar zai haifar. Canjin kwatsam daga annoba zuwa annoba sakamakon saurin canji an kira shi "saurin saurin" fashewa, daidai da Ka'idar bala'i. Canjin daga alamar da aka tsara a kan bishiyoyi masu jaddada zuwa barkewar yankin da ba a tsara ba an kira shi "alama ce ta barkewar", kuma ana ɗaukarsa halayyar fashewar fashewar "cross-scale", ra'ayin da CS Holling ya fara tallafawa a 1973.[21][22] Kyakkyawan canji mai girma ba zato ba tsammani - "halayyar muhalli na mamaki" - shine a ƙarshe abin da ya sa yaduwar kwari na dutse ya zama da wahala a sarrafa shi da sarrafa shi.

Karin saboda canjin yanayi

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Canjin yanayi da yanayin sauye-sauyen yanayi da ke faruwa a duk duniya suna da tasiri kai tsaye a kan ilmin halitta, ilmin muhalli na jama'a, da yawan kwari masu fashewa, kamar kwari na dutse. Wannan shi ne saboda zafin jiki wani abu ne wanda ke ƙayyade ci gaban kwari da nasarar yawan jama'a.[23] Mountain pine beetles wani nau'in asalin Yammacin Arewacin Amurka ne. Kafin sauye-sauyen yanayi da zafin jiki, kwari na dutse ya fi rayuwa kuma ya kai farmaki ga itatuwan lodgepole da ponderosa pine a ƙananan tsaunuka, kamar yadda tsaunuka mafi girma Rocky Mountains da Cascades sun yi sanyi sosai don tsira.[24] A karkashin yanayin yanayi na sanyi na yau da kullun a cikin ƙananan tsaunuka, yanayin halittu na gandun daji da kwari ke zaune ana kiyaye su cikin daidaituwa ta hanyar dalilai kamar hanyoyin kare bishiyoyi, hanyoyin kare kwari, da yanayin sanyi. Dangantaka ce mai sauƙi tsakanin mai masauki (bishiyar), wakili (kwari) da muhalli (lokaci da zafin jiki). [25] Koyaya, yayin da canjin yanayi ke haifar da yankunan tsaunuka su zama masu dumi da bushewa, kwari na Pine suna da ƙarin iko don mamayewa da lalata yanayin gandun daji, kamar gandun daji na Whiteebark pine na Rocky Mountains.[25]

Karin yanayin zafi kuma yana ba da damar kwari na pine ya kara rayuwarsu da 100%: yana ɗaukar shekara guda kawai maimakon biyu don kwari na Pine ya bunkasa. Kamar yadda Rockies ba su sap da magance cututtukan kwari ba, ba su da kariya don yaƙi da kwari. Yanayin yanayi mai zafi, fari, da hanyoyin kare kwari tare suna bushewa a cikin bishiyoyin pine, wanda shine babban hanyar karewa da bishiyoyi ke da shi daga kwari, yayin da yake nutsar da kwari da qwai.[25] Wannan ya sauƙaƙa ga kwari ya kamu da shi kuma ya saki sunadarai a cikin itacen, yana jan wasu kwari a cikin ƙoƙari na shawo kan tsarin tsaro na Itacen pine. A sakamakon haka, mai karɓar bakuncin (kurmi) ya zama mai saukin kamuwa da mai haifar da cuta (kwararrun). [25]

An lalata dazuzzukan Pine a Columbia ta Burtaniya sakamakon kamuwa da cutar ƙwaro, wanda ya faɗaɗa ba tare da tsangwama ba tun 1998 aƙalla a wani ɓangare saboda rashin tsananin sanyi tun lokacin; 'yan kwanaki na matsananciyar sanyi suna kashe yawancin ƙwaro na pine kuma sun kiyaye barkewar cutar a baya ta zahiri. Cutar, wanda (a watan Nuwamba 2008) ya kashe kusan rabin pine pine na lardin (kadada miliyan 33 ko 135,000). km 2 ) [26] wani tsari ne na girma fiye da kowane fashewa da aka yi rikodin a baya. [27] Dalilin mace daya da ba a taɓa yin amfani da shi ba ne saboda yawan irin abincin ƙwaro, wanda ya haɗa da yawancin yankin Barkewar yanzu. [28] A cikin 2007 barkewar cutar ta bazu, ta hanyar iska mai ƙarfi da ba a saba gani ba, akan rarrabuwar nahiya zuwa Alberta . An kuma fara barkewar annoba, a cikin 1999 a Colorado, Wyoming, da Montana . Ma'aikatar gandun daji ta Amurka ta yi hasashen cewa tsakanin 2011 da 2013 kusan dukkanin 5 million acres (20,000 km2) na Colorado's lodgepole pine bishiyoyi sama da inci biyar (127 mm) a diamita za a rasa. [29]

Gidan bishiyar Whiteebark pine na Rockies ba shine kawai gandun daji da kwari na dutse ya shafa ba. Saboda sauye-sauyen zafin jiki da yanayin iska, kwari na pine yanzu ya bazu ta hanyar Continental Divide na Rockies kuma ya mamaye gandun daji masu rauni na Alberta.

Duk da yake yanayin zafi yana kara yaduwar kwari na dutse a arewacin British Columbia, akasin haka yana faruwa a Washington da Oregon, inda yanayin ke sannu a hankali ya zama mai dumi ga kwari.[30]

Gudanarwa

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Hanyoyin gudanarwa sun haɗa da girbi a gefen "harin kore", da kuma wasu dabarun da za a iya amfani da su don sarrafa kamuwa da cuta a kan karamin sikelin, gami da:[31]

  • Pheromone baiting - yana jan hankalin kwari zuwa cikin bishiyoyi 'baited' tare da hormone na roba wanda ke kwaikwayon ƙanshin kwari na mace. Za'a iya ƙunshe da ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin yanki ɗaya, inda za'a iya lalata su cikin sauƙi.
  • Girbi na tsaftacewa - yana cire bishiyoyi guda ɗaya don sarrafa yaduwar yawan kwari zuwa wasu yankuna.
  • Snip da skid - yana cire ƙungiyoyin bishiyoyi masu fama da cutar da suka warwatse a babban yanki.
  • Kulawa, ko mosaic, ƙonewa - yana ƙone wani yanki inda bishiyoyi masu ƙwayoyin cuta suka taru, don rage yawan ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin a yankin ko don taimakawa rage haɗarin wuta a wani yanki. Gudanar da gobarar daji ya karu sosai tun daga shekarun 1980 da '90 saboda fasahar kashe gobara.
  • Fall and burn - yana yankewa (felling) da ƙone bishiyoyi masu cike da kwari don hana yaduwar yawan kwari zuwa wasu yankuna. Ana yin wannan a cikin hunturu, don rage haɗarin fara gobarar daji.
  • Pesticides - An gwada magungunan halittu irin su chitosan don kariya daga kwari na dutse, kuma ana amfani da magungunan ƙwayoyin cuta irin su carbaryl, permethrin, da bifenthrin don ƙananan aikace-aikacen yanki.

Kusan shekara ta dubunnan ma'aikatan gandun daji na Amurka sun gwada chitosan, [32] [33] wani maganin biopesticide, don riga-kafin bishiyoyin pine don kare kansu daga MPB. Sakamakon Sabis na Gandun Daji na Amurka ya nuna colloidal chitosan ya haifar da karuwar 40% na resin Pine (P<0.05) a cikin bishiyoyin pine na kudanci. Kitosan millilita ɗaya a cikin galan 10 na ruwa an shafa shi a cikin ƙasa a cikin zoben ɗigon bishiyar bishiyar loblolly . An maimaita aikace-aikacen sau uku daga Mayu zuwa Satumba a cikin 2008. Chitosan shine ke da alhakin samar da martanin tsaro na dabi'a na ƙarar guduro farar-fiti, tare da ikon lalata 37% na ƙwan ƙwai na Pine. Dokta Jim Linden, Masanin ilimin halittu, Jami'ar Jihar Colorado, ya bayyana cewa chitosan ya kara yawan resin pitch-outs don tura ƙwararrun ƙwararrun dutse daga itacen, yana hana MPB shiga cikin itacen pine da kuma yada launin shuɗi.

Bincike, cirewa, da lalata 'ya'yan a cikin bishiyoyi masu fama da cutar ita ce hanya mafi kyau don rage yaduwar beetles na dutse; duk da haka, bazai kare takamaiman bishiyoyi ba. Yashe bishiyoyi don hana kai farmaki shine hanya mafi inganci don kare ƙananan bishiyoyi masu mahimmanci daga kwari na dutse. Carbaryl, permethrin da bifenthrin an yi rajista a Amurka don amfani da su wajen hana kamuwa da kwari. EPA ta dauki Carbaryl a matsayin mai haifar da cutar kansa ga mutane. Yana da matsakaiciyar guba ga tsuntsayen daji kuma a wani bangare zuwa guba mai yawa ga kwayoyin ruwa. Permethrin yana da sauƙin narkewa a cikin hanta na dabbobi masu shayarwa, don haka ba shi da haɗari ga mutane. Tsuntsaye kuma kusan ba su da tasiri daga permethrin. Ana iya ganin mummunan sakamako a cikin yanayin halittu na ruwa, da kuma kasancewa mai guba sosai ga kwari masu amfani. Bifenthrin yana da haɗari ga dabbobi masu shayarwa, gami da mutane; yana da ɗan guba ga tsuntsaye da yanayin halittu na ruwa fiye da permethrin, da kuma guba sosai ga kwari masu amfani.[34]

A cikin 2015 faduwa da ƙonewa shine dabarar da ake amfani da ita a Alberta inda akwai fatan iyakance barkewar cutar zuwa yammacin Kanada, hana yaduwarta zuwa arewacin Saskatchewan da kuma ci gaba zuwa gabashin Kanada inda jack pine na iya zama mai rauni har zuwa gabas kamar Nova Scotia. A shekara ta 2022 yawan kwari a Alberta ya ragu da kashi 94 cikin dari idan aka kwatanta da mafi girma a cikin 2019, bisa ga sabis na gandun daji na Alberta.

Tasirin

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Hadarin wuta

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While weather and drought are important drivers of wildfires in sub boreal forests, bottom-up drivers of elevation and vegetation, including the fuel legacies of bark beetle outbreaks, are crucial factors influencing high-severity burning.[35] The outbreak of mountain pine beetles in the early 2010s, ten times larger than previous outbreaks,[36] created dead pine stands representing a potential fire hazard, prompting the BC government to direct fuel management activities in beetle areas as recommended in the 2003 Firestorm Provincial Review.[37] Huge swaths of central British Columbia (BC) and parts of Alberta have been hit badly, with over 40 million acres (160,000 km2) of BC's forests affected.[38]

A baya, sanyi ya kashe kwari, amma tare da yanayin zafi sun kai hari kan gandun daji. Lokacin haifuwa mai tsawo wani abu ne da ke ƙarfafa yaduwar kwari. Haɗin yanayin zafi, harin kwari, da rashin kulawa a cikin shekarun da suka gabata ya haifar da karuwa mai yawa a cikin tsananin gobarar daji a Montana.[39] Dangane da binciken da aka yi wa Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka ta Makarantar Injiniya da Kimiyya ta Harvard, sassan Montana za su sami karuwar 200% a yankin da gobarar daji ta ƙone, da kuma karuwar 80% a gurɓataccen iska daga waɗancan gobarar.[40]

A kan sake zagayowar carbon

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Masu bincike daga Hukumar Kula da dazuzzuka ta Kanada sun yi nazarin alaƙar da ke tsakanin sake zagayowar 2" href="./Carbon" id="mwAaU" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Carbon">carbon da gobarar daji, katako da mutuwar bishiyoyi. Sun kammala a shekarar 2020, barkewar kwari na pine zai fitar da megaton 270 na carbon dioxide a cikin yanayi daga gandun daji na Kanada. Har yanzu ba a yarda da binciken da aka yi game da tasirin sake zagayowar carbon a cikin wani lokaci na gaba ga gandun daji na Arewacin Amurka ba, amma masana kimiyya sun yi imanin cewa muna cikin "mafi girman" gandun daji da Yammacinmu ya zama tushen carbon off-put wanda ya fi na "sink carbon".[36] Sauran masana kimiyya sun ce wannan "maɓallin ƙarshe" zai juya kansa yayin da aka kafa sabuwar rayuwar daji. Wannan sabon ci gaban zai cire Tsarin carbon dioxide fiye da itatuwan da suka tsufa da suke maye gurbin su. Dangane da binciken 2016 daga Cibiyar Pacific don Magance Yanayi karuwar matakan carbon dioxide na iya soke tasirin kwari a British Columbia ta 2020.[41] Sakamakon haɓakar ƙaruwar matakan CO2 ya dawo da gandun daji na BC zuwa sink carbon tun daga 2016 ta hanyar Werner Kurz na Hukumar Kula da dazuzzuka ta Kanada.

A kan albarkatun ruwa

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Masana ilimin ruwa daga Jami'ar Colorado sun bincika tasirin gandun daji da ke cike da kwari a kan sake zagayowar ruwa, musamman, tarin dusar ƙanƙara da narkewa. Sun kammala cewa gandun daji da suka mutu za su tara karin dusar ƙanƙara sakamakon ƙananan bishiyoyi da raguwar dusar ƙara. Wadannan ƙananan rufin kuma suna haifar da saurin narkewar dusar ƙanƙara ta hanyar ba da ƙarin hasken rana ta hanyar zuwa ƙasa da kuma saukar da albedo na dusar ƙara, sakamakon lalacewar allura a kan dusar ƙenƙara.[42] Ƙarin dusar ƙanƙara tare da itatuwan da suka mutu waɗanda ba sa wucewa zai iya haifar da ƙarin ruwa.

A cikin al'adun ɗan adam

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A Custer, Dakota ta Kudu, ana ƙone babban siffar kwari na dutse a kowace Janairu a matsayin wani ɓangare na bikin Burning Beetle na shekara-shekara. Bikin ya fara ne a matsayin martani na fasaha ga canjin muhalli wanda ya haifar da yaduwar kwari a cikin Black Hills.

Bayanan da aka ambata

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  1. ↑ Irvin, Doyle (2017-02-15). "Blisters, Beetles and British Columbia: Global ReLeaf in Canada". American Forests Magazine. Archived from the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2021-09-09.
  2. 1 2 "Bob Ward: Colorado Wildfires Are Linked to Global Warming". Huffingtonpost.com. 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
  3. ↑ "Broad-level Reconstruction of Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreaks from 1999-2015 across the Northern Region" (PDF). Fs.usda.gov. December 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 22, 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
  4. ↑ Erbilgin, Nadir; Ma, Cary; Whitehouse, Caroline; Shan, Bin; Najar, Ahmed; Evenden, Maya (30 October 2013). "Chemical similarity between historical and novel host plants promotes range and host expansion of the mountain pine beetle in a naïve host ecosystem". New Phytologist. 201 (3): 940–50. doi:10.1111/nph.12573. PMID 24400902.
  5. ↑ Bentz, Barbara J.; Hansen, E. Matthew; Vandygriff, James C.; Stephens, S. Sky; Soderberg, David (2021). "Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) is a confirmed host to mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)". Western North American Naturalist (in Turanci). 81: 102. Bibcode:2021WNAN...81..102B. doi:10.3398/064.081.0102. S2CID 235324443 Check |s2cid= value (help). Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  6. ↑ Bentz, Barbara J.; Millar, Constance I.; Vandygriff, James C.; Hansen, Earl M. (1 April 2022). "Great Basin bristlecone pine mortality: Causal factors and management implications". Forest Ecology and Management. 509: 120099. Bibcode:2022ForEM.50920099B. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120099. S2CID 246982193 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  7. ↑ "The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, is a small insect, less than a centimetre long, which lives most of its life under the bark of pine trees, including lodgepole, ponderosa and western white pine". Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
  8. ↑ Kurz, WA; Dymond, CC; Stinson, G; et al. (2008-04-24). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change". Nature. 452 (7190): 987–990. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..987K. doi:10.1038/nature06777. PMID 18432244. S2CID 205212545.
  9. ↑ Keeling, Christopher I.; Henderson, Hannah; Li, Maria; Yuen, Mack; Clark, Erin L.; Fraser, Jordie D.; Huber, Dezene P.W.; Liao, Nancy Y.; Roderick Docking, T.; Birol, Inanc; Chan, Simon K.; Taylor, Greg A.; Palmquist, Diana; Jones, Steven J.M.; Bohlmann, Joerg (2012-08-31). "Transcriptome and full-length cDNA resources for the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, a major insect pest of pine forests". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 42 (8): 525–36. Bibcode:2012IBMB...42..525K. doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2012.03.010. PMID 22516182.
  10. ↑ Keeling, Christopher I; Yuen, Macaire MS; Liao, Nancy Y; Roderick Docking, T; Chan, Simon K; et al. (2013). "Draft genome of the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, a major forest pest". Genome Biology. 14 (3): R27. doi:10.1186/gb-2013-14-3-r27. PMC 4053930. PMID 23537049.
  11. ↑ "US Forest Service Forest Insect and Disease Leaflet Mountain Pine Beetle" (PDF). Fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
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  13. ↑ "The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, is a small insect, less than a centimetre long, which lives most of its life under the bark of pine trees, including lodgepole, ponderosa and western white pine". Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
  14. ↑ Raffa, K.; Berryman, A.A. (1983). "The Role of Host Plant Resistance in the Colonization Behavior and Ecology of Bark Beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)". Ecological Monographs. 53 (1): 27–49. Bibcode:1983EcoM...53...27R. doi:10.2307/1942586. JSTOR 1942586.
  15. ↑ Cooke, B. J.; Carroll, A.L. (2017). "Predicting the risk of mountain pine beetle spread to eastern pine forests: Considering uncertainty in uncertain times". Forest Ecology and Management. 396: 11–25. Bibcode:2017ForEM.396...11C. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2017.04.008.
  16. ↑ Powell, J. A.; Bentz, B. J. (2009). "Connecting phenological predictions with population growth rates for mountain pine beetle, an outbreak insect". Landscape Ecology. 24 (3): 657–672. Bibcode:2009LaEco..24..657P. doi:10.1007/s10980-009-9340-1.
  17. ↑ Safranyik, L.; Shore, T. L.; Carroll, A. L.; Linton, D. A. (2004). "Bark beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) diversity in spaced and unmanaged mature lodgepole pine (Pinaceae) in southeastern British Columbia". Forest Ecology and Management. 200 (1–3): 23–38. Bibcode:2004ForEM.200...23S. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.06.004.
  18. ↑ de la Giroday, H-M. C.; Carroll, A. L.; Lindgren, B. S.; Aukema, B. H. (2011). "Incoming! Association of landscape features with dispersing mountain pine beetle populations during a range expansion event in western Canada". Landscape Ecology. 26 (8): 1097–1110. Bibcode:2011LaEco..26.1097D. doi:10.1007/s10980-011-9628-9.
  19. ↑ Cooke, B. J.; MacQuarrie, C.J.K.; Carroll, A.L. (2024). "On the deduction and quantification of irruptive dynamics in mountain pine beetle population and proxy data". Journal of Applied Entomology. 149 (3): 309–323. doi:10.1111/jen.13262.
  20. ↑ Six, D. L.; Biber, E.; Long, E. (2014). "Management for Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreak Suppression: Does Relevant Science Support Current Policy?". Forests. 5 (4): 822–826. Bibcode:2014Fore....5..103S. doi:10.3390/f5010103.
  21. ↑ Logan, J. A.; White, P.; Bentz, B. J.; Powell, J. A. (1998). "Model Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreaks". Theoretical Population Biology. 53 (3): 236–255. Bibcode:1998TPBio..53..236L. doi:10.1006/tpbi.1997.1350. PMID 9682026.
  22. ↑ Raffa, K. F.; Aukema, B.H.; Bentz, B. J. (2008). "Cross-scale Drivers of Natural Disturbances: The Dynamics of Bark Beetle Eruptions". BioScience. 58 (6): 501–517. doi:10.1641/B580607.
  23. ↑ Sambaraju, Kishan R.; Carroll, Allan L.; Zhu, Jun; et al. (2012). "Climate change could alter the distribution of mountain pine beetle outbreaks in western Canada". Ecography. 35 (3): 211–223. Bibcode:2012Ecogr..35..211S. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06847.x.
  24. ↑ Kurz, W. (April 2008). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change". Nature. 452 (7190): 987–990. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..987K. doi:10.1038/nature06777. PMID 18432244. S2CID 205212545.
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  26. ↑ "Natural Resources Canada". Archived from the original on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  27. ↑ Kurz, W. A.; Dymond, C. C.; Stinson, G.; Rampley, G. J.; Neilson, E. T.; Carroll, A. L.; Ebata, T.; Safranyik, L. (April 2008). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change". Nature. 452 (7190): 987–990. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..987K. doi:10.1038/nature06777. PMID 18432244. S2CID 205212545.
  28. ↑ Cudmore TJ; Björklund N; Carrollbbb, AL; Lindgren BS. (2010). "Climate change and range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher reproductive success in naïve host tree populations" (PDF). Journal of Applied Ecology. 47 (5): 1036–43. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x.
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "robbins".
  30. ↑ Preisler, H.K.; Hicke, J.A.; Ager, A.A.; Hayes, J.L. (2012). "Climate and weather influences on spatial temporal patterns of mountain pine beetle populations in Washington and Oregon". Ecology. 93 (11): 2421–2434. Bibcode:2012Ecol...93.2421P. doi:10.1890/11-1412.1. PMID 23236913.
  31. ↑ "Mountain Pine Beetle - Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations - Province of British Columbia". 30 December 2012. Archived from the original on 30 December 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  32. ↑ Mason, M. (1997). "Defense Response in Slash Pine: Chitosan Treatment Alters the Abundance of Specific mRNAs". Res. Pap. SRS-30.asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 9P. 030 (1): 135–7. Bibcode:1997MPMI...10..135M. doi:10.1094/MPMI.1997.10.1.135. PMID 9002276.[permanent dead link]
  33. ↑ Klepzig, K. (2003). "Cellular response of loblolly pine to wound inoculation with bark beetle-associated fungi and chitosan". Res. Pap. SRS-30.asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 9P. 030. Archived from the original on 2017-06-28. Retrieved 2025-07-26.
  34. ↑ "Colorado State University Spraying Trees to Protect Against Mountain Pine Beetle: Common Questions for Landowners to Consider" (PDF). Csfs.colostate.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
  35. ↑ Talucci, Anna C.; Meigs, Garrett W.; Knudby, Anders; Krawchuk, Meg A. (2022). "Fire severity and the legacy of mountain pine beetle outbreak: high-severity fire peaks with mixed live and dead vegetation". Environmental Research Letters. 17 (12): 124010. Bibcode:2022ERL....17l4010T. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aca2c1. S2CID 253878500 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  36. 1 2 "Beetles may doom Canada's carbon reduction target: study". Terradaily.com. 2008-04-23. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  37. ↑ "British Columbia 2003 Firestorm Provincial Review". Archived from the original on 8 August 2010. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
  38. ↑ "Mountain Pine Beetle - Ministry of Forests and Range - Province of British Columbia". For.gov.bc.ca. Archived from the original on 2013-04-05. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
  39. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "BarkBeetle".
  40. ↑ Spracklen, D. V; Mickley, L. J; Logan, J. A; Hudman, R. C; Yevich, R; Flannigan, M. D; Westerling, A. L (2009). "Impacts of climate change from 2000 to 2050 on wildfire activity and carbonaceous aerosol concentrations in the western United States". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (D20): D20301. Bibcode:2009JGRD..11420301S. doi:10.1029/2008jd010966.
  41. ↑ "Scientists: Thriving BC forests outpace pine-beetle CO2 losses by 2020" (PDF). Pics.uvic.ca. April 11, 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-01-22. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
  42. ↑ "Mountain pine beetle activity may impact snow accumulation and melt". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
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