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Kwararar Hamada

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Kwararar Hamada
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na land degradation (en) Fassara
Fuskar Developing country
Has cause (en) Fassara drylands (en) Fassara, famine (en) Fassara, Wuce gona da Iri da Tasirin canjin yanayi
Yana haddasa desert (en) Fassara, Guguwar ƙura, Talauci da Erg (ƙasa)
Relates to sustainable development goal, target or indicator (en) Fassara Target 15.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals (en) Fassara
Handled, mitigated, or managed by (en) Fassara Noma mai daurewa, reforestation (en) Fassara, Soil regeneration (en) Fassara, Shuke-shuke na hamada da afforestation (en) Fassara
Rarrabawar duniya na yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa bisa ga ƙididdigar busasshiwar da aka ƙididdige a kan matsakaicin shekaru 30 a cikin 1981 zuwa 2010. Ana nuna hamada ta al'ada ta hanyar nau'in hyper-arid (launin rawaya).
Kyakkyawan hamada a Somalia

Kwararar Hamada wani nau'i ne na raguwar ƙasa mai kyau a cikin hamada mai bushe saboda haɗuwa da matakai na halitta da ayyukan ɗan adam.

Dalilin da ke haifar da hamada shine asarar mafi yawan ciyayi. Wannan yana motsawa ta hanyar dalilai da yawa, kadai ko a hade, kamar fari, sauye-sauyen yanayi, noma don noma, wuce gona da iri da kuma sare daji don man fetur ko kayan gini. Kodayake ciyayi suna taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen tantance abun da ke cikin ƙasa, binciken ya nuna cewa, a wurare da yawa, yawan rushewa da runoff yana raguwa sosai tare da karuwar murfin ciyayi.[1] Ba a kare shi ba, busassun ƙasa suna hurawa da iska ko kuma ambaliyar ruwa ta wanke su, suna barin ƙananan ƙasa marasa amfani waɗanda ke yin burodi a cikin rana kuma suna zama mai wuya mara amfani.[2][3]

Akalla kashi 90% na mazaunan wuraren da ba su da ruwa suna zaune a Kasashe masu tasowa, inda kuma suke fama da yanayin tattalin arziki da zamantakewa mara kyau.[4] Wannan halin da ake ciki ya kara tsanantawa ta hanyar lalacewar ƙasa saboda raguwar yawan aiki, rashin lafiyar yanayin rayuwa da wahalar samun damar samun albarkatu da dama.

Yankunan da suka fi shafa suna cikin Afirka (Yankin Sahel), Asiya (Gobi Desert da Mongolia) da kuma wasu sassan Kudancin Amurka. Yankunan da ba su da ruwa sun mamaye kusan 40-41% na yankin duniya kuma suna da gida ga mutane sama da biliyan 2. Tasirin hamada sun hada da yashi da ƙura, Rashin tsaro na abinci, da talauci. 

Hanyoyin ragewa ko juyar da hamada sun haɗa da inganta ingancin ƙasa, shuke-shuke, sarrafa kiwo, da dasa bishiyoyi (sake gandun daji da gandun daji).

A cikin tarihin ilimin ƙasa, ci gaban hamada ya faru ne ta hanyar halitta a tsawon lokaci.[5] Nazarin zamani na hamada ya fito ne daga nazarin fari na shekarun 1980 a Sahel.[6]

Ma'ana

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yaduwar hamada tsari ne na sannu a hankali na karuwar busassun ƙasa. An bayyana hamada a cikin rubutun Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya don Yaki da hamada (UNCCD) a matsayin "rugujewar ƙasa a cikin yankuna masu bushewa, masu bushewa da bushewa sakamakon dalilai daban-daban, gami da bambancin yanayi da ayyukan ɗan adam".[7]

Ma'anar hamada - Wannan yanki na duniya inda jimlar ruwan sama da dusar ƙanƙara ya fi ƙasa da sauran yankuna, inda matsakaicin ruwan sama na shekara-shekara bai kai 25CM ba. Ma'anar ta UNO (1995) - Rashin lalacewar ƙasa a wuraren da ba su da ruwa, masu zafi da ƙananan zafi saboda canjin yanayi da ayyukan ɗan adam ana kiransa hamada.

Ya zuwa shekara ta 2005, akwai jayayya mai yawa game da ma'anar kalmar hamada tare da fiye da ma'anoni 100 da ke akwai. Mafi karɓa daga cikin waɗannan shine na Jami'ar Princeton wanda ya bayyana shi a matsayin "tsarin ƙasa mai kyau wanda ke canzawa zuwa hamada yawanci sakamakon sare daji, fari ko aikin gona mara kyau / mara kyau". Wannan ma'anar ta nuna a sarari cewa ana amfani da ita ne da kuma ayyukan hamada, musamman amfani da ƙasa da ayyukan kula da ƙasa. Har ila yau, ya nuna tasirin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da muhalli na hamada. Koyaya, wannan fahimtar asali cewa hamada ta haɗa da fadada hamada ta zahiri an ƙi shi yayin da ra'ayin ya ci gaba da canzawa tun daga lokacin.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Har ila yau, akwai rikice-rikice game da rukuni na nau'ikan hamada, gami da, alal misali, inganci da amfani da irin waɗannan kalmomin kamar " hamada da aka yi da mutum" da "hamara mara tsari".[8]

Dalilai

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Dalilan gaggawa

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Dalilin gaggawa na Kwararar Hamada shine rasa yawancin tsirrai. Wannan yana faruwa ne saboda abubuwa da dama, ko dai guda ɗaya ko haɗe, kamar fari, sauyin yanayi, noma, kiwo fiye da kima da kuma sare itatuwa don itace ko kayan gini. Duk da cewa tsirrai suna taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ƙayyade tsarin halittu na ƙasa, bincike ya nuna cewa, a yawancin wurare, saurin hawan ƙasa da gudu yana raguwa sosai idan tsirrai sun ƙaru.[1] Idan ƙasa ba ta da kariya, iska ko ambaliyar ruwa suna wanke ta, suna barin ƙasa marar albarka wadda rana ke busarwa ta zama ƙasa mai wuya ba tare da amfani ba.

Tasirin ayyukan ɗan adam

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Bincike na farko ya nuna cewa ɗaya daga cikin dalilan da aka fi sani na Kwararar Hamada shine kiwo fiye da kima, wato cinye tsirrai da yawa daga shanu ko sauran dabbobi.[9] Amma rawar da cinye tsirrai fiye da kima ke takawa wajen haifar da Kwararar Hamada a baya-bayan nan tana da cece-kuce.[6] Fari a yankin Sahel yanzu ana ganin ya fi kasancewa sakamakon bambancin ruwan sama da ke faruwa saboda sauyin yanayin teku, wanda ke da alaƙa da bambancin halitta da kuma hayaki da ɗan adam ke fitarwa (ƙwayoyin sulphate masu haske) da iskar gas mai dumama duniya.[10] Wannan ya sa wasu masana suka ce asarar tsirrai ta hanyar noma ba babban dalili ba ne wajen Kwararar Hamada.[6]

Yawan jama'a yana da tasiri sosai wajen kiwo fiye da kima, noma fiye da kima da sare itatuwa, domin hanyoyin da aka saba amfani da su sun zama ba su da dorewa.[11]

Akwai dalilai da dama da ke sa manoma su yi amfani da noma mai tsanani maimakon noma mai sauƙi, amma babban dalili shine su ƙara yawan amfanin gona.[12] Yin haka yana buƙatar amfani da takin zamani, magungunan kashe kwari da kuma aiki mai yawa don kula da injina. Wannan amfani da ƙasa ba tare da hutu ba yana sa ƙasa ta rasa sinadarai cikin sauri, yana haifar da Kwararar Hamada.[13][14]

Sauyin halitta

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Masana sun amince cewa kasancewar hamada a inda Sahara take yanzu ya samo asali ne daga sauyin hasken rana saboda juyawar duniyar ƙasa.[15] Wannan sauyi yana shafar ƙarfin damina ta yammacin Afirka, yana haifar da tasirin tsirrai da ƙura wanda ke ƙara wannan zagaye na yanayin Sahara.[16] Hakanan akwai ra’ayin cewa sauyin Sahara daga savanna zuwa hamada a tsakiyar Holocene ya samo asali ne daga kiwo fiye da kima da mutanen yankin suka yi.

Sauyin Yanayi

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Bincike kan hamadar ƙasa (desertification) yana da sarkakiya, kuma babu wata guda takamaiman ma’auni da zai iya bayyana dukkan fannoni. Duk da haka, ana sa ran ƙarin tsanantar sauyin yanayi zai ƙara faɗaɗa yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa a nahiyoyin duniya: daga kashi 38% a ƙarshen ƙarni na 20 zuwa kashi 50% ko 56% zuwa ƙarshen ƙarni, a ƙarƙashin matsakaici da kuma babban yanayin ɗumamar yanayi na Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 da 8.5. Mafi yawan wannan faɗaɗa zai bayyana a yankuna kamar "kudu maso yammacin Arewacin Amurka, arewacin gefen Afirka, kudancin Afirka, da Ostiraliya".[12]

Yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa suna rufe kashi 41% na ƙasar duniya kuma suna ɗauke da kashi 45% na ƙasar noma ta duniya.[17]

Waɗannan yankuna suna daga cikin halittun muhalli da suka fi fuskantar barazana daga sauyin yanayi na ɗan’adam da sauyin amfani da ƙasa, kuma suna fuskantar barazanar hamadar ƙasa. Wani bincike na shekarar 2020 da ya dogara da abubuwan da aka lura ya binciki dalilan hamadar ƙasa, inda aka haɗa sauyin yanayi, bambancin yanayi, tasirin takin CO2, da kuma sauye-sauyen muhalli masu sauri da masu hankali da ke faruwa saboda amfani da ƙasa.[17]

Binciken ya gano cewa, tsakanin 1982 zuwa 2015, kashi 6% na yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa a duniya sun shiga yanayin hamadar ƙasa sakamakon rashin dorewar amfani da ƙasa tare da haɗin gwiwar sauyin yanayi na ɗan’adam. Duk da cewa akwai ƙarin korewa a wasu sassan duniya, sauyin yanayi na ɗan’adam ya lalata kashi 12.6% (milion 5.43 km2) na yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa, wanda ya taimaka wajen hamadar ƙasa tare da shafar mutane miliyan 213, inda kashi 93% daga cikinsu ke rayuwa a ƙasashe masu tasowa.[17]

Illolin

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Guguwar Yashi da Ƙura

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hangen Sydney Harbour Bridge da ƙura ta rufe shi

An samu ƙaruwa da kashi 25% na fitar ƙura a duniya a kowace shekara tun daga ƙarshen ƙarni na 19 zuwa zamanin yau.[18]

Ƙaruwar hamadar ƙasa (desertification) ta kuma ƙara yawan yashi da ƙura mai sauƙin tashi da iska, wanda ke haifar da guguwar ƙura. Misali, guguwar ƙura a yankin Gabas ta Tsakiya "na ƙara yawaita da ƙarfi a shekarun baya-bayan nan" saboda "raguwar ruwan sama na dogon lokaci [wanda ke haifar da] ƙarancin danshin ƙasa (soil moisture) da raguwar ciyayi (vegetative cover)".[19]

Guguwar ƙura na iya jawo wasu cututtuka na numfashi kamar ciwon huhu (pneumonia), cututtukan fata, asma da sauransu.[20] Hakanan suna iya gurɓata ruwan sha, rage ingancin makamashi mai tsafta, da hana wasu nau’o’in sufuri aiki.

Guguwar yashi da ƙura na iya yin mummunan tasiri ga yanayi, wanda hakan zai iya ƙara tsananta hamadar ƙasa.[21][22]

Ƙwayoyin ƙura a cikin iska suna warwatsa hasken rana da ke shigowa (Hassan, 2012). Ƙurar na iya rage zafin ƙasa na ɗan lokaci, amma zafin sararin samaniya (atmosphere) na iya ƙaruwa. Wannan na iya lalata tsarin girgije da rage tsawon rayuwarsu, wanda ke haifar da ƙarancin ruwan sama.[12]

Rashin Tsaron Abinci

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Tsaron abinci na duniya yana fuskantar barazana daga hamadar ƙasa. Yayin da yawan jama’a ke ƙaruwa, buƙatar abinci ma tana ƙaruwa.

Kasuwancin noma na ƙaura daga ƙasa zuwa ƙasa. Misali, Turai na shigo da sama da kashi 50% na abincinta. A gefe guda kuma, kashi 44% na ƙasar noma tana cikin yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa, kuma tana samar da kashi 60% na abincin duniya. Hamadar ƙasa na rage yawan ƙasar noma mai dorewa, yayin da buƙatu ke ci gaba da ƙaruwa. A nan gaba, buƙatun za su iya wuce wadatar abinci.[23]

Rikice-rikicen makiyaya da manoma a Najeriya, Sudan, Mali da sauran ƙasashen yankin Sahel sun ƙaru sakamakon sauyin yanayi, lalacewar ƙasa da ƙaruwa yawan jama’a.[24][25][26]

Ƙaruwar Talauci

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Erosion na ƙasa sakamakon iska a Leuchars

Aƙalla kashi 90% na mazauna yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa suna rayuwa a ƙasashe masu tasowa, inda suke fama da matsalolin tattalin arziki da zamantakewa.[4]

Wannan yanayi yana ƙara tsananta saboda lalacewar ƙasa da raguwar amfanin gona, wahalar rayuwa, da ƙarancin samun albarkatu da dama.[27]

A ƙasashe masu tasowa, matsaloli kamar kiwo fiye da kima, gajiyar ƙasa, da amfani da ruwan ƙasa fiye da kima na ƙara lalata yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa. Rashin saka jari a waɗannan yankuna na ƙara mayar da su baya wajen ci gaba.

Hamadar ƙasa na tilasta wa mutane barin ƙauyuka zuwa birane, wanda ke haifar da ƙarin rashin aikin yi da samuwar unguwannin marasa galihu (slums). Yawan waɗannan masu hijira na muhalli na ƙaruwa a kowace shekara, inda ake hasashen cewa a yankin Saharar Afirka zai iya ƙaruwa daga miliyan 14 a 2010 zuwa kusan miliyan 200 a 2050.[28][29]

A ƙasar Mongolia, kashi 90% na ƙasar busasshiyar ƙasa ce, wanda ke tilasta makiyaya ƙaura zuwa birane don neman aiki. Waɗanda suka rage suna kiwo da matuƙar kulawa domin kare ƙasa.[30]

Noma na ɗaya daga cikin manyan hanyoyin samun kuɗi a yankunan hamada, amma hamadar ƙasa tana rage amfanin gona har mutane ba sa iya noma yadda ya kamata, wanda ke ƙara talauci.

Akwai kuma ƙoƙarin duniya kamar manufar SDG 15 don yaki da hamadar ƙasa da dawo da ƙasar da ta lalace.[31]

Yankunan Da Hamadar Ƙasa Ke Shafa

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Drylands suna rufe kusan kashi 40–41% na ƙasar duniya kuma suna ɗauke da sama da mutane biliyan 2.[32][33]

An kiyasta cewa kusan kashi 10–20% na yankunan busasshiyar ƙasa sun riga sun lalace, inda jimillar yankin da hamadar ƙasa ta shafa ke tsakanin kilomita murabba’i miliyan 6 zuwa 12. Haka kuma an kiyasta cewa kusan kashi 1–6% na mazauna waɗannan yankuna suna rayuwa a wuraren da hamadar ƙasa ta riga ta shafa, yayin da kusan mutane biliyan guda ke fuskantar barazanar ƙarin lalacewa a nan gaba.[34][35]

Sahel

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tasirin sauyin yanayi da ayyukan ɗan’adam kan hamadar ƙasa ya fi bayyana a yankin Sahel na Afirka. Yankin yana da yanayi mai zafi da bushewa, da ƙarancin ruwan sama (100–600 mm a shekara).[36]

Saboda haka, fari yana daga cikin halayen yankin Sahel.[37]

Sahel ya rasa kusan kilomita murabba’i 650,000 na ƙasar noma mai amfani cikin shekaru 50 da suka gabata.[38] Yaduwar hamadar ƙasa a wannan yanki ta yi tsanani sosai.[39][40]

Yankin Sahel a Mali

Yanayin Sahara ya sha bamban sosai a cikin ɗaruruwan dubban shekaru da suka gabata, yana sauyawa tsakanin yanayin ciyayi da hamada a kusan kowane shekaru 20,000.[41]

Wasu bayanai sun nuna cewa tun daga shekarar 1900, Sahara ta faɗaɗa da kusan kilomita 250 zuwa kudu a wani yanki mai tsawon kilomita 6,000 daga yamma zuwa gabas.[42]

Lake Chad, da ke yankin Sahel, ya yi matuƙar raguwa sakamakon amfani da ruwa don ban ruwa da kuma raguwar ruwan sama.[43]

Tafkin ya ragu da sama da kashi 90% tun daga 1987, wanda ya raba miliyoyin mutane da muhallinsu.[44]

Don rage hamadar ƙasa, an ƙaddamar da shirin Great Green Wall (Africa) a 2007, wanda ke nufin dasa bishiyoyi a kan kilomita 7,775 na yanki mai faɗin kilomita 15 a faɗi, a ƙasashe 22 har zuwa 2030.[45]

Gobi Desert da Mongolia

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See also: Environmental issues in Mongolia#Desertification and Great Green Wall (China)

Wani babban yankin da hamadar ƙasa ke shafa shi ne Gobi Desert da ke Arewacin China da Kudancin Mongolia. Gobi na daga cikin hamadun da ke faɗaɗa cikin sauri a duniya, yana canza kusan kilomita murabba’i 3600 na ciyayi zuwa hamada a kowace shekara.[46]

A Mongolia, kusan kashi 90% na ciyayi na cikin haɗarin hamadar ƙasa. Kimanin kashi 13% na wannan lalacewar ya fito daga dalilai na halitta, yayin da sauran ke fitowa daga ayyukan ɗan’adam kamar kiwo fiye da kima da lalacewar ƙasa.[47]

Kudancin Amurka

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Kudancin Amurka ma yana cikin yankunan da ke fuskantar barazanar hamadar ƙasa, inda kusan kashi 25% na ƙasar ake ɗauka a matsayin busasshiyar ƙasa.[48]

Fiye da kashi 68% na ƙasar sun riga sun fuskanci zaizayar ƙasa sakamakon sare dazuka da kiwo fiye da kima.[49]

A ƙasashe kamar Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador da Peru, kusan kashi 27 zuwa 43% na ƙasa na fuskantar barazanar hamadar ƙasa. A Argentina, Mexico da Paraguay, fiye da rabin ƙasar ta riga ta lalace.

A Amurka ta Tsakiya, fari yana haifar da rashin aikin yi da ƙarancin abinci, wanda ke tilasta mutane yin ƙaura. Haka ma a Mexico, kusan kilomita murabba’i 1,000 na ƙasa na lalacewa kowace shekara saboda hamadar ƙasa.[49]

A Argentina, hamadar ƙasa na iya yin tasiri sosai ga samar da abinci na ƙasar.[50]

Yadda ake sake dakile hamadar Sahara

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Techniques da hanyoyin da za a iya amfani da su domin rage ko ma dakile ci gaban hamada (desertification) sun wanzu. Amma akwai wasu kalubale wajen aiwatar da wasu daga cikin waɗannan matakan. Duk da haka, wasu hanyoyin suna bukatar kawai amfani da hikimar ɗan adam da kyakkyawan tsari.

Wani babban cikas da ake ganin yana hana aiwatar da wasu matakan shi ne cewa kudin amfani da hanyoyin noma mai dorewa sau da yawa ya fi amfanin da manoma ke samu nan take, duk da cewa suna da amfani ga muhalli da al’umma gaba ɗaya.[51] Wani matsala kuma ita ce rashin niyyar siyasa da rashin kuɗi don tallafawa gyaran ƙasa da shirye-shiryen yaƙi da hamadar Sahara.[52]

An gane hamadar Sahara a matsayin babbar barazana ga bambancin halittu (biodiversity). Wasu ƙasashe sun kirkiri tsare-tsaren kare halittu (biodiversity action plans) domin kare dabbobi da tsirrai masu hatsari.[53][54]

Inganta ingancin ƙasa

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Hanyoyin da ake amfani da su suna mai da hankali kan abubuwa biyu: samar da ruwa, da gyara ƙasa da kuma ƙara mata ƙarfin haihuwa. Ana yin gyaran ƙasa ta hanyar amfani da itatuwan kariya daga iska (windbreaks), da gandun itatuwa (woodlots). Waɗannan itatuwa da bishiyoyi suna rage zaizayar ƙasa da kuma rage bushewar ruwa daga ƙasa.

Wasu ƙasa (misali yumbu), idan ba su da ruwa na iya tauri sosai maimakon zama mai laushi. A irin waɗannan lokuta ana amfani da hanyoyi kamar zaï ko noman ƙasa (tillage) domin ba da damar shuka amfanin gona.[55]

Wata muhimmiyar hanya ita ce tona ramuka a layi (contour trenching). Ana tona ramuka masu tsawon kusan mita 150 da zurfin mita 1 a ƙasa. Ana tsara su bisa layukan gangaren ƙasa domin hana ruwa gudu da haddasa zaizayar ƙasa. Ana kuma sanya duwatsu a gefen ramukan domin hana su rufewa. Peter Westerveld ne ya ƙirƙiri wannan hanyar.[56]

Inganta ƙasa da dawo da haihuwarta ana yi ne ta hanyar amfani da tsirrai. Daga ciki akwai tsirran legume da ke ɗaukar nitrogen daga iska su mayar da shi cikin ƙasa, da tsirrai masu kauri kamar cactus (Opuntia),[57] da kuma amfanin gona kamar hatsi, sha'ir, wake da dabino. Ana kuma amfani da shingen yashi (sand fences) domin hana iska ɗaukar ƙasa.

Wata hanya ita ce amfani da taki mai ɗauke da nitrogen, amma saboda tsada, manoma kananan gonaki ba sa yawan amfani da shi. Wasu ƙasashe kamar Indiya, Zambia da Malawi sun fara bayar da tallafi domin ƙarfafa amfani da wannan taki.[58]

Wasu cibiyoyin bincike (kamar Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) suna gwada amfani da fungi na mycorrhiza a cikin yankunan busassu. Wadannan fungi suna haɗuwa da tushen tsirrai, suna ƙara musu damar samun sinadarai daga ƙasa.[59]

An kuma ba da shawarar amfani da injiniyan halittu (bioengineering) na ƙananan ƙwayoyin ƙasa domin inganta yanayin ƙasa a yankunan busassu.[60]

Kore hamada (Desert greening)

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Saboda hamada iri-iri ce, akwai hanyoyi daban-daban na sake gyara ta. Misali, yankunan gishiri a cikin hamadar Rub' al Khali a Saudiyya ana ganin suna da damar amfani da ruwan teku wajen noma, ba tare da amfani da ruwa mai ɗaci ba.

Hanyar Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) ta yi nasara a Niger tun 1980, inda aka sake farfado da kusan murabba'in kilomita 30,000 na ƙasa. Wannan hanyar tana taimaka wa bishiyoyi su sake girma ta hanyar yankan rassan da kyau, sannan ragowar bishiyoyi suna taimakawa riƙe danshi a ƙasa.[61]

FAO ta ƙaddamar da shirin FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative a 2012 domin haɗa ilimi da gogewa wajen gyaran ƙasashen busassu.[62]

Shirin Green Wall of China ya nuna yadda dasa bishiyoyi a babban sikeli zai iya rage ci gaban hamada. A China an dasa biliyoyin bishiyoyi, wanda ya rage yawan guguwar yashi da kashi 20%.[63]

A Afirka kuma an fara shirin Great Green Wall na Afirka a 2007 domin yaƙi da hamadar Sahara a kasashe 20. An riga an dawo da miliyoyin hekta na ƙasa kuma ana sa ran ƙarin gyara zuwa 2030.[64]

Ingantaccen kiwo

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wata hanya ita ce sarrafa kiwo ta hanyar motsa dabbobi daga wuri zuwa wuri domin ƙasa ta samu damar farfadowa. Wannan na taimakawa wajen ƙara carbon a ƙasa, amma wasu masana suna cewa ba ya magance hamada gaba ɗaya.[65]

Agrivoltaics

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masu bincike a arewacin China sun ba da shawarar amfani da tsarin agrivoltaic domin tallafawa muhalli a yankunan busassu. Bincike na 2025 ya nuna cewa hakan na iya inganta rayuwar ƙananan ƙwayoyin ƙasa da tsarin muhalli gaba ɗaya.

Tarihin hamada da faruwar desertification

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mafi shahararrun hamadun duniya sun samo asali ne ta hanyoyin yanayi na halitta da suka yi aiki na dogon lokaci. A cikin mafi yawan waɗannan lokuta, hamada suna faɗaɗa da raguwa ba tare da tasirin ayyukan ɗan adam ba. Paleodeserts su ne tsofaffin manyan tekunan yashi (sand seas) da yanzu ba sa aiki saboda ciyayi sun rufe su, wasu daga cikinsu suna wuce iyakokin hamadar da ake gani a yau, kamar Sahara, wadda ita ce mafi girman hamadar zafi a duniya.[5]

Shaidun tarihi sun nuna cewa mummunan lalacewar ƙasa da ta faru shekaru aru-aru da suka wuce a yankunan busassu tana da manyan cibiyoyi guda uku: yankin Bahar Rum (Mediterranean), kwarin Mesopotamia, da Loess Plateau na China, inda yawan jama'a ya yi yawa.[66]

Farkon tattaunawar da aka sani kan wannan batu ta fara ne jim kaɗan bayan mamayar Faransa a Afirka ta Yamma, lokacin da hukumar Comité d’Etudes ta ba da umarnin gudanar da bincike kan desséchement progressif domin nazarin yadda hamadar Sahara ta fara faɗaɗa a tarihi.[67] Binciken zamani kan desertification ya samo asali ne daga nazarin fari mai tsanani na shekarun 1980 a yankin Sahel.[6]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 Empty citation (help)
  2. ↑ "Sustainable development of drylands and combating desertification". Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  3. ↑ Zeng, Ning; Yoon, Jinho (1 September 2009). "Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (17): L17401. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3617401Z. doi:10.1029/2009GL039699. ISSN 1944-8007. S2CID 1708267.
  4. 1 2 "2010–2020: UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification". www.un.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 11 September 2023.
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  6. 1 2 3 4 (Michael ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. ↑ Hulme, Mike; Kelly, Mick (1993). "Exploring the links between Desertification and Climate Change". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development (in Turanci). 35 (6): 4–45. Bibcode:1993ESPSD..35f...4H. doi:10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106. ISSN 0013-9157.
  8. ↑ Geist, Helmut J.; Lambin, Eric F. (2004). "Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification". BioScience (in Turanci). 54 (9): 817. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0006-3568.
  9. ↑ Charney, J. G. (April 1975). "Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (in Turanci). 101 (428): 193–202. Bibcode:1975QJRMS.101..193C. doi:10.1002/qj.49710142802. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023 |archive-url= requires |url= (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  10. ↑ Biasutti, Michela (July 2019). "Rainfall trends in the African Sahel: Characteristics, processes, and causes". WIREs Climate Change (in Turanci). 10 (4). Bibcode:2019WIRCC..10E.591B. doi:10.1002/wcc.591. ISSN 1757-7780. PMC 6617823. PMID 31341517. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Epule, Terence Epule; Peng, Changhui; Lepage, Laurent (February 2015). "Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward". GeoJournal. 80 (1): 79–92. Bibcode:2015GeoJo..80...79E. doi:10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z. ISSN 0343-2521. S2CID 154503204.
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  13. ↑ United Nations. "World Day to Combat Kwararar Hamada and Drought". United Nations (in Turanci). Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  14. ↑ "Intensive agriculture". Encyclopedia Britannica (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 24 June 2008 |archive-url= requires |url= (help). Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  15. ↑ Tierney, Jessica E.; Pausata, Francesco S. R.; deMenocal, Peter B. (6 January 2017). "Rainfall regimes of the Green Sahara". Science Advances (in Turanci). 3 (1). Bibcode:2017SciA....3E1503T. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1601503. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5242556. PMID 28116352. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Pausata, Francesco S. R.; Messori, Gabriele; Zhang, Qiong (15 January 2016). "Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (in Turanci). 434: 298–307. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.434..298P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049. ISSN 0012-821X.
  17. 1 2 3 Burrell, A. L.; Evans, J. P.; De Kauwe, M. G. (2020). "Anthropogenic climate change has driven over 5 million km2 of drylands towards desertification". Nature Communications (in Turanci). 11 (1): 3853. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17710-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7395722. PMID 32737311. An kwafe rubutu daga wannan tushe, wanda yake samuwa ƙarƙashin lasisin Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  18. ↑ Stanelle, Tanja; Bey, Isabelle; Raddatz, Thomas; Reick, Christian; Tegen, Ina (16 December 2014). "Anthropogenically induced changes in twentieth century mineral dust burden and the associated impact on radiative forcing". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (in Turanci). 119 (23): 13, 526–13, 546. Bibcode:2014JGRD..11913526S. doi:10.1002/2014JD022062. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-A9A2-C. S2CID 128663108.
  19. ↑ Namdari, Soodabeh; Karimi, Neamat; Sorooshian, Armin; Mohammadi, GholamHasan; Sehatkashani, Saviz (1 January 2018). "Impacts of climate and synoptic fluctuations on dust storm activity over the Middle East". Atmospheric Environment. 173: 265–276. Bibcode:2018AtmEn.173..265N. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.11.016. ISSN 1352-2310. PMC 6192056. PMID 30344444.
  20. ↑ Goudie, Andrew S. (1 February 2014). "Desert dust and human health disorders". Environment International. 63: 101–113. Bibcode:2014EnInt..63..101G. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.10.011. ISSN 0160-4120. PMID 24275707.
  21. ↑ Hu, Tiantian; Wu, Di; Li, Yaohui; Wang, Chenghai (28 March 2017). "The Effects of Sandstorms on the Climate of Northwestern China". Advances in Meteorology (in Turanci). 2017 (1). Bibcode:2017AdMet201735609H. doi:10.1155/2017/4035609. ISSN 1687-9309. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ Wu, Yao; Wen, Bo; Li, Shanshan; Guo, Yuming (1 June 2021). "Sand and dust storms in Asia: a call for global cooperation on climate change". The Lancet Planetary Health (in English). 5 (6): e329–e330. Bibcode:2021LanPH...5.e329W. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00082-6. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 33915087 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 233460168 Check |s2cid= value (help).CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  23. ↑ "WAD | World Atlas of Desertification". wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  24. ↑ "How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria". Time. 28 June 2018. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2026.
  25. ↑ "The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali". BBC News. 22 January 2019. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  26. ↑ "Farmer-Herder Conflicts on the Rise in Africa". ReliefWeb. 6 August 2018. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
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  32. ↑ Johnson, Pierre-Marc; Johnson, Pierre Marc, eds. (2006). Governing global desertification: linking environmental degradation, poverty and participation. Global environmental governance series. Aldershot: Ashgate [u.a.] ISBN 978-0-7546-4359-3.
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  37. ↑ Riebeek, Holli (3 January 2007). "Defining Desertification: Feature Articles". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  38. ↑ Environmental issues in the Sahel Geo Factsheet
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  46. ↑ Rechtschaffen, Daniel. "How China's Growing Deserts Are Choking The Country". Forbes (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  47. ↑ "What Is Desertification and How Does It Impact Mongolia?". Breathe Mongolia – English (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 1 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  48. ↑ "Soil Degradation Threatens Nutrition in Latin America - World". ReliefWeb (in Turanci). 16 June 2016. Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
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  50. ↑ Torres, Laura; Abraham, Elena M.; Rubio, Clara; Barbero-Sierra, Celia; Ruiz-Pérez, Manuel (7 July 2015). "Desertification Research in Argentina". Land Degradation & Development. 26 (5): 433–440. Bibcode:2015LDeDe..26..433T. doi:10.1002/ldr.2392. hdl:11336/48401. S2CID 129476957.
  51. ↑ Drost, Daniel; Long, Gilbert; Wilson, David; Miller, Bruce; Campbell, William (1 December 1996). "Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices". Journal of Extension. 34 (6). Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
  52. ↑ Briassoulis, Helen (2005). Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification. Ashgate Publishing. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-7546-4243-5.
  53. ↑ Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie
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  57. ↑ Nefzaoui, Ali (30 January 2014). "Cactus as a Tool to Mitigate Drought and to Combat Desertification". Journal of Arid Land Studies. 24 (1): 121–124. hdl:20.500.11766/7319.
  58. ↑ Duflo, Esther; Kremer, Michael; Robinson, Jonathan (October 2011). "Nudging Farmers to Use Fertilizer: Theory and Experimental Evidence from Kenya" (PDF). American Economic Review. 101 (6): 2350–2390. doi:10.1257/aer.101.6.2350. hdl:1721.1/63964. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2015.
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  60. ↑ "Bioengineered soil microbes may help prevent desertification". phys.org (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 27 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
  61. ↑ "Sprouting Trees From the Underground Forest — A Simple Way to Fight Desertification and Climate Change – Water Matters – State of the Planet". Blogs.ei.columbia.edu. 18 October 2011. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
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  63. ↑ Beiser, Vince (1 September 2017). "A tree grows in China: can a "Green Great Wall" stop sand from devouring the countryside?". Mother Jones. 83 (4).
  64. ↑ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (2019). "The Great Green Wall Initiative". United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  65. ↑ Briske, David D.; Bestelmeyer, Brandon T.; Brown, Joel R.; Fuhlendorf, Samuel D.; Wayne Polley, H. (Oct 2013). "The Savory Method Can Not Green Deserts or Reverse Climate Change". Rangelands (in Turanci). 35 (5): 72–74. doi:10.2111/RANGELANDS-D-13-00044.1. hdl:10150/639967.
  66. ↑ Dregne, H.E. "Desertification of Arid Lands". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  67. ↑ Mortimore, Michael (1989). Adapting to drought: farmers, famines, and desertification in West Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-521-32312-3. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
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