Laifin tashin hankali

Laifin tashin hankali ya samo asali ne daga lauyan Soviet Aron Trainin a yayin mamayewar Jamus a Tarayyar Soviet a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu . Hoton: Stalingrad a cikin rushewa, Disamba 1942

laifin tashin hankali ko aikata laifuka game da zaman lafiya shine shirya, farawa, ko aiwatar da babban aiki mai tsanani na tashin hankali ta amfani da rundunar soja ta jihar. Ma'anar da girman laifin yana da rikici. Dokar Roma ta ƙunshi cikakken jerin ayyukan tashin hankali wanda zai iya haifar da alhakin aikata laifuka na mutum, wanda ya haɗa da mamayewa, Aikin soja, haɗuwa ta hanyar amfani da karfi, bama-bamai, da kuma toshewa tashar jiragen ruwa. Gabaɗaya, yin aikin tashin hankali laifi ne na jagoranci wanda kawai waɗanda ke da ikon tsara manufofin tashin hankali na jihar zasu iya aikata shi, sabanin waɗanda suka fitar da shi.

Tushen falsafa don kuskuren tashin hankali ana samunsa a cikin ka'idar yaki ta adalci, inda yin yaki ba tare da dalili mai kyau don kare kai ba daidai ba ne. Bayan mamayewar Jamus a Tarayyar Soviet a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, lauyan Soviet Aron Trainin ya ba da shawarar farko mai nasara don aikata laifuka. Yarjejeniyar Kotun Soja ta Duniya ta ba da alhakin aikata laifuka don yin yaƙi mai tsanani, wanda shine babban abin da aka mayar da hankali ga Shari'ar Nuremberg. Sauran mahalarta yakin duniya na biyu an gwada su don tashin hankali a Finland, Poland, China, gwajin Nuremberg na gaba, da kuma gwajin Tokyo. Babu wanda aka gurfanar da shi saboda tashin hankali kafin ko tun daga shekarun 1940.

Akwai shari'o'in da ke sa ma'anar ta kasance mai rikitarwa, kamar "Yaƙi akan ta'addanci", wanda shine ta hanyar ma'anar lahani da aka fara. Wannan shari'ar na iya gabatar da amfani da tsarin shari'a da zamantakewa na yanzu don "gina yanayin da aka ƙuntata amfani da ka'idojin kasa da kasa masu dacewa ko kuma ba su da tabbas" kuma ta haka ne ya tabbatar da gaskiyar tashin hankali.

An yarda da cewa laifin tashin hankali ya wanzu a cikin Dokar al'ada ta duniya. Ma'anar da yanayin yin amfani da iko akan wannan laifin da Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta duniya ta karɓa a cikin 2010 a Taron Binciken Kampala ta jihohin da ke cikin kotun. Ana aikata laifi ne bisa ga dokar doka ta wasu ƙasashe, kuma ana iya gurfanar da shi a ƙarƙashin ikon duniya.

Rikicin yana daya daga cikin manyan laifuka a cikin Dokar aikata laifuka ta kasa da kasa, tare da kisan kare dangi, laifuka akan bil'adama, da Laifukan yaki. A shekara ta 1946, Kotun Sojoji ta Duniya ta yanke hukuncin cewa tashin hankali shine "babban laifi na kasa da kasa" saboda "ya ƙunshi a cikin kansa mugunta da aka tara na duka". Halin da aka saba da shi shi shi ne cewa tashin hankali laifi ne ga jihar da aka kai hari, amma kuma ana iya la'akari da shi laifi ne ga mutanen da aka kashe ko suka cutar da su sakamakon yaki.

Tarihi

Ka'idar yaki kawai

Yaƙi ya kasance wani ɓangare na kwarewar ɗan adam tun farkon tarihin ɗan adam. Laifin tashin hankali ya samo asali ne daga kwanan nan, wanda ya fara ne bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II, amma ra'ayin tashin hankali a matsayin mummunar cin zarafin ɗabi'a da keta tsarin kasa da kasa ya samo asali sosai. Ka'idar yaki kawai, a cikin ƙarni, ta yi la'akari da cewa yaƙin da aka yi don haɓaka ƙasa ba daidai ba ne, kuma ana yaƙe-yaƙe ne kawai don kare kai, ko don kare abokan tarayya, daga irin wannan tashin hankali. Tushen falsafa don aikata laifuka na tashin hankali ya samo asali ne daga masanin ilimin karni na sha takwas Emer de Vattel, kodayake Vattel bai yi la'akari da gwaji na yau da kullun don tashin hankali ba, kawai kisan masu laifi. Masu ilimin yaki na zamani na zamani sun yi tunanin tashin hankali a matsayin kuskuren farko da aka yi wa wata ƙasa, maimakon yajin aikin soja na farko. Hugo Grotius, wanda sau da yawa ake la'akari da shi wanda ya kafa dokar kasa da kasa, ya ga babban kuskure a cikin tashin hankali a keta haƙƙin mutum. A cikin 1815, an haramta Napoleon "a matsayin Maƙiya da Mai Rikici na kwanciyar hankali na Duniya" a cikin abin da aka ɗauka "Bayanin ka'idojin Dokar Al'ummai".

Yaƙin Duniya na I da tsakanin yaƙe-yaƙe

Rashin rayuka da lahani na yaki an ambaci su a matsayin dalilin haramtacciyar tashin hankali. Hoton: hoton sama na rushewar Vaux, Faransa, 1918.

Bayan Yaƙin Duniya na I, Ƙasar Ingila da Faransa sun ba da shawarar gurfanar da Kaiser Wilhelm II don tashin hankali. A cikin jawabin da ya yi a ranar 11 ga Nuwamba 1918, Firayim Ministan Burtaniya David Lloyd George ya ambaci asarar "rayuwar miliyoyin samari mafi kyau a Turai" da kuma "furin kai kan dokar kasa da kasa wacce ke da hannu a mamaye yankin wata ƙasa mai zaman kanta ba tare da yardarta ba" a matsayin laifi wanda ya kamata a dauki wani alhakin. Shirin da aka gabatar ya sadu da rashin amincewa daga bangaren shari'a kuma Amurka ta ki amincewa da shi.

Maimakon haka, Ƙungiyar Al'ummai tana da ikon kiyaye zaman lafiya na duniya. An gabatar da yarjejeniyar tsakanin yaƙe-yaƙe da ke aikata laifuka amma ba a tabbatar da su ba, kuma babu ci gaba zuwa ga aikata laifukan tashin hankali. Yaƙin ya zama ya zama ya ci gaba da ba a yarda da shi ba amma ba a dauke shi ba bisa ka'ida ba a ƙarƙashin Dokar al'ada ta duniya. Kodayake Yarjejeniyar Kellogg-Briand ta 1928 ba ta ƙunshi wani shawara cewa yaƙi laifi ne, an ambaci shi a matsayin misali ga gurfanar da shugabannin Jamus da Japan don yin yaƙe-yaƙe bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II.

Yaƙin Duniya na II

Hare-hare a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu ya haifar da sabon tunani game da tashin hankali. Masanin laifuka na Soviet Aron Naumovich Trainin ya haɓaka ra'ayoyin da aka yi amfani da su don aikata laifuka a yaƙi mai tsanani, kodayake bai ja hankalin duniya ba har zuwa 1943. Sauran da ke yin irin wannan shawarwari sun hada da Hersch Lauterpacht, Marcel de Baer, da Bohuslav Ečer. Trainin ya yi jayayya cewa kodayake alhakin kayan aiki da siyasa ya kasance tare da jihar, alhakin aikata laifuka na yaki mai tsanani an ba da shi ga mutanen da ke nuna iko. Ya zargi Adolf Hitler, majalisarsa, jami'an gwamnati, Jam'iyyar Nazi da masana'antun Jamus da ayyukan tashin hankali a kan Tarayyar Soviet, wanda ya bayyana a matsayin "mafi munanan laifi". gwamnatocin da ke gudun hijira da aka wakilta a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta London sun yi kira ga kotun kasa da kasa da ke da iko kan ayyukan tashin hankali. A cikin 1944, Trainin ya ba da shawarar cewa za a iya magance shugabannin Nazi ko dai tare da kotun ko kuma ta hanyar "hukuncin siyasa na jihohin dimokuradiyya masu nasara". A wannan lokacin, Tarayyar Soviet har yanzu tana ganin kanta a matsayin mai saukin kamuwa da tashin hankali na kasa da kasa, wanda ya haifar da sha'awar aikata laifuka.

Kodayake babu wani abu da yawa a hanyar dokar aikata laifuka ta duniya don aiki daga, Ma'aikatar Yakin Amurka ta haɗa tsarin shari'a don gwajin Nuremberg a cikin watanni goma. Wasu fitattun masu tsara manufofi na Amurka sun yi tunanin cewa kisa ba tare da shari'a ba ya lalata ka'idodin Allies kuma cewa shari'o'i na al'ada a gaban kotun kasa da kasa za su ba da halatta. A taron London na shekara ta 1945, 'yan kawance masu nasara sun yanke shawarar aikata laifuka da kuma gwada abokan gaba da suka ci nasara kodayake a taron an gabatar da shakku cewa yaƙe-yaƙe na tashin hankali ba bisa ka'ida ba ne a karkashin dokar al'ada. Dukkanin Tarayyar Soviet, wacce ta mamaye kasashe na Baltic da Poland bisa ga ka'idojin sirri na Yarjejeniyar Jamus da Soviet, da kasashen Yamma, wadanda suka shirya mamaye Norway, sun san cewa ana iya zarginsu da ayyukan tashin hankali don haka sun iyakance ma'anar laifuka game da zaman lafiya ga ayyukan abokan gaba da suka ci nasara a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu.

Shari'ar shari'a

Kusan dukkanin shari'o'in laifuka game da zaman lafiya sun faru ne tsakanin Nuwamba 1945 da Nuwamba 1948, ko da yake a wasu lokuta kamar Romania sun kai ga 1949; babu wanda aka gurfanar da shi saboda tashin hankali kafin ko tun daga lokacin. Kotuna sun fuskanci ƙalubalen, na farko na tabbatar da aikata laifuka na ayyukan tashin hankali, kuma na biyu a ɗaure irin waɗannan ayyukan ga mutane.

Gwaje-gwaje na alhakin yaki a Finland

  A cikin 1939, Tarayyar Soviet ta mamaye Finland, wanda ya haifar da yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya a cikin sharuddan da ba su dace ba a cikin 1940. A lokacin Ci gaba da Yaƙi, Finland ta sami nasarar sake dawo da yankinta da aka ba ta kuma ta ci gaba zuwa yankunan Tarayyar Soviet waɗanda ba su taɓa kasancewa cikin Finland ba. A cikin 1944, yaƙin ya juya wa Finland, wanda ya sanya hannu kan armistice a kan har ma da mafi ƙarancin yanayi. Hukumar Kula da Allied a Finland ta dage kan gudanar da gwaji don tashin hankali a lokacin yakin na biyu, saboda armistice ya buƙaci hadin kan Finland wajen gwada wadanda ake zargi da laifukan yaki. Dokar da ta kafa kotun ta kafa alhakin aikata laifuka ga waɗanda "a wata hanya mai mahimmanci suka ba da gudummawa ga shiga Finland a cikin yaki... ko hana zaman lafiya" tsakanin 1941 da 1944. An gwada mutane takwas; shugaban lokacin yaƙi Risto Ryti, mambobi shida na majalisar ministoci, da jakadan Finland a Jamus, amma ba janar ba. Ba kamar sauran ƙayyadaddun laifukan da suka shafi zaman lafiya ba, shari'ar Finland ta zargi waɗanda suka shiga gwamnati bayan 1941 kuma suka ƙi tayin zaman lafiya daga Tarayyar Soviet. Da farko an yanke wa bakwai hukunci kuma an wanke jakadan; an sake fasalin hukuncin don yanke wa duk wadanda ake tuhuma hukunci mai tsanani, har zuwa shekaru goma a kurkuku tare da aiki tuƙuru. An bi da wadanda aka yanke musu hukunci a hankali a kurkuku kuma an sake su duka a shekara ta 1949.

Kotun Soja ta Duniya

Babban mai gabatar da kara Robert H. Jackson (a kan fadar) (a kan farfajiyar)

Yarjejeniyar Nuremberg ta bayyana laifuka game da zaman lafiya kamar yaddaSamfuri:International Criminal LawKotun Sojojin Duniya ta amince da masu gabatar da kara cewa tashin hankali shine mafi girman zargi a kan wanda ake tuhuma, yana mai cewa a cikin hukunce-hukuncensa cewa saboda yaki gabaɗaya mugunta ne, "Don fara yakin tashin hankali, sabili da haka, ba kawai laifi ne na kasa da kasa ba; babban laifi ne na duniya wanda ya bambanta da sauran laifukan yaƙi saboda yana dauke da mugunta da aka tara a cikin duka. " Wadannan kalmomi, da aka rubuta a cikin wata wasika ta alƙalin Burtaniya Robert Wright, an nakalto su sosai. Hukuncin ya gano cewa akwai wani makirci da aka shirya don aikata laifuka game da zaman lafiya, wanda burinsa shine "rugujewar tsarin Turai kamar yadda ya wanzu tun Yarjejeniyar Versailles" da kuma "halitta Babbar Jamus bayan iyakokin 1914".

An gano shirin tashin hankali ne daga littafin Hitler na 1925 Mein Kampf da takamaiman tarurruka na sirri da aka gudanar a ranar 5 ga Nuwamba 1937, 23 ga Mayu 1939, 22 ga Agusta 1939, da 23 ga Nuwamba 1939. Kotun ta yi la'akari da shirin ayyukan tashin hankali a kan Austria da Czechoslovakia, da kuma yaƙe-yaƙe na tashin hankali a gaban Poland, Denmark da Norway, Belgium, Netherlands da Luxembourg, Yugoslavia, Girka, da Tarayyar Soviet, da kuma sanar da yaki a kan Amurka da kuma karfafawa na Japan da Amurka. Kodayake kotun ba ta yanke hukunci kan ayyukan tashin hankali ba tare da yaƙi ba, ba ta hana aikata laifuka na tashin hankali don ayyukan da ba su da yawa fiye da Yaƙin Duniya na II.

Dukkanin wadanda ake tuhuma 22 an tuhume su da laifuka game da zaman lafiya, kuma an yanke musu hukunci: Hermann Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Rosenberg, Wilhelm Frick, Walther Funk, Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Alfred Jodl, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, da Konstantin von Neurath. Hukuncin Nuremberg ya kasance mai ban sha'awa, ya kafa dokar aikata laifuka ta kasa da kasa da kuma kin amincewa da wannan aikin koyarwar jihar ya ba da kariya ga irin waɗannan manyan laifuka. An gurfanar da wadanda ake tuhuma har ma da ayyukan da suka kasance bisa doka a karkashin dokar cikin gida. Ra'ayi game da gwajin Nuremberg ya rabu. Duk da yake wasu sun sanar da shi a matsayin ci gaba a cikin dokar kasa da kasa, laifuka game da zaman lafiya musamman suna ƙarƙashin zargi a matsayin dokar da ta gabata.

Kotun Soja ta Nuremberg

daga]-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"ill","href":"./Template:Ill"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Theodor von Hornbostel"},"2":{"wt":"de"}},"i":0}}]}' data-mw-i18n='{"title":{"lang":"x-page","key":"red-link-title","params":["Theodor von Hornbostel"]}}' data-ve-no-generated-contents="true" href="./Theodor_von_Hornbostel?action=edit&redlink=1" id="mwAaM" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Theodor von Hornbostel" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:LocalizedAttrs">Theodor von Hornbostel [de] ya ba da shaida ga masu gabatar da kara a lokacin shari'ar Ma'aikatar, yana ba da shaida game da tashin hankali

Kotun Sojojin Nuremberg sun dogara ne akan Dokar No. 10, wanda ya bayyana tashin hankali kamar haka:

planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.

Babban shari'ar Nuremberg kawai ta yi la'akari da makircin aikata laifuka game da zaman lafiya a kan Austria da Czechoslovakia, inda ta yanke hukuncin cewa waɗannan mamayewar da ba su da jini ba yaƙe-yaƙe ne na tashin hankali. Kalmomin da suka bambanta da laifin a cikin Dokar No. 10 sun ba da damar a ƙidaya mamayewar waɗannan ƙasashe a matsayin manyan laifuka game da zaman lafiya, kuma a ƙarshe an yanke wa masu tuhuma biyu hukunci saboda rawar da suka taka a cikin waɗannan mamayewar. Babban mai gabatar da kara Telford Taylor ya kasance mai shakku game da gurfanar da tashin hankali, amma a ƙarshe ya zargi wadanda ake tuhuma a cikin hudu daga cikin shari'o'in Nuremberg da suka biyo baya: shari'ar IG Farben, Shari'ar Krupp, shari'a ta Babban Kwamandan, da shari'ar Ma'aikatar. Daga cikin wadanda ake tuhuma 66 da ake tuhuma da tashin hankali, an yanke wa uku kawai hukunci (Hans Lammers, Wilhelm Keppler, da Paul Koerner), dukansu a lokacin shari'ar Ma'aikatar. Duk da haka, gwaje-gwajen sun taimaka wajen bayyana girman tashin hankali a matsayin laifi, suna bayyana abubuwan da suka dace guda huɗu a matsayin "aikin tashin hankali na jihar; isasshen iko don gamsar da bukatun jagoranci; shiga cikin tsarawa, shirya, farawa ko yin aiki na tashin hankali; da kuma mens rea".

Kotun Soja ta Duniya don Gabas ta Tsakiya

Initiation of invasions of other countries and wars of aggression in violation of international laws and treaties, including but not limited to planning, preparation, initiation or waging a war of aggression, or a war of violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.

Yarjejeniyar Tokyo ta bayyana laifuka game da zaman lafiya kamar yadda

the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a declared or undeclared war of aggression, or a war in violation of international law, treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.

Zargin tashin hankali ya kasance tsakiya ga shari'ar; 36 daga cikin 55 laifuka sun kasance don laifuka game da zaman lafiya. Hukuncin da aka yi a cikin Shari'ar Tokyo ya ninka sau uku fiye da hukuncin Nuremberg, yana mai da shi tushen doka mai mahimmanci game da tashin hankali. Yawancin alƙalai sun bi fassarar Nuremberg na laifuka game da zaman lafiya, amma alƙalai biyu - Radhabinod Pal daga Indiya da Bert Röling na Netherlands - sun ƙi amincewa da gurfanar da laifuka akan zaman lafiya. Masu gabatar da kara sun yi amfani da makirci don gabatar da karin zarge-zarge yayin da aka dauki kowane memba na makirci da alhakin duk sauran da ke aiki a cikin wannan makirci. Dukkanin tuhumar makirci da suka shafi laifuka game da zaman lafiya sun yi zargin cewa makircin ya nemi "tsaron soja, sojan ruwa, siyasa da tattalin arziki na Gabashin Asiya da na Tekun Pacific da Indiya, da kuma dukkan kasashe da tsibirai da ke ciki da iyaka da su" ta hanyar "wag[ing] da aka ayyana ko yaƙe-yaƙe da ba a bayyana ba ko yaƙe na tashin hankali, da yaƙi ko yaƙe a keta dokar kasa da kasa, yarjejeniyoyi, yarjejeniyoyi da kuma tabbaci, a kan kowace ƙasa ko ƙasashe da za su iya tsayayya wannan manufa". Laifin makircin da aka yarda da ita a matsayin wani ɓangare na makirci a matsayin yaƙi na 1945 zuwa yaƙi. –  –

Hukuncin ya taƙaita hauhawar militarism na Japan a cikin shekarun 1930 wanda ya kai ga Taron 11 ga Agusta 1936 wanda aka yanke shawarar manufofin fadadawa. A cikin 1937, Japan ta mamaye China kuma a cikin 1938-1939 ta shirya don yaki da Tarayyar Soviet.

Romania

Yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya ta 1947 tare da Romania ta tilasta wa kasar ta kama kuma ta gurfanar da mutanen da ake zargi da "laifukan yaki da laifukan da suka shafi zaman lafiya da bil'adama". Sakamakon haka, a ranar 18 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1947, Romania ta ba da "Dokar Shari'a da Hukuncin Wadanda ke da Laifukan Yakin ko Laifukan da suka shafi Zaman Lafiya ko Dan Adam". Akalla mambobi 8 na gwamnatin Ion Antonescu a lokacin yaƙi an yanke musu hukunci a 1949 saboda laifuka da suka shafi zaman lafiya, kodayake Kotun Koli ta Romania ta sake farfado da daya daga cikinsu a ranar 26 ga Oktoba 1998. Wani dan kasar Romania da aka yanke masa hukuncin aikata laifuka game da zaman lafiya - Gheron Netta, ministan kudi na karshe na Ion Antonescu (1 ga Afrilu zuwa 23 ga Agusta, 1944) - Kotun Koli ta sake farfadowa a ranar 17 ga Janairun 2000 . –  –

Sauran gwaje-gwaje

Arthur Greiser, shugaban Nazi a Danzig kuma daga baya Gauleiter a yankin Warthegau da aka haɗa daga Poland, kotun Poland ta gwada shi kuma ta yanke masa hukunci a 1946 saboda tashin hankali da sauran tuhume-tuhumen. Masanin tarihi Catherine Epstein ya bayyana cewa shaidar cewa Greiser ya shiga cikin makirci don yin yaƙi mai tsanani ba shi da ƙarfi ko babu shi. A cewar Mark A. Drumbl, mai yiwuwa ba za a same shi ba bisa ga ma'anar Dokar Roma game da tashin hankali.

A shekara ta 1946, kotun kasar Sin ta yi wa tsohon janar na Japan Takashi Sakai shari'a saboda tashin hankali, an yanke masa hukunci, kuma an kashe shi. Sakai ya bayyana cewa yana da alhakin aiwatar da manufofi da wasu suka tsara, wanda zai sanya shi a waje da ma'anar Dokar Roma game da tashin hankali. A cewar lauya Roger S. Clark, mai yiwuwa ba za a same shi da laifuffuka game da zaman lafiya ba idan aka gwada shi a shari'ar Tokyo.

Ci gaba a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya

A ranar 11 ga watan Disamba na shekara ta 1946, Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya zartar da ƙuduri da ke tabbatar da aikata laifuka na "yaƙin tashin hankali" kuma yana bayyana cewa ba kawai tashin hankali na ikon Axis ba ne, amma tashin hankali gabaɗaya. Laifukan da suka shafi zaman lafiya, waɗanda Allies suka tsara a matsayin mafita ta wucin gadi, nan da nan sun ƙare amfaninsu kuma an watsar da su a shekarar 1950. A farkon shekarun 1950, yunkurin tsara laifin tashin hankali a cikin "Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of Mankind" ya tsaya. Bayan shekarun 1940, wasu laifuka da suka shafi dokar kasa da kasa, musamman kisan kare dangi da laifuka a kan bil'adama, sun fi fifiko kan tashin hankali.

Kula da zaman lafiya da kwanciyar hankali na kasa da kasa babban aiki ne na tsarin kasa da kasa, kuma Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta haramta ayyukan tashin hankali a kan wasu jihohi. An yi la'akari da haramtacciyar zalunci a matsayin al'ada a cikin dokar al'ada, ta yadda ya zama wajibi ga jihohin da ba membobin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ba. Mafi mahimmancin tanadi a cikin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya shine Mataki na 2 (4): "Dukan membobin za su guji a cikin dangantakarsu ta duniya daga barazanar ko amfani da karfi a kan mutuncin ƙasa ko 'yancin siyasa na kowace jiha, ko kuma a kowane irin hanyar da ba ta dace da Manufofin Majalisar Dinkinobho ba. " "Dakarda" tana nufin sojoji ko sojoji marasa daidaituwa. Kodayake ba a bayyana a bayyane a cikin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ba, ra'ayi na al'ada shine cewa 'yan wasan kwaikwayo na jihohi ne kawai zasu iya yin tashin hankali. Kodayake kare kai ya bambanta da haramtacciyar karfi, ana kin amincewa da ikirarin kare kai na rigakafi, yayin da ikirarin kariya ta kai ta farko "sun fi dacewa".

A ranar 14 ga watan Disamba na shekara ta 1974, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta Resolution 3314 ta yi bayani dalla-dalla game da haramta amfani da karfi a cikin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkinobho. Kodayake ba doka ba ce, ya rinjayi ma'anar Dokar Roma game da tashin hankali. Resolution 3314 gabaɗaya ya bayyana tashin hankali a matsayin "amfani da makamai ta wata Jiha a kan ikon mallaka, amincin yanki ko 'yancin siyasa na wata Jiha, ko kuma a kowane irin hanyar da bai dace da Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ba, kamar yadda aka tsara a cikin wannan Ma'anar". Ya haɗa da jerin ayyukan tashin hankali da ba su cika ba kuma ya tabbatar da cewa wata jiha ce ke aikata tashin hankali a kan wata, ban da wadanda ba na jiha ba. Har ila yau, ƙudurin yana nufin "laifukan tashin hankali" kuma ya bayyana a fili cewa akwai alhakin aikata laifuka na mutum don tashin hankali.

Dokar al'ada

Masana shari'ar aikata laifuka ta kasa da kasa sun yarda da cewa laifin tashin hankali wani bangare ne na dokar al'ada ta kasa da Kasa, amma babu wata yarjejeniya game da ainihin girman tashin hankali da aka rufe a cikin dokar al'adu. Wannan ƙofar mai yiwuwa tana da girma, don rarrabe cin zarafin aikata laifuka daga wasu ayyukan cin zarafi. A cewar Antonio Cassese, aikata laifuka na al'ada na tashin hankali ya rufe "shirye-shiryen, ko shirya, ko shiryawa, ko shiga cikin amfani da karfi na farko da wata Jiha ta yi amfani da shi a kan amincin yanki da 'yancin siyasa na wata Jiha a saba wa Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, idan ayyukan tashin hankali da suka shafi suna da manyan sakamako masu tsanani". Gerhard Werle da Florian Jessberger suna jayayya cewa yaƙe-yaƙe na tashin hankali an aikata su ne a ƙarƙashin dokar al'ada, amma ba ayyukan tashin hankali da ba su da yaƙi. Sauran suna jayayya game da ra'ayi mai zurfi, gami da sauran ayyukan tashin hankali waɗanda ke da sakamako mai zurfi da tsanani.

Harin yana buƙatar duka mens rea da actus reus. Dangane da mens rea, lauyan Isra'ila Yoram Dinstein ya yi jayayya cewa wasu manyan jami'an gwamnati ne kawai za su iya yin tashin hankali wadanda suka yanke shawarar yin yaƙi mai tsanani, da kuma duk wani wanda ya san a gaba cewa za a yi amfani da tsare-tsaren su don yin yaƙi. Sauran lauyoyi suna buƙatar niyya ta musamman, ta hanyar neman "kasancewa da samun nasara a yankin, ko samun fa'idodi na tattalin arziki, ko tsoma baki cikin al'amuran cikin gida" na jihar da aka yi wa hari.

Dokar ƙasa

Bayan 1948, jihohi da yawa sun zartar da dokar doka da ke aikata laifuka, tare da bambance-bambance daban-daban a cikin halayyar da aka haramta. Dinstein ya yi jayayya cewa gurfanar da kasa don tashin hankali ba a so kamar yadda "yanayin laifuka game da zaman lafiya shine cewa babu wani tsari na cikin gida da zai iya kawar da shakku game da rashin son kai na alƙalai. " Za'a iya gwada tashin hankali a ƙarƙashin ikon duniya.

Dokar Roma

A shekara ta 1998, a taron Roma wanda ya amince da Dokar Roma ta Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta duniya ("The Statute"), an haɗa laifin a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin laifuka a cikin ikon Kotun (Mataki na 5.1) kuma a kan abin da duk wata Jiha da ta zama jam'iyya ga Dokar ta yarda da ikon Kotun. Wadanda suka halarci taron na Roma ba za su iya yarda da ma'anar laifin ba ko kuma kan ƙarin sharuɗɗa don aiwatar da ikon Kotun; Dokar ba ta ba da damar Kotun ta yi amfani da irin wannan iko har sai an warware waɗannan batutuwan da suka fi dacewa (Mataki na 5.2). A Taron Bincike na 2010 ("Taron"), Jam'iyyun Jihohi sun amince da yarjejeniya don karɓar ƙudurin RC / Res.6 karɓar gyare-gyare ga Dokar ƙara ma'anar laifin da kuma yanayin yin amfani da iko akan wannan laifin. Harin yana daya daga cikin manyan laifuka a cikin Dokar aikata laifuka ta kasa da kasa, tare da kisan kare dangi, laifuka akan bil'adama, da Laifukan yaki.

Ma'anar tashin hankali

A karkashin Dokar Roma, kamar yadda aka yi gyare-gyare a Taron Binciken Kampala na 2010, laifin tashin hankali "yana nufin shiryawa, shiri, farawa ko kisa, ta mutum da ke cikin matsayi yadda ya kamata don yin iko ko jagorantar aikin siyasa ko soja na Jiha, na aikin tashin hankali wanda, ta hanyar halinsa, nauyi da sikelin, ya zama keta Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. " Shari'ar aikata laifuka ta cin zarafin ta iyakance ga ayyukan mafi tsanani na cin zarafin jihar; cin zarafin da ba na jihar ba, wani ra'ayi da ya fi rikitarwa, an cire shi. Dokar Roma ta kuma ƙuntata laifin tashin hankali ga shugabannin wata jiha waɗanda ke da ikon ƙayyade manufofin wata jiha, ban da manyan jami'ai ko janar-janar waɗanda ke gudanar da yaƙin tashin hankali.

Don haka, laifin tashin hankali ya bambanta da aikin tashin hankali, wanda aka bayyana a cikin Dokar Roma ta hanyar gyare-gyare na Taron Bincike na Kampala na 2010 kamar haka:   Jerin ayyukan da aka haramta ya cika.

Ikon iko

Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta kasa da kasa na iya gurfanar da wani tashin hankali ne kawai idan jihar da ke cin zarafin ta amince da ikonta kan laifin tashin hankali, ko kuma bin turawa daga Majalisar Tsaro. Masu sukar suna jayayya cewa ICC bai kamata ta gurfanar da tashin hankali ba; wani shahararren zargi shi ne cewa yaƙin da ya dace ƙuduri ne na siyasa, kuma shigar kotun a cikin irin wannan al'amari na iya lalata halayenta. Shari'ar da ICC ta yi ba za ta yiwu ba saboda ƙarancin laifin da iyakantaccen iko.

Ikon ICC game da tashin hankali ya kunna a ranar 17 ga Yulin 2018 bayan yanke shawara da kashi biyu bisa uku na jam'iyyun jihohi. Ya zuwa 17 Maris 2022, Jam'iyyun Jiha 43 sun tabbatar ko kuma sun yarda da gyare-gyare kan laifin cin zarafin Dokar Roma.

Jiha da 'yancin ɗan adam hanyoyin da suka shafi tashin hankali

Yaƙe-yaƙe na tashin hankali sun haɗa da "kisan da ba daidai ba ne wanda in ba haka ba ba ba ne mai laifi a duka matakan kasa da kasa: kisan mayakan da fararen hula masu daidaituwa ta hanyar amfani da karfi na kasa da kasa ba bisa ka'ida ba". Halin da aka saba da shi shi shine cewa tashin hankali laifi ne ga jihar da aka kai hari. Ma'anar Dokar Roma game da tashin hankali ba ta buƙatar lahani ga mutane ba, amma ba a gurfanar da mamayewar da ba ta da jini a ƙasashen Czech a 1939 a Nuremberg. Wasu manyan keta ikon mallakar jihar (kamar tsangwama daga zaben kasashen waje da ke da niyyar Canjin mulkin) ba a aikata laifuka ba a matsayin tashin hankali, yayin da ƙananan keta doka da ta shafi sojojin za a iya aikata laifukan. Yana da muhawara ko haramta tashin hankali yana kare ikon mallakar jihar ko kewaye da shi. Wasu suna ganin tashin hankali a matsayin laifi da farko a kan mutanen da aka kashe ko aka cutar da su sakamakon yaki.

Masanin falsafa Larry May ya ci gaba da cewa mummunan tashin hankali, wanda ke haifar da asarar rai, ana iya sanya shi a ƙarƙashin rukunin laifuka akan bil'adama. Sabanin haka, ba za a iya tabbatar da yaki ba ta hanyar karamin keta amincin yankin, kuma keta amincin yanki wanda bai shafi manyan keta haƙƙin ɗan adam ba za a ba da izini a matsayin aikata laifi na tashin hankali ba. Wannan ra'ayi na tashin hankali na iya ba da damar shiga tsakani na jin kai.

Ra'ayi na gargajiya shine cewa masu yanke shawara ne kawai za a iya ɗaukar alhakin aikata laifuka, maimakon ƙananan ma'aikatan soja da talakawa. A cikin 'yan kwanakin nan, wasu sun yi la'akari da ko sojoji da suka shiga cikin yakin tashin hankali sun shiga cikin ɗabi'a ko ya kamata su shiga cikin alhakin shari'a. Sojoji suna da haƙƙi da alhakin ƙin aikata laifukan yaƙi, amma gabaɗaya ba a yarda da haƙƙin ƙin yin yaƙi ba bisa ka'ida ba. Masanin shari'a na kasa da kasa Tom Dannenbaum ya yi jayayya cewa sojoji ya kamata su sami damar kada su yi yaƙi a yaƙe-yaƙe ba bisa ka'ida ba, kuma waɗanda suka ƙi yin hakan ya kamata a gane su a matsayin 'yan gudun hijira.

Ɗaya daga cikin batutuwan da ake jayayya shi ne ko yin yaƙi mai tsanani ya saba wa haƙƙin rayuwa da aka tabbatar a cikin Dokar haƙƙin ɗan adam ta duniya. A cikin 2019, Kwamitin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya yanke hukuncin cewa "Jam'iyyun da ke cikin ayyukan tashin hankali kamar yadda aka bayyana a cikin dokar kasa da kasa, wanda ya haifar da hana rayuwa, ya keta ipso facto labarin 6 ['yancin rayuwa] na" Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Bil'adama da Siyasa.

Dubi kuma

• Ranar Kasa da Kasa ta Yara marasa laifi Wadanda aka azabtar da su
• Kotun kasa da kasa ta musamman don laifin tashin hankali (Rasha mamaye Ukraine)

Manazarta

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Ƙarin karantawa

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• Jia, Bing Bing (2015). "The Crime of Aggression as Custom and the Mechanisms for Determining Acts of Aggression". American Journal of International Law. 109 (3): 569–582. doi:10.5305/amerjintelaw.109.3.0569. S2CID 147754466.
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Haɗin waje

• Resolution RC / Res.6 - Gyara ga Dokar Roma ta Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta duniya kan laifin tashin hankali
• Taron Bincike - Shafin hukuma na Majalisar Jihohi
• Laifin tashin hankali - Shafin hukuma na Majalisar Jihohi
• Tarin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UTC) - Matsayi na Amincewa, Ratification 10 .a Gyara zuwa Mataki na 8 na Dokar Roma ta Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta duniya An adana 13 Disamba 2014 a Wayback Machine 10 .b Gyara kan laifin cin zarafin Roma Dokar Kotun hukuma ta Duniya. An adana shi 15 Yuni 2013 a Wayback Machine
  • 10 .a Amendment to article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court An adana shi
  • 10 .b Gyara kan laifin cin zarafi ga Dokar Roma ta Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta duniya. Archived 2013-06-15 at the Wayback Machine An adana shi