Linguist

Linguistics shine binciken kimiyya na harshe.[1][2][3] Takamaiman fannoni na bayanin harshe da bincike sune haɗin kai (dokokin da ke kula da tsarin kalmomi), semantics (ma'ana), morphology (tsarin kalmomi), phonetics (sautunan magana da kuma kwatankwacin ayyukan hannu a cikin yarukan kurame), phonology (tsaren sauti na wani harshe, da tsarin kama da Harsunan kurame), da pragmatics (yadda mahallin amfani ke taimakawa ga ma'ana).[4] Subdisciplines irin su biolinguistics (bincike na masu canji na halitta da juyin halitta na harshe) da psycholinguistics ("bincike na abubuwan da ke cikin ilimin mutum) suna haɗawa da yawancin waɗannan rarrabuwa.[5]Wadannan rassa daban-daban da ƙananan fannoni sun ƙunshi aikace-aikace na ka'idoji da na amfani.[1] Ilimin Ilimin harshe yana damuwa da bayyana yanayin duniya da na asali na harshe da haɓaka tsarin gaba ɗaya don bayyana shi. Ilimin harshe na aikace-aikace yana neman amfani da binciken binciken kimiyya na harshe don dalilai masu amfani, kamar haɓaka hanyoyin inganta ilimin harshe da karatu da rubutu. Ilimin Ilimin lissafi shine aikace-aikacen lissafi don tsara abubuwan da suka faru da warware matsaloli a cikin ilimin harshe na gaba ɗaya da ilimin harshe. Ilimin harshe na lissafi wani bangare ne na hadin gwiwa wanda ke da alaƙa da ƙirar ƙididdiga Harshe na halitta, da kuma nazarin hanyoyin ƙididdiga masu dacewa ga tambayoyin harshe.Ana iya nazarin siffofin harshe ta hanyar ra'ayoyi daban-daban: a lokaci guda (ta hanyar bayyana tsarin harshe a wani takamaiman lokaci) ko a lokaci guda, a cikin tarihin ci gaban harshe a cikin wani lokaci), a cikin Harsuna ɗaya ko a cikin harshe da yawa, tsakanin yara ko tsakanin manya, dangane da yadda ake koya ko samun shi, a matsayin abubuwa masu banƙyama ko a matsayin tsarin fahimta, ta hanyar rubuce-rubuce ko ta hanyar elicitation na baki, kuma a ƙarshe ta hanyar tattara bayanai na inji ko aikin gona.[1]

Manyan fannoni

Tarihin harshe shine nazarin yadda harshe ke canzawa a cikin tarihi, musamman game da takamaiman harshe ko rukuni na harsuna. Halin Yamma Turai a cikin ilimin harshe na tarihi ya samo asali ne daga ƙarshen karni na 18, lokacin da horo ya fito ne daga ilimin harshe, nazarin matani na dā da al'adun baki.[1]Tarihin harshe ya fito ne a matsayin daya daga cikin 'yan fannoni na farko a fagen, kuma an fi yin sa a ƙarshen karni na 19.[1] Duk da sauyawa a mayar da hankali a cikin karni na 20 zuwa ga tsari da ƙamus mai mahimmanci, wanda ke nazarin kaddarorin duniya na harshe, binciken tarihi a yau har yanzu ya kasance muhimmiyar filin binciken harshe. Ƙananan fannoni na horo sun haɗa da Canjin harshe da ƙamus.Tarihin ilimin harshe yana nazarin canjin harshe ko dai a cikin lokaci (ta hanyar kwatanta lokutan lokaci daban-daban a baya da yanzu) ko kuma a cikin hanyar daidaitawa (ta hanyar lura da ci gaba tsakanin bambance-bambance daban-daban da ke cikin matakin harshe na yanzu). [1]At first, historical linguistics was the cornerstone of comparative linguistics, which involves the study of the relationship between different languages.[1] At that time, scholars of historical linguistics were only[2] concerned with creating different categories of language families, and reconstructing prehistoric proto-languages by using both the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction. Internal reconstruction is the method by which an element that contains a certain meaning is re-used in different contexts or environments where there is a variation in either sound or analogy.[3][1] Dalilin wannan shine don bayyana sanannun Harsunan Indo-Turai, da yawa daga cikinsu suna da cikakkun bayanai da tarihin rubuce-rubuce. Masana ilimin harshe na tarihi sun kuma yi nazarin Harsunan Uralic, wani dangin harsunan Turai wanda kaɗan ne kawai aka rubuta a lokacin. Bayan haka, akwai kuma aiki mai mahimmanci a kan corpora na wasu harsuna, kamar Harsunan Austronesian da iyalan yaren 'yan asalin Amurka.A cikin aikin tarihi, ka'idar daidaito gabaɗaya ita ce ainihin ra'ayi na aiki, wani lokaci kuma a bayyane yake.[1] William Dwight Whitney ne ya bayyana ka'idar da wuri, wanda ya yi la'akari da ita mai mahimmanci, "dole ne", na ilimin harshe na tarihi don "duba neman wannan ka'idar aiki kuma a farkon wannan tarihin [harshe]".[2]The above approach of comparativism in linguistics is now, however, only a small part of the much broader discipline called historical linguistics. The comparative study of specific Indo-European languages is considered a highly specialized field today, while comparative research is carried out over the subsequent internal developments in a language: in particular, over the development of modern standard varieties of languages, and over the development of a language from its standardized form to its varieties. [ana buƙatar hujja]For instance, some scholars also tried to establish super-families, linking, for example, Indo-European, Uralic, and other language families to a hypothetical Nostratic language group.[1]  These attempts are still not widely accepted as credible methods. A limit of around 10,000 years is often assumed for the functional purpose of conducting research.[2] It is also hard to date various proto-languages. Even though several methods are available, these languages can be dated only approximately.[3]A cikin ilimin harshe na zamani, muna nazarin yadda harsuna ke canzawa a tsawon lokaci, muna mai da hankali kan dangantakar da ke tsakanin yaruka a cikin takamaiman lokaci. Wannan ya haɗa da nazarin canjin morphological, syntactical, da phonetic. Hakanan ana bincika alaƙa tsakanin yaruka a baya da yanzu.[1]A cikin karni na 18, amfani da farko na hanyar kwatanta ta William Jones ya haifar da hauhawar ilimin harshe.[1] Bloomfield ya danganta "babban aikin kimiyya na farko na duniya" ga Jacob Grimm, wanda ya rubuta Deutsche Grammatik . [2] Ba da daɗewa ba wasu marubutan suka biyo baya suna rubuta irin wannan nazarin kwatankwacin a kan wasu kungiyoyin harsuna na Turai. Nazarin harshe ya fadada daga Indo-Turai zuwa harshe gabaɗaya ta hanyar Wilhelm von Humboldt, wanda Bloomfield ya tabbatar da cewa: [2]An sami canjin mayar da hankali daga tarihin tarihi da kwatankwacin harsuna zuwa bincike na lokaci-lokaci a farkon karni na 20. Leonard Bloomfield, Louis Hjelmslev; da Zellig Harris ne suka inganta nazarin tsarin wanda kuma ya haɓaka hanyoyin nazarin magana. Ƙungiyar harshe ta Prague da André Martinet ne suka haɓaka bincike na aiki. Kamar yadda na'urorin rikodin sauti suka zama ruwan dare a cikin shekarun 1960, an yi rikodin yaren kuma an adana su, kuma hanyar sauti-harshe ta ba da mafita ta fasaha ga koyon harshe na waje. Shekaru na 1960 sun kuma ga sabon tasowa na ilimin harshe na kwatankwacin: nazarin harshe na duniya a cikin nau'ikan harshe. Zuwa ƙarshen ƙarni filin ilimin harshe ya rabu zuwa wasu wuraren sha'awa tare da zuwan fasahar harshe daSociolinguistics shine nazarin yadda harshe ke tsarawa ta hanyar zamantakewa. Wannan sub-discipline yana mai da hankali kan tsarin haɗin kai na ilimin harshe, kuma yana kallon yadda harshe gabaɗaya, ko saitin harsuna, ke nuna bambancin da iri-iri a wani lokaci. Nazarin bambancin harshe da nau'ikan harshe daban-daban ta hanyar yaruka, rajista, da idiolects za a iya magance su ta hanyar nazarin salon, da kuma ta hanyar nazarin magana. Masana ilimin harshe suna binciken salon da magana a cikin harshe, da kuma abubuwan da ke tsakanin harshe da al'umma.Nazarin harshe na ci gaba shine nazarin ci gaban ikon harshe a cikin mutane, musamman samun harshe a ƙuruciya. Wasu daga cikin tambayoyin da ilimin harshe na ci gaba ke dubawa shine yadda yara ke samun harsuna daban-daban, yadda manya zasu iya samun harshe na biyu, da kuma abin da tsarin samun harshe yake.[1]Neurolinguistics shine nazarin tsarin da ke cikin kwakwalwar mutum wanda ke haifar da harshe da sadarwa. Masu bincike suna zuwa fagen daga bangarori daban-daban, suna kawo dabarun gwaji iri-iri da kuma ra'ayoyi daban-daban. Yawancin aiki a cikin neurolinguistics ana sanar da su ta hanyar samfuran a cikin psycholinguistics da ilimin harshe na ka'idoji, kuma ana mai da hankali kan binciken yadda kwakwalwa zata iya aiwatar da matakai da ka'idojin da ilimin harsuna ke ba da shawara sun zama dole wajen samarwa da fahimtar harshe. Neurolinguists suna nazarin hanyoyin ilimin lissafi wanda kwakwalwa ke aiwatar da bayanan da suka shafi harshe, da kuma kimanta ka'idodin harshe da na harshe, ta amfani da aphasiology, Hoton kwakwalwa, electrophysiology, da ƙirar kwamfuta. Daga cikin tsarin kwakwalwa da ke cikin hanyoyin neurolinguistics, cerebellum wanda ya ƙunshi mafi yawan neurons yana da babban rawar da ake buƙata don samar da harshe.[1]Masana ilimin harshe sun fi damuwa da ganowa da kuma Bayyanawa nau'o'i da bambance-bambance a cikin wasu harsuna da kuma tsakanin dukkan harsuna. Ilimin harshe mai amfani yana ɗaukar sakamakon waɗannan binciken kuma "yana amfani" da su zuwa wasu yankuna. Ana amfani da bincike na harshe a fannoni kamar ilimin harshe, lexicography, fassara, tsara harshe, wanda ya haɗa da aiwatar da manufofin gwamnati da suka shafi amfani da harshe, da sarrafa harshe na halitta. "Aikace-aikacen harshe" an yi jayayya da wani abu ne na kuskuren.[1] Masana ilimin harshe da aka yi amfani da su a zahiri suna mai da hankali kan yin ma'ana da kuma mafita na injiniya don matsalolin harshe na duniya, kuma ba a zahiri "yi amfani" da ilimin fasaha na yanzu daga ilimin harshe ba. Bugu da ƙari, galibi suna amfani da ilimin fasaha daga tushe da yawa, kamar ilimin zamantakewa (misali, nazarin tattaunawa) da ilimin ɗan adam. (Harshe da aka gina ya dace da ilimin harshe na aikace-aikace.)A yau, ana amfani da kwamfutoci a wurare da yawa na ilimin harshe. Magana ta magana da kuma ganewar magana suna amfani da ilimin phonetic da phonemic don samar da muryoyin murya ga kwamfutoci. Aikace-aikacen ilimin harshe na lissafi a cikin fassarar na'ura, fassarar taimakon kwamfuta, da sarrafa harshe na halitta sune yankunan ilimin harshe da aka yi amfani da su waɗanda suka zo gaba. Tasirin su yana da tasiri a kan ka'idojin haɗin kai da ma'ana, kamar yadda ake tsara ka'idoji da ka'idojojin ma'ana akan ƙuntatawa na kwamfuta.Binciken harshe wani bangare ne na ilimin harshe da gwamnatoci da yawa ke amfani da shi don tabbatar da asalin da ake da'awar mutanen da ke neman mafaka waɗanda ba su da takardun da suka dace don tabbatar da da'awar su.[1] Wannan sau da yawa yana ɗaukar nau'in hira da ma'aikata a sashen shige da fice. Dangane da ƙasar, ana gudanar da wannan hira ko dai a cikin yaren asalin mai neman mafaka ta hanyar mai fassara ko a cikin harshen duniya kamar Turanci.[1] Ostiraliya tana amfani da tsohuwar hanyar, yayin da Jamus ke amfani da ƙarshen; Netherlands tana amfani da ko dai hanyar dangane da harsunan da ke ciki.[1] Rubuce-rubucen faifan hira sannan suna fuskantar nazarin harshe, wanda masu kwangila masu zaman kansu zasu iya yi ko a cikin sashen gwamnati. A cikin wannan bincike, siffofin harshe na mai neman mafaka ana amfani da su ta hanyar masu sharhi don yin ƙuduri game da ƙasar mai magana. Binciken da aka ruwaito game da nazarin harshe na iya taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin shawarar gwamnati game da matsayin 'yan gudun hijira na mai neman mafaka.[1]Takardun harshe sun haɗu da binciken ilimin ɗan adam (a cikin tarihin da al'adun harshe) tare da binciken harshe, don bayyana harsuna da ƙamus. Lexicography ya haɗa da takardun kalmomin da suka samar da ƙamus. Irin wannan takardun ƙamus na harshe daga wani harshe yawanci ana tattara su a cikin ƙamus. Ilimin harshe na lissafi ya damu da ƙididdigar ƙididdiga ko ƙididdigari na ƙididdigat na harshe na halitta daga hangen nesa na lissafi. Masu magana suna amfani da takamaiman ilimin harshe yayin aikin fassarar da fassara, da kuma ilimin harshe - koyar da harshe na biyu ko harshe na waje. Masu tsara manufofi suna aiki tare da gwamnatoci don aiwatar da sabbin tsare-tsare a cikin ilimi da koyarwa waɗanda suka dogara da binciken harshe. [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] [ana buƙatar hujja]Tun lokacin da aka fara ilimin harshe, masana harsuna sun damu da bayyanawa da nazarin Harsunan da ba a rubuta su ba a baya. Farawa tare da Franz Boas a farkon shekarun 1900, wannan ya zama babban abin da aka mayar da hankali ga ilimin harshe na Amurka har zuwa tashiwar ilimin harshe a tsakiyar karni na 20. Wannan mayar da hankali kan takardun harshe ya kasance wani bangare ne saboda damuwa don yin rikodin harsunan da ke ɓacewa cikin sauri na 'yan asalin ƙasar. Halin ethnographic na tsarin Boasian ga bayanin harshe ya taka rawar gani a ci gaban fannoni irin su ilimin zamantakewa, ilimin harshe, da ilimin harshe na harshe, wanda ke binciken alaƙar da ke tsakanin harshe, al'adu, da al'umma. [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] [ana buƙatar hujja]Karfafawa kan bayanin harshe da takardun ya kuma sami shahara a waje da Arewacin Amurka, tare da takarduna na harsunan asali da ke mutuwa da sauri sun zama mai da hankali a wasu shirye-shiryen jami'a a cikin ilimin harshe. Bayanan harshe aiki ne mai zurfi, yawanci yana buƙatar shekaru na aikin gona a cikin yaren da ya shafi, don samar da masanin harshe don rubuta ingantaccen ƙamus. Bugu da ƙari, aikin takardun yana buƙatar masanin harshe ya tattara tarin abubuwa masu yawa a cikin yaren da ake tambaya, wanda ya ƙunshi matani da rikodin, sauti da bidiyo, waɗanda za a iya adana su a cikin tsarin da za a iya samu a cikin wuraren ajiya, kuma a yi amfani da su don ƙarin bincike.[1]Yankin fassarar ya haɗa da fassarar rubuce-rubucen rubuce-daban da magana a duk faɗin kafofin watsa labarai, daga dijital zuwa bugawa da magana. Fassara a zahiri yana nufin canza ma'anar daga wannan harshe zuwa wani. Sau da yawa ƙungiyoyi kamar hukumomin tafiye-tafiye da ofisoshin jakadancin gwamnati suna amfani da masu fassara don sauƙaƙe sadarwa tsakanin masu magana biyu waɗanda ba su san yaren juna ba. Ana kuma amfani da masu fassara don aiki a cikin tsarin lissafin harshe kamar Google Translate, wanda shine shirin atomatik don fassara kalmomi da jimloli tsakanin kowane harshe biyu ko fiye da aka ba su. Ana kuma gudanar da fassarar ta hanyar gidajen wallafe-wallafen, wanda ke canza ayyukan rubutu daga wannan harshe zuwa wani don isa ga masu sauraro daban-daban. Nazarin Binciken bincike kasa da kasa da al'adu yana amfani da fassarar don tattara bayanai masu kama da juna tsakanin al'ummomin harsuna da yawa.[1][2] Masu fassara na ilimi sun ƙware ko kuma sun saba da wasu fannoni daban-daban kamar fasaha, kimiyya, doka, tattalin arziki, da dai sauransu. Masanin harshe na Soviet Leonora Chernyakhovskaya ya haɓaka hanyar bayanai mai tasiri ga fassara, yana ba da shawarar cewa fassarar tana adana abubuwan da ke cikin ma'ana yayin canza maganganun harshe, tsarin da ya zama tushe a cikin karatun fassarar Rasha.[3]Ilimin harshe na asibiti shine aikace-aikacen ka'idar harshe zuwa fagen ilimin harshe. Masana ilimin harshe suna aiki a kan matakan gyara don magance sadarwa da rikice-rikice na haɗiyewaIlimin harshe na lissafi shine nazarin batutuwan harshe ta hanyar da ke da alhakin lissafi, watau, yin la'akari da hankali game da la'akari na lissafi game da ƙayyadaddun algorithmic da ƙwarewar lissafi, don haka za'a iya nuna ka'idodin harshe da aka tsara don nuna wasu kaddarorin lissafi masu kyau da aiwatarwa. Masana ilimin harsuna suna aiki a kan harshen kwamfuta da ci gaban software.[1]Harshe na juyin halitta shine hanyar zamantakewar al'umma don nazarin fitowar ilimin harshe ta hanyar juyin halitta na ɗan adam, da kuma aikace-aikacen ka'idar juyin halitta ga nazarin juyin halitta tsakanin harsuna daban-daban. Har ila yau, nazarin warwatsewar harsuna daban-daban a duk faɗin duniya, ta hanyar ƙungiyoyi tsakanin al'ummomin dā.[1]Ilimin harshe shine aikace-aikacen nazarin harshe ga ilimin shari'a. Binciken bincike yana bincika salon, harshe, amfani da ƙamus, da sauran fasalulluka na harshe da ilimin lissafi da aka yi amfani da su a cikin mahallin doka don samar da shaida a kotunan doka. Masana ilimin harsuna sun kuma yi amfani da kwarewarsu a cikin tsarin shari'o'in aikata laifuka.[1][2]