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Maroons

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Maroons

Maroons zuriyar ’yan Afirka ne a cikin Amurka da tsibiran Tekun Indiya waɗanda suka tsere daga bauta, ta hanyar jirgin sama ko kuma tashe-tashen hankula, suka kafa nasu ƙauyuka. Sau da yawa sukan haɗu da ƴan asali, daga ƙarshe suna rikiɗewa zuwa al'adu daban-daban kamar Garifuna da Mascogos.[1]

Maroons sun yi mamakin ƙarnuka (1893) (Brussels) na Louis Samain.

Asalin kalmar

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Maroon ya shiga cikin harshen Turanci a kusa da 1590s, daga marron sifa na Faransa, ma'ana 'feral' ko 'mai gudun hijira', ita kanta maiyuwa daga kalmar Spanish cimarrón, ma'ana 'daji, marar ɗa'a' ko 'bawan da ya gudu'. [2] [3] A farkon shekarun 1570, Sir Francis Drake ya kai hari kan Espaniya a Panama ta hanyar "Symerons", mai yiwuwa kuskuren rubuta cimarrón. Masanin ilimin harshe Leo Spitzer, a rubuce a cikin mujallar Harshe, ya ce, "Idan akwai dangantaka tsakanin Eng. Maroon, Fr. marron, da Sp. cimarrón, Spain (ko Mutanen Espanya Amurka) mai yiwuwa ya ba da kalmar kai tsaye ga Ingila (ko Ingilishi Amurka)." [4]

A madadin haka, masanin ilimin kimiyya na Cuban José Juan Arrom ya gano asalin kalmar maroon fiye da Cimarron Espanya, wanda aka yi amfani da shi a farko a cikin Hispaniola don komawa ga dabbobin daji, sa'an nan kuma ga bayin Indiya waɗanda suka tsere zuwa tsaunuka, kuma a farkon shekara ta 1530s ga bayin Afirka waɗanda suka yi haka.[5][6][3] Ya ba da shawarar cewa kalmar Spanish ta Amurka ta samo asali daga asalin kalmar Arawakan simarabo, wanda aka fassara a matsayin 'mai gudun hijira', a cikin yaren Arawakan da mutanen Taíno 'yan asalin tsibirin ke magana. [7] [8] [9] [10]

Tarihi

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Zamanin Mulkin Mallaka

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A Sabuwar Duniya, tun farkon 1512, bayi 'yan Afirka sun gudu daga hannun masu kama su na Spain kuma ko dai sun shiga tare da 'yan asalin ƙasa ko kuma suka ci gashin kansu.[11] Lokacin da bayi 'yan gudun hijira da Amerindians suka haɗu suka rayu da kansu, ana kiran su "Maroons". A tsibiran Caribbean, sun kafa ƙungiyoyi kuma a wasu tsibiran, sansanoni masu ɗauke da makamai.[12]

Ƙungiyoyin Maroon na farko a Amurka sun kafu a wani yanki da yanzu ake kira Jamhuriyar Dominika, bayan tawayen bayi na farko a ranar 26 ga Disamba 1522, a gonakin sukari na Admiral Diego Columbus.[13]:35 Al'ummar Maroon ta yau da kullun a farkon matakai galibi ta ƙunshi nau'ikan mutane uku:[14]

  • Mafi yawansu bayi ne da suka gudu kai tsaye bayan sun sauko daga jiragen ruwa. Sun ƙi miƙa 'yancinsu kuma galibi suna ƙoƙarin nemo hanyoyin komawa Afirka.[14]
  • Rukunin na biyu bayi ne da suka yi aiki a gonaki na ɗan lokaci. Waɗannan bayin galibi sun daidaita da tsarin bautar amma masu gonaki sun yi musu duka – sau da yawa da yawan tashin hankali. Wasu sun gudu lokacin da aka sayar da su ba zato ba tsammani ga sabon mai shi.[14]
  • Rukunin ƙarshe na Maroons galibi bayi ne masu fasaha tare da ƙaƙƙarfan adawa ga tsarin bautar.[14]

Al'ummomin Maroon sun fuskanci ƙalubale masu yawa na rayuwarsu daga hare-haren mazauna masu adawa, samun abinci don rayuwa mai cin gashin kai, da kuma haifuwa da ƙara yawan su.[12][15] Yayin da masu shuka suka mallaki ƙarin filaye don amfanin gona, Maroons sun fara rasa wuri a ƙananan tsibiran. Sai dai a wasu manyan tsibiran ne ƙungiyoyin Maroon da aka tsara suka sami damar bunƙasa ta hanyar shuka amfanin gona da farauta. A nan ne suka ƙaru yayin da ƙarin bayi suka gudu daga gonaki suka shiga ƙungiyoyinsu. Da yake neman rabu da masu mulkin mallaka, Maroons sun sami ƙarfi a cikin ƙara yawan rikice-rikice. Sun kai hari tare da lalata gonaki da kuma addabar masu shuka har sai masu shuka suka fara tsoron babban tawayen bayi baƙar fata.[16]

Zuwa 1700, yawancin ƙungiyoyin Maroon na farko sun ɓace ko kuma an kore su daga ƙananan tsibiran. Rayuwa koyaushe tana da wahala, saboda Maroons dole ne su yaƙi mahara da kuma shuka abinci.[16]

Dangantaka da Hukumomin Mulkin Mallaka

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Marronage (guduwa) ya kasance babban barazana ga tsarin bautar na Sabuwar Duniya. Hukuncin da ake yi wa Maroons da aka sake kama su ya kasance mai tsanani, kamar cire jijiyar Achilles, yanke ƙafa, yanke azzakari, da kuma gasa mutum har ya mutu.[17] Dole ne ƙungiyoyin Maroon su kasance marasa isa kuma suna cikin wuraren da ba su dace ba don su iya ci gaba. Misali, an kafa ƙungiyoyin Maroon a cikin wuraren dausayi masu nisa a kudancin Amurka; a cikin kwazazzabai masu zurfi tare da ramukan ruwa amma da ƙarancin ruwa ko ƙasa mai noma a Jamaica; da kuma a cikin dazuzzukan Guianas masu zurfi.[17] Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da tsananin muhallinsu don ɓoyewa da kare al'ummominsu. Hanyoyin boye, hanyoyin karya, tarkunan tarko, hanyoyin karkashin ruwa, dausayi da yashi mai nutsuwa, da yanayin halitta duk an yi amfani da su don ɓoye ƙauyukan Maroon.[17]

Maroons a Suriname a ƙarni na 19

Maroons sun yi amfani da dabarun yaƙin 'yan daba na musamman don yaƙar abokan gaba na Turai. Nanny, shahararriyar Jamaican Maroon, ta yi amfani da dabarun yaƙin 'yan daba waɗanda har yanzu sojoji da yawa a duniya ke amfani da su a yau.[17] Ko da yake gwamnatocin mulkin mallaka suna cikin yanayi na rikici na dindindin tare da ƙungiyoyin Maroon, mutane a cikin tsarin mulkin mallaka sun yi musu ciniki da kayayyaki da ayyuka.[17] Maroons kuma sun yi ciniki tare da keɓaɓɓun mazauna farar fata da al'ummomin 'yan asalin Amurka. Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da ƙungiyoyi masu sha'awa a kan juna.[17] A lokaci guda, an kuma yi amfani da ƙungiyoyin Maroon a matsayin 'yan tsana lokacin da iko na mulkin mallaka suka yi karo.[17] Sirrin gaskiya da aminci na membobi sun kasance masu mahimmanci ga rayuwar ƙungiyoyin Maroon. Don tabbatar da wannan aminci, ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da matsanancin matakan don karewa daga tserewa da leƙen asiri. An kawo sabbin membobi zuwa al'ummomi ta hanyar karkata hanya don kada su iya gano hanyarsu ta komawa kuma sun yi hidima na lokutan gwaji, sau da yawa a matsayin bayi. Laifuka kamar tserewa da zina ana hukunta su da mutuwa.[17]

1801 hoton wani harin Maroon a gonar Dromilly, Jamaica, yayin Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu na 1795–1796.

Yaƙe-yaƙe na Maroon

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Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun fito a wurare da yawa a cikin Caribbean (St Vincent da Dominika, misali), amma babu wani da aka gani a matsayin babban barazana ga Birtaniya kamar Jamaican Maroons.[18] Fara a ƙarshen ƙarni na 17, Jamaican Maroons sun ci gaba da yaƙar masu mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya, wanda ya kai ga Yaƙin Maroon na Farko (1728–1740). A cikin 1739 da 1740, gwamnan Birtaniya na Mallakar Jamaica, Edward Trelawny, ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyoyin da ke ba da alkawarin Jamaican Maroons kadada 2500 a wurare biyu, a Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) a yammacin Jamaica da Crawford's Town a gabashin Jamaica, don kawo ƙarshen yaƙin tsakanin al'ummomi. A musayar, za su yarda su kama sauran bayi da suka gudu. An fara biyan su lada dala biyu ga kowane ɗan Afirka da aka dawo da shi.[19][20]:31–46 Yarjejeniyoyin sun 'yanta Maroons ƙarni ɗaya kafin Dokar Kawar da Bauta ta 1833, wadda ta fara aiki a 1838.

Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu na 1795–1796 rikici ne na tsawon watanni takwas tsakanin Maroons na Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), wani yanki na Maroon wanda daga baya aka sake masa suna bayan Gwamna Edward Trelawny a ƙarshen Yaƙin Maroon na Farko, wanda ke kusa da Trelawny Parish, Jamaica a cikin St James Parish, da kuma masu mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya waɗanda ke kula da tsibirin. Al'ummomin Windward na Jamaican Maroons sun kasance masu tsaka-tsaki a lokacin wannan tawayen kuma yarjejeniyarsu da Birtaniya har yanzu tana aiki. Accompong Town, duk da haka, ta haɗa kai da sojojin mulkin mallaka, kuma ta yi yaƙi da Trelawny Town.[21]

Zamanin Zamani

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Mutumin Ndyuka yana kawo gawar yaro gaban likitan gargajiya. Suriname, 1955

Ragowar ƙungiyoyin Maroon a tsohuwar Caribbean ta Spain sun ci gaba da wanzuwa tun daga 2006, misali a Viñales, Cuba,[22] da Adjuntas, Puerto Rico.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Har wa yau, Jamaican Maroons sun kasance masu cin gashin kansu sosai kuma sun rabu da al'ummar Jamaica. Keɓancewar jiki da kakanninsu suka yi amfani da ita a yau ta sa al'ummominsu suka kasance daga cikin waɗanda ba za a iya kai musu hari ba a tsibirin. A cikin babban garinsu, Accompong, a cikin yankin St Elizabeth, Leeward Maroons har yanzu suna da al'umma mai rayuwa ta kusan 600. Ana bayar da rangadi na ƙauyen ga baƙi kuma ana shirya babban biki kowane 6 ga Janairu don tunawa da rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya da Birtaniya bayan Yaƙin Maroon na Farko.[23][24]

Yarjejeniyar Ndyuka ta kasance mai mahimmanci ga dangantaka tsakanin Ndyuka da gwamnatin Suriname ta zamani, saboda tana ayyana haƙƙin yankin Maroons a cikin yankunan zinariya masu arziƙi na Suriname.[25][26][27]

Al'adu

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Tutar Maroon a Freetown, Saliyo
Garin Maroon, Kogin Suriname, 1955

Akwai bambance-bambance da yawa a tsakanin kungiyoyin al'adu na Maroon saboda bambancin tarihi, yanayi, asalin Afirka, da kuma al'adun mutanen asali a duk fadin yankin Yammacin duniya.[28] A wajen tsarin gonaki, Maroon sun fi samun 'yanci wajen yada, kiyaye da daidaita al'adun Afirka, Turai da kuma na asali, wanda hakan ya haifar da nau'o'in bambance-bambancen Maroon.[29] Misali, an rubuta cewa Maroon na Jamaica suna amfani da harshen Coromantee wajen gudanar da bukukensu,[30] kuma suna ci gaba da amfani da magungunan ganye kamar yadda ake yi a Afirka ta Yamma.[31][32]

Dazukan da ke kewaye da Tekun Karibiyan sun bayar da abinci, mafaka da kuma kebantacciyar rayuwa ga bayin da suka tsere. Maroon sun rike kansu ta hanyar dasa kayan lambu da kuma farauta. Rayuwarsu ta ta'allaka ne da al'adunsu da kuma iya amfani da dabarun yaki na dabara da kuma gina gidaje masu kariya da tarkuna da dabaru na karkatar da hankali. Wasu daga cikinsu suna daukar barin al'umma a matsayin cin amanar kasa kuma hakan yana iya kaiwa ga hukuncin kisa.[14] A da, sukan kai farmaki kan gonaki. A lokacin wadannan hare-hare, Maroon za su kone amfanin gona, sace dabbobi da kayan aiki, su kashe masu gonaki, sannan su gayyaci sauran bayi su shiga cikin al'ummarsu. Wasu rukuni-rukuni na Maroon sun hadu da kabilun mutanen asali na yankin kuma wani lokacin sukan hade da su. Maroon sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a tarihin kasashen Brazil, Suriname, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cuba, da Jamaica.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Matsugunan Maroon sau da yawa suna da matsayi na kungiya mai zaman kanta da kuma 'yan waje. Wasu lokuta sukan kirkiri sababbin harsunan Creole ta hanyar hadawa da yaren Turai da kuma na asali na Afirka. Daya daga cikin irin wadannan harsunan Creole da Maroon suke amfani da shi a Suriname shi ne Saramaccan. A wasu lokuta kuma, Maroon sukan rungumi nau'in yarukan Turai na yankin a matsayin yaren gama-gari, domin mambobin al'umma sukan zo daga harsuna daban-daban.[14]

Maroon sun kafa nasu al'ummomi masu cin gashin kansu, wadanda a wasu lokuta har yau suna cigaba da rayuwa, kuma sun kasance cikin kebewa daga sauran al'umma har zuwa baya-bayan nan. A cikin karni na 19 da na 20, al'ummomin Maroon sun fara bacewa yayin da gandun daji ke yawaita rushewa, kodayake wasu kasashe kamar Guyana da Suriname har yanzu suna da yawan al'ummar Maroon da ke zaune a cikin dazuka. A zamanin yanzu, da yawa daga cikinsu sun koma birane da garuruwa yayin da cigaban birane ke karuwa.[33]

Matsugunin Baƙar Fata da Baƙar Fata suka Jagoranta a cikin Amurka

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Yayin da ake yawan danganta al'ummomin maroon da Caribbean, an kafa da yawa daga cikinsu ta hanyar Afirka daga takamaiman kabilu[34]. Garin Accompong na Jamaica, wanda mayakan Akan suka kafa a shekara ta 1739, ya adana al'adun Ashanti kamar 'Rawa ta Kromanti'[35]. Irin waɗannan al'ummomin a Suriname (misali, Saramaka) an kafa su ne ta hanyar jarumai daga Masarautar Dahomey (Benin ta zamani). Nazarin DNA na baya-bayan nan ya tabbatar da cewa kashi 89% na maroons na Surinamese suna da dangantaka ta kai tsaye da mutanen Akan na Ghana.[36]

Al'adu

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Tutar Maroon a Freetown, Saliyo
Kauyen Maroon, Kogin Suriname, 1955

Akwai bambanci sosai tsakanin rukunin al'adun Maroon saboda bambance-bambance a tarihi, yanki, ƙasar Afirka, da kuma al'adun ƴan asalin ƙasar a duk faɗin Yammacin Duniya. Bayi da yawa sun tsere a cikin tsarar farko na isowarsu daga Afirka kuma galibi sun adana harsunansu na Afirka da yawancin al'adunsu da addininsu na gargajiya na Afirka. Al'adun Afirka sun haɗa da abubuwa kamar amfani da wasu ganyaye na magani tare da ganguna na musamman da rawa lokacin da ake ba wa mai rashin lafiya ganyen. Sauran al'adun warkarwa na Afirka da al'adu sun rayu tsawon ƙarnuka.

Dajin da ke kewayen Tekun Caribbean ya ba da abinci, matsuguni, da keɓewa ga bayi da suka tsere. Maroons sun tallafa wa kansu ta hanyar noman kayan lambu da farauta. Rayuwarsu ta dogara ne ga al'adunsu, da kuma iyawarsu ta soja, ta amfani da dabarun yaƙin guerrilla da matsuguni masu ƙarfi waɗanda suka haɗa da tarko da karkatarwa. Wasu sun bayyana barin al'ummar a matsayin guduwa don haka za a iya hukunta su da mutuwa.[14] Sun kuma fara kai hari ga gonaki. A lokacin waɗannan hare-hare, Maroons za su ƙone amfanin gona, su saci dabbobi da kayan aiki, su kashe masu bayi, kuma su gayyaci sauran bayi su shiga al'ummominsu. Rukunin Maroons ɗaiɗaiku galibi suna haɗa kai da ƙabilun ƴan asalin ƙasar kuma lokaci-lokaci suna haɗuwa cikin waɗannan yawan. Maroons sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin tarihin Brazil, Suriname, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Jamhuriyar Dominican, Cuba, da Jamaica.

Matsugunin Maroon galibi suna da al'adar ƙabila, al'adar baƙi. Wani lokaci suna haɓaka harsunan Creole ta hanyar haɗa harsunan Turai tare da harsunansu na asali na Afirka. Ɗaya daga cikin irin wannan harshen Creole na Maroon, a Suriname, shine Saramaccan. A wasu lokuta, Maroons za su ɗauki bambance-bambancen harshen Turai na gida (creolization) a matsayin yaren gama gari, domin membobin al'ummar sukan yi magana da harsunan asali daban-daban.[14]

Maroon sun ƙirƙiro nasu al'ummomi masu zaman kansu, waɗanda a wasu lokuta sun rayu tsawon ƙarnuka, kuma har zuwa kwanan nan sun kasance dabam daga babban al'umma. A cikin ƙarni na 19 da 20, al'ummomin Maroon sun fara ɓacewa yayin da aka lalata dazuzzuka, kodayake wasu ƙasashe, kamar Guyana da Suriname, har yanzu suna da manyan al'ummomin Maroon da ke zaune a cikin dazuzzuka. Kwanan nan, da yawa daga cikinsu sun koma birane da garuruwa yayin da tsarin birane ke sauri.

Rarraba Yanayi

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Afirka

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Mauritius

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A ƙarƙashin gwamna Adriaan van der Stel a shekara ta 1642, farkon mazaunan Holland na Kamfanin Dutch East India Company sun kawo bayi 105 daga Madagascar da sassan Asiya don yin aiki a Dutch Mauritius. Duk da haka, 50 daga cikin waɗannan bayi na farko, ciki har da mata, sun tsere zuwa daji na Dutch Mauritius. An kama 18 ne kawai daga cikin waɗannan waɗanda suka tsere. A ranar 18 ga Yuni 1695, wata ƙungiya ta Maroons 'yan asalin Indonesiya da China, ciki har da Aaron d'Amboine, Antoni (Bamboes) da Paul de Batavia, da kuma mata da suka tsere Anna du Bengale da Espérance, sun sa wuta a Fort Frederick Hendryk (Vieux Grand Port) na mazaunan Holland a yunƙurin karɓar ikon tsibirin. An kama su duka kuma an fille musu kai.[37] A watan Fabrairun 1706 an sake shirya wani tawaye ta sauran Maroons da kuma bayi marasa gamsuwa. Lokacin da Hollandawa suka bar Dutch Mauritius a 1710, Maroons sun zauna a baya.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Lokacin da wakilan Kamfanin Faransanci na Louis XIV suka sauka a tsibirin a 1715, su ma dole ne su fuskanci hare-hare daga Mauritian Maroons. Muhimman abubuwan sun kasance harin 1724 a kan wani sansanin soja a gundumar Savannah, da kuma harin da aka kai wa barikin soja a 1732 a Poste de Flacq. Mutane da yawa sun mutu sakamakon irin waɗannan hare-hare. Ba da daɗewa ba bayan isowarsa a 1735, Mahé de La Bourdonnais ya tattara kuma ya ba da kayan aiki ga rukunin sojojin Faransa da suka haɗa da farar hula da sojoji don yaƙar Maroons. A 1739, an kama jagoran Maroon Sans Souci kusa da Flacq kuma mazaunan Faransa sun ƙone shi da rai. ƴan shekaru baya, wata ƙungiya ta mazaunan Faransa ta bi Barbe Blanche, wani jagoran Maroon, amma sun rasa sawunsa a Le Morne. Sauran Maroons sun haɗa da Diamamouve da Madame Françoise.[38][39]

Réunion

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Maroons mafi muhimmanci a Réunion sun kasance Cimendef, Cotte, Dimitile da Maffate.[40]

Saliyo

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Main article: Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone

Wata ƙungiya ta ƴan ƙasa da 600 Jamaican Maroons daga Garin Cudjoe (Garin Trelawny), mafi girma daga cikin garuruwan Jamaican maroon guda biyar, an kore su daga hukumomin Burtaniya a Jamaica bayan Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu a 1796, na farko zuwa Nova Scotia.[41] Shekaru huɗu bayan haka a 1800, an kai su Saliyo.[42][43][44]

Kamfanin Saliyo ya kafa matsugunin Freetown da Colony na Saliyo a 1792 don sake tsugunar da Amirkawa Baƙar fata waɗanda suka isa ta Nova Scotia bayan an kwashe su a matsayin 'yantattu daga Amurka bayan Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Amurka.[45][46] Wasu Jamaican Maroons daga ƙarshe sun koma Jamaica, amma yawancinsu sun zama wani ɓangare na manyan mutanen Creole na Saliyo da al'adun da suka haɗa da 'yantattu da bayi da aka 'yanta waɗanda suka shiga su a cikin rabin ƙarni na farko na mulkin mallaka.[47][48][49]

Arewacin Amurka

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Kanada

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Nova Scotia
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A cikin shekarun 1790, kimanin 600 na Jamaican Maroons an kai su yankunan Biritaniya a Nova Scotia, inda kuma aka sake tsugunar da bayi 'yan Amurka da suka tsere daga Amurka. Ganin cewa ba su ji daɗin yanayin ba, a shekara ta 1800, mafi yawansu sun yi hijira zuwa Freetown, Yammacin Afirka inda suka bayyana kansu a matsayin 'yan asalin Saliyo.[50]

Karibiyan

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Cuba
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A Cuba, akwai al'ummomin Maroon a cikin tsaunuka, inda 'yan gudun hijira na Afirka suka tsere daga zaluncin bauta kuma suka shiga Taínos.[51] A shekara ta 1538, 'yan gudun hijira sun taimaki Faransawa su kori birnin Havana.[13]:41

A shekara ta 1731, bayi sun tashi a tawaye a ma'adinan Cobre, kuma suka kafa al'umma mai zaman kanta a Sierra del Cobre, wadda ta wanzu ba tare da an takura mata ba har zuwa shekara ta 1781, lokacin da yawan mutanen da suka 'yanta kansu ya karu zuwa sama da 1,000. A shekara ta 1781, hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Spain sun amince su amince da 'yancin mutanen wannan al'umma.[13]:41[52]:54–55 A shekara ta 1797, ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin da aka kama na wani palenque kusa da Jaruco ɗan Indiya ne daga Yucatán.[52]:57

A cikin shekarun 1810, Ventura Sanchez, wanda aka fi sani da Coba, shi ne ke kula da wani palenque na ɗaruruwan Maroons a cikin tsaunuka ba da nisa da Santiago de Cuba ba. An yaudari Sanchez ya tafi Santiago de Cuba, inda ya kashe kansa maimakon a kama shi a mayar da shi bauta. Jagorancin palenque daga nan ya wuce zuwa Manuel Grinan, wanda aka fi sani da Gallo.[13]:42–43

Palenque na Bumba ya kasance yana da tsari sosai har ma sun aika Maroons a cikin ƙananan jiragen ruwa zuwa Jamaica da Santo Domingo don yin kasuwanci. A shekara ta 1830, hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Spain sun gudanar da balaguro na soja a kan palenques na Bumba da Maluala. Antonio de Leon daga ƙarshe ya yi nasarar lalata palenque na Bumba.[52]:55

A cikin shekarun 1830, palenques na al'ummomin Maroon sun bunƙasa a yammacin Cuba, musamman yankunan da ke kewaye da San Diego de Nunez. Ofishin Kamawar Maroons ya ruwaito cewa tsakanin 1797 zuwa 1846, akwai dubban 'yan gudun hijira da ke zaune a cikin waɗannan palenques. Duk da haka, tsaunuka na gabas sun kasance suna da palenques masu ɗorewa, musamman na Moa da Maluala, inda Maroons suka bunƙasa har zuwa Yaƙin Farko na 'Yanci a 1868, lokacin da yawancin Maroons suka shiga Sojojin 'Yancin Cuba.[13]:47–48[52]:51

Akwai wuraren tarihi 28 da aka gano a cikin kwarin Viñales masu alaƙa da bayi na Afirka da suka tsere ko Maroons na farkon ƙarni na 19; ana samun shaidar kayan aiki na kasancewarsu a cikin kogo na yankin, inda ƙungiyoyi suka zauna na tsawon lokaci daban-daban. Al'adar baka ta nuna cewa Maroons sun fake a kan gangaren mogotes da kuma a cikin kogo; Gidan Tarihi na Municipal na Viñales yana da nune-nunen kayan tarihi da ke nuna rayuwar bayi da suka tsere, kamar yadda aka gano ta hanyar binciken tarihi. Al'adun gargajiya da aka sake yi a lokacin Semana de la Cultura (Mako na Al'adu) suna murnar kafa garin a 1607.[53][54]

Dominica, Saint Lucia, da Saint Vincent
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Irin waɗannan al'ummomin Maroon sun haɓaka a tsibirai a duk faɗin Caribbean, kamar na mutanen Garifuna a Saint Vincent. Yawancin Garifuna an kore su zuwa babban yankin Amurka, inda wasu daga ƙarshe suka zauna a bakin tekun Mosquito ko a Belize. Daga wurin saukar su na asali a tsibirin Roatan da ke bakin tekun Honduras, Maroons sun koma Trujillo. A hankali ƙungiyoyi sun yi ƙaura zuwa kudu zuwa Masarautar Miskito kuma arewa zuwa Belize.[55] A Dominica, bayi da suka tsere sun haɗa kai da ƴan asalin Kalinago a cikin daji mai yawa na tsibirin don ƙirƙirar al'ummomin Maroon, waɗanda ke ci gaba da rikici da hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Burtaniya a duk lokacin bautar gargajiya.[56]

A cikin mulkin mallaka na Faransa na Saint Lucia, Maroons da sojoji masu gudun hijira na Sojojin Juyin Juya Halin Faransa sun kafa abin da ake kira Armée Française dans les bois (sojojin Faransa a cikin dazuzzuka), wanda ya ƙunshi kimanin maza 6,000 waɗanda suka yi yaƙin Brigand na Farko a kan Birtaniya waɗanda kwanan nan suka mamaye tsibirin.[57] Karkashin jagorancin Kwamishinan Faransa, Gaspard Goyrand,[58] sun yi nasarar sake karɓar ikon yawancin tsibirin daga Birtaniya, amma a ranar 26 ga Mayu 1796, sojojinsu da ke kare sansanin a Morne Fortune, kimanin maza 2,000 sun mika wuya ga wani rukuni na Birtaniya karkashin jagorancin Janar John Moore.[59][60] Bayan mika wuya, sama da fursunonin yaƙi na Faransa da Afro-Caribbean 2,500 da kuma mata da yara casa'in da tara, an kai su daga St. Lucia zuwa Portchester Castle. Daga ƙarshe an aika su zuwa Faransa a musayar fursunoni; wasu sun zauna a Turai yayin da wasu suka koma Faransa.[61][62]

Jamhuriyar Dominican
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Farkon marronage a Amurka ya fara ne a yankin Spain da ke tsibirin Hispaniola. Gwamna Nicolás de Ovando ya riga ya fara korafin bayi da suka tsere da kuma mu'amalarsu da 'yan asalin Taíno tun daga shekara ta 1503. Tawayen bayi na farko ya faru a Hispaniola a gonakin sukari mallakar Admiral Diego Columbus, a ranar 26 ga Disamba 1522, kuma Admiral ya murƙushe shi da ƙarfi.[13]:35 Ko da yake Admiral ya murƙushe tawayen, yawancin bayi sun sami damar tserewa. Maroons na Dominican sun ci gaba da jagorantar ayyukan Maroon na farko a Amurka. Sebastián Lemba, wanda aka haifa a Afirka, ya yi nasarar tawaye ga Sipaniyawa a shekara ta 1532, kuma ya haɗa kai da sauran 'yan Afirka a cikin gwagwarmayarsa ta shekaru 15 a kan mazaunan Spain. Daga ƙarshe Lemba ya haɗa kai da sauran Maroons kamar Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo da Diego del Ocampo a cikin gwagwarmaya da bauta. Yayin da Maroons suka fara barazana ga kasuwancin Spain, jami'an Spain sun fara jin tsoron karɓe ikon tsibirin daga Maroons.[63]

Maroons sun haɗa kai da 'yan asalin ƙasar a cikin yaƙe-yaƙensu da Sipaniyawa kuma sun ɓoye tare da shugaban 'yan tawaye Enriquillo a cikin tsaunukan Bahoruco.[64][65][13]:38 Har zuwa shekarun 1540s, Maroons sun riga sun mallaki sassan ciki na tsibirin, kodayake yankuna a gabas, arewa, da yammacin tsibirin suma sun faɗa ƙarƙashin ikon Maroon. Ƙungiyoyin Maroon za su yi ƙoƙarin fita a cikin tsibirin, yawanci a manyan ƙungiyoyi, suna kai hari ga ƙauyuka da suka haɗu da su, suna ƙone gonaki, suna kashe da kwashe Sipaniyawa, da 'yantar da bayi. Hanyoyin sun zama masu buɗewa ga hari, Sipaniyawa sun ga ya zama dole su yi tafiya a cikin ƙungiyoyi kawai.[63] Lokacin da Archdeacon Alonso de Castro ya zagaya Hispaniola a 1542, ya kiyasta yawan al'ummar Maroon ya kai mutane 2,000–3,000.[64][65][13]:38

Haiti
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Faransawa sun fuskanci nau'o'i daban-daban na juriya ta bayi a cikin ƙarnuka na 17 da 18, a Saint-Domingue, wanda daga baya aka kira Haiti. Tsoffin bayi na Afirka da suka gudu zuwa yankunan tsaunuka masu nisa ana kiran su marron (Faransanci) ko mawon (Creole na Haiti), ma'ana 'bawan da ya tsere'. Maroons sun kafa ƙungiyoyi masu haɗin kai waɗanda suka yi aikin noma da farauta a ƙaramin sikelin. An san su da komawa gonaki don 'yantar da 'yan uwa da abokai. Sau da yawa, sun kuma haɗa kai da mazaunan Taíno, waɗanda suka tsere daga Sipaniyawa a cikin ƙarni na 17.[66]:135–136

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 17 da farkon ƙarni na 18, akwai adadi mai yawa na Maroons da ke zaune a cikin tsaunukan Bahoruco. A 1702, wani balaguro na Faransawa a kan su ya kashe Maroons uku kuma ya kama 11, amma sama da 30 sun guje wa kamawa, kuma sun koma cikin dazuzzukan tsaunuka inda ba za a iya samun su ba. An sake yin balaguro a kan su da ƙananan nasara, ko da yake sun yi nasarar kama ɗaya daga cikin shugabanninsu, Michel, a 1719. A balaguro na gaba, a 1728 da 1733, sojojin Faransa sun kama Maroons 46 da 32 bi da bi. Komai yawan rukunonin da aka aika a kan waɗannan Maroons, sun ci gaba da jan hankalin 'yan gudun hijira. Balaguro a 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 da 1761 sun sami ƙananan nasarori a kan waɗannan Maroons, amma sun kasa lalata wuraren ɓoyewarsu.[66]:135–136

A cikin 1776–1777, wani balaguro na haɗin gwiwa na Faransa da Spain ya shiga yankunan kan iyaka na tsaunukan Bahoruco, da niyyar lalata matsugunan Maroon a can. Duk da haka, an sanar da Maroons game da zuwansu, kuma sun bar ƙauyukansu da kogoninsu, suna komawa cikin dazuzzukan tsaunuka inda ba za a iya samun su ba. Daga ƙarshe rukunin sun dawo, ba su yi nasara ba kuma sun rasa sojoji da yawa saboda rashin lafiya da guduwa. A cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, Maroons sun kai hari ga yawancin matsuguni, ciki har da Fond-Parisien, don abinci, makamai, gunpowder da mata. A ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan balaguron ne aka kama ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin Maroon, Kebinda, wanda aka haifa cikin 'yanci a cikin tsaunuka. Daga baya ya mutu a tsare.[66]:136–138

A cikin 1782, de Saint-Larry ya yanke shawarar ba da sharuɗɗan zaman lafiya ga ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin Maroon, Santiago, inda zai ba su 'yanci a madadin su farautar duk waɗanda suka tsere kuma su mayar da su ga masu su. A ƙarshe, a ƙarshen 1785, an amince da sharuɗɗa, kuma Maroons sama da 100 a ƙarƙashin umurnin Santiago sun daina yin kutse a yankin mulkin mallaka na Faransa.[66]:139–142

Sauran ƙoƙarin juriya na bayi a kan tsarin shuka na Faransawa sun fi kai tsaye. Ɗaya daga cikin Maroons masu tasiri shine François Mackandal, wani houngan ko firist na voodoo, wanda ya jagoranci tawaye na shekaru shida a kan fararen masu shuka a Haiti wanda ya riga Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Haiti.[67] Mackandal ya jagoranci wani motsi don sanya guba a cikin ruwan sha na masu shuka a cikin shekarun 1750.[68] Boukman ya ayyana yaƙi a kan fararen masu shuka na Faransawa a 1791, wanda ya haifar da Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Haiti. Wani mutum-mutumi mai suna Le Nègre Marron ko Nèg Mawon wani shahararren gunkin tagulla ne da aka gina a tsakiyar Port-au-Prince don tunawa da rawar da Maroons suka taka a 'yancin kai na Haiti.[69]

Jamaica
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mutanen da suka tsere daga bautar lokacin da Sifaniya ta mamaye tsibirin Jamaica sun gudu zuwa cikin ƙasar suka haɗu da Taíno da suke zaune a can, suna kafa al'ummomin 'yan gudun hijira. Daga baya, da yawa daga cikinsu sun sami 'yanci yayin ruɗani da ya faru bayan Harin Ingila a Jamaica na shekara ta 1655.[70] Wasu bayi 'yan gudun hijira sun ci gaba da haɗuwa da su har zuwa lokacin soke bautar a 1838, amma gaba ɗaya, bayan rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyoyi na 1739 da 1740, Maroons sun soma farautar bayin da suka gudu don samun kuɗin fansa daga gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta Biritaniya.[20]:45–47

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 17 da na 18, Biritaniya ta yi ƙoƙarin kama Maroons saboda suna kai hare-hare lokaci-lokaci kan gonaki, sannan suna hana fadada cikin ƙasa.[71] Zuwa ƙarni na 18, Nanny Town da sauran ƙauyukan Maroon a Jamaica sun fara yaƙi don samun yancin cin gashin kansu.[23] Yawaitar faɗace-faɗace da makamai tsawon shekaru ya haifar da Yaƙin Maroon na Farko a shekarun 1730s, amma Biritaniya ta kasa doke Maroons. A ƙarshe, sun amince da yarjejeniya da kungiyoyin a shekarar 1739 da 1740, wanda ya ba su yancin cin gashin kai a al'ummominsu bisa sharaɗin za a iya kira su su shiga aikin soja tare da masu mulkin mallaka idan an buƙata. Wasu sassa na Maroons sun samu ƙarfi har suna sanya yarjejeniya da hukumomin mulkin mallaka na yankin,[71] wani lokaci suna tattaunawa domin samun 'yanci a musayar taimakawa wajen kamawa da dawo da sauran bayin da suka tsere.[72]

Saboda rikici da gaba-gaba da Maroons daga Trelawny Town, Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu ya barke a 1795. Bayan gwamna ya yaudari Maroons na Trelawny su miƙa wuya, gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta korar kusan 600 daga cikinsu zuwa Nova Scotia. Saboda wahalhalu da suka fuskanta da waɗanda Black Loyalists suka fuskanta a Nova Scotia da Ingila bayan Juyin Juya Halin Amurka, Biritaniya ta kafa wata colonia a Afirka ta Yamma, Sierra Leone. An ba 'yan asalin Afirka damar kafa al'ummarsu a can tun daga 1792. A kusan shekara ta 1800, daruruwan Jamaican Maroons aka sauke su a Freetown, birni na farko a Sierra Leone. Daga bisani, a shekarun 1840s, kusan Maroons 200 daga Trelawny suka koma Jamaica, suka zauna a ƙauyen Flagstaff a cikin gundumar St James, ba nisa da Trelawny Town, wadda yanzu ake kira Maroon Town.[73]

Ƙaramar cibiyar Maroon ta Leeward da ta ci gaba da zama mai ikon cin gashin kanta a Jamaica bayan Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu ita ce Accompong, a cikin gundumar Saint Elizabeth, wadda mutanenta suka ci gaba da bin yarjejeniyar da suka yi da Biritaniya a 1739. Wata al'ummar Maroon ta Windward tana Charles Town, Jamaica, a bakin kogin Buff Bay a gundumar Portland. Wata kuma tana Moore Town (tsohon Nanny Town), ita ma a Portland. A 2005, hukumar UNESCO ta bayyana kiɗan Maroons na Moore Town a matsayin 'Ginshiki na Al’adu na Baka da Na Ruhi'.[74] Cibiyar ta huɗu tana Scott's Hall, Jamaica, a gundumar St Mary.[75] An tabbatar da ikon cin gashin kai na Accompong daga gwamnatin Jamaica lokacin da tsibirin ya samu 'yancin kai a 1962.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Gwamnati ta yi ƙoƙari wajen farfaɗo da sauran cibiyoyin Maroon. Gwamnatin Jamaica da Maroons sun shirya Taron Maroons na Kasa da Kasa a kowace shekara, wanda aka fara da juyawa tsakanin al’umma, amma tun 2009 ana gudanar da taron a Charles Town.[76] Maroons daga sauran ƙasashen Caribbean, Amurka ta Tsakiya, da Kudanci ana gayyatarsu. A 2016, kwamandan Accompong da tawagarsa sun tafi Masarautar Ashanti a Ghana don sabunta alaƙarsu da mutanen Akan da Asante na kakanninsu.[77]

Puerto Rico
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A Puerto Rico, dangin Taíno daga Utuado sun koma tsaunuka masu duwatsu na kudu maso yamma, tare da bayin Afirka da suka tsere waɗanda suka yi aure da su. Kafin a gina hanyoyi zuwa cikin tsaunukan, ciyayi masu kauri sun ɓoye yawancin Maroons da suka tsere a cikin tuddai na kudu maso yamma. Bayin da suka tsere sun nemi mafaka daga gonakin yankin gabar teku na Ponce.[78]

Martinique
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A Martinique, bayin Afirka da suka tsere sun gudu zuwa matsugunin Maroon a cikin dazukan arewa domin tserewa daga tsarin gonakin Faransa da masu gadin gonaki tare da fararen mazauna. A lokacin Juyin Juya Hali na Faransa, bayin Igbo sun yi yaƙi don 'yanci, wanda Majalisar Kasa ta Faransa ta soke bautar bayi a shekarar 1794. Amma ba har sai shekarar 1848 ba, inda tawaye na ƙarshe na bayi ya faru, wanda ya sa wannan ƙasar ta zama farkon yankin ƙasashen waje na Faransa da ta soke bauta tare da sauran yankunan Faransa.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Amurka ta Tsakiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, da Nicaragua
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wasu ƙungiyoyin Maroon daban-daban sun samo asali a kusa da Tekun Honduras. Wasu sun zauna a cikin ƙasar Honduras ta yanzu, a kan hanyoyin kasuwanci inda bayi ke ɗaukar azurfa da aka hako daga gefen Tekun Pasifik na mashigin ƙasa zuwa garuruwan gabar teku kamar Trujillo ko Puerto Caballos don jigila zuwa Turai. Idan bayi suka tsere, sai su nufi tsaunuka don neman tsira. A shekara ta 1548, a inda yanzu ake kira Honduras, bayi a San Pedro suka tayar da hankali, wanda wani bawan da ya kubuta mai suna Miguel ya jagoranta, kuma ya kafa cikakken birni. Dole ne Sifaniyawa su turo da ƙarin sojoji don murkushe tawaye. [13]:36

A shekarar 1648, wani bishop ɗin Ingila a Guatemala, Thomas Gage, ya ruwaito cewa akwai ƙungiyoyin Maroon masu yawa da ke aiki a kan waɗannan hanyoyi. Miskito Sambu wata ƙungiyar Maroon ce da ta samo asali daga bayi da suka tayar da hankali a wani jirgin ruwa na Fotigal a kusa da shekara ta 1640, suka karya jirgin a gabar Honduras-Nicaragua, kuma suka tsere zuwa cikin ƙasa. Sun auri mutanen asali cikin shekaru hamsin masu zuwa. A ƙarshe sun zama shugabanni a gabar Mosquito kuma suka jagoranci hare-haren kama bayi a yankunan da Sifaniyawa ke iko da su a rabin farkon ƙarni na 18. [79]

Garifuna zuriyar ƙungiyoyin Maroon ne da suka samo asali a tsibirin Saint Vincent. An kori su zuwa gabar Honduras a shekara ta 1797. [55]

Panama
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayano, wani Mutum Mandinka da aka yi masa bauta aka kai shi Panama a shekarar 1552, ya jagoranci tawaye a waccan shekarar a kan Sifaniyawa. Shi da mabiyansa sun tsere suka kafa ƙauyuka a ƙasashen ƙasa. Viceroy Canete ya kasa murkushe waɗannan Maroons, don haka sai ya ba su sharadin yarda da 'yancinsu, muddin ba za su karɓi sababbin bayin da suka tsere ba kuma su dawo da wadanda suka gudu. [13]:41

Daga baya waɗannan mutanen, waɗanda aka sani da Cimarrón, sun taimaka wa Sir Francis Drake wajen yaƙi da Sifaniyawa. [11][80]

Mexico

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gaspar Yanga shi ne wani jagoran Afirka na wata ƙungiyar Maroons a yankin tsaunukan Veracruz a inda yanzu ake kira Mexico. Ana tsammanin Yanga ya kasance yana cikin gudun hijira tun farkon shekarun 1570, kuma shi ne jagoran wata ƙungiya mai ƙarfi ta Maroons.[81]:93–94

A shekarar 1609, Kyaftin Pedro Gonzalo de Herrera ya jagoranci wata runduna da ta kai hari kan Yanga da Maroons ɗinsa, amma duk da asarar rayuka mai yawa daga bangarorin biyu, babu wanda ya yi nasara. Maimakon haka, Yanga ya shiga tattaunawa da masu mulkin mallaka na Spain don kafa wata ƙungiyar Maroons da ke tafiyar da kanta mai suna San Lorenzo de los Negros (da daga baya aka sauya suna zuwa Yanga). Yanga ya samu amincewa da ‘yancin mutanensa, kuma an ba wa palenque ɗinsa matsayin gari mai ‘yanci. A matsayin diyya, an bukaci Yanga ya mayar da sauran bayin da suka gudu zuwa ga hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Spain.[82][81]:94–97

Yankin Costa Chica na Guerrero da na Oaxaca sun ƙunshi wurare masu wahalar isa waɗanda suka zama mafaka ga bayin da suka gudu daga gonaki da filayen gonakin Spain a gabar tekun Pacific.[83] Shaida daga waɗannan al’ummomi za a iya gani a cikin yawan jama’ar Afro-Mexico na wannan yanki.[84] Sauran al’ummomin Afro-Mexico da suka samo asali daga bayin da suka tsere suna zaune a Veracruz da Arewacin Mexico; wasu daga cikin waɗannan al’ummomi daga baya sun ƙunshi mutanen da suka tsere daga bauta a Amurka ta hanyar Southern Underground Railroad.[85]

Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Florida
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Maroons waɗanda suka tsere daga Sahun Farko na Jihohi goma sha uku kuma suka haɗa kai da Seminole Indiyawa na ɗaya daga cikin manyan al'ummomin Maroon masu nasara a abin da yanzu ake kira Florida saboda ƙarin haƙƙoƙi da 'yanci da aka samu daga Daular Spain. Wasu sun auri junansu kuma suna da al'adun Seminole; wasu kuma sun riƙe al'adun Afirka. Zuriyar waɗanda aka cire tare da Seminole zuwa Yankin Indiya a cikin 1830s an gane su a matsayin Baƙar fata Seminoles. Yawancinsu a da wani ɓangare ne na Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, amma an cire su tun ƙarshen ƙarni na 20 ta hanyar sabbin dokokin zama memba waɗanda ke buƙatar tabbatar da asalin 'Yan Asalin Amurka daga takardun tarihi.[86][87][88]

Georgia
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 18, an kafa matsugunan Maroon guda biyu a Tsibirin Abercorn (a lokacin ana kiransa Belleisle), wanda ke sama da kogin Savannah kusa da Kogin Savannah, a jihar Effingham ta zamani.[89] A cikin 1787, sojojin yankin sun lalata waɗannan matsugunan.[89] Daga baya, Maroons sun kafa wani matsuguni a Bear Creek, kodayake an kuma kai hari ga wannan matsuguni kuma an kashe shugabanta.[89]

Illinois
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An kafa Lakeview a matsayin garin 'yantattu ta wata ƙungiyar Baƙin Amurka bayi masu gudu da 'yantattu waɗanda suka yi hijira daga North Carolina jim kaɗan bayan Yaƙin 1812. Sun iso tsakanin 1818 da 1820. Wannan yankin ya dace da sauran 'Yan Asalin Amurka waɗanda suka zauna, suka farauta, suka kama kifi, kuma suka noma wannan yanki kuma baƙar fata sun haɗu da Amerindians.[90]

Louisiana
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Har zuwa tsakiyar 1760s, al'ummomin Maroon sun mamaye gabar Tekun Borgne, wanda ke ƙasa da kogin New Orleans, Louisiana. Waɗannan bayin da suka tsere sun mallaki yawancin ramuka da hanyoyin baya daga Tekun Pontchartrain zuwa Gulf, gami da Rigolets. Al'ummar San Malo ta kasance al'umma mai cin gashin kanta wacce ta daɗe tana bunƙasa.[91] Daga ƙarshe sojojin New Orleans da ke ƙarƙashin ikon Spain wanda Francisco Bouligny ke jagoranta suka kawar da waɗannan al'ummomin. 'Yantattun mutane masu launi sun taimaka wajen kama su.[92][93]

Mutanen da suka tsere daga bauta a zamanin kafin yaƙi a Amurka sun ci gaba da samun mafaka da 'yanci a yankunan karkara na Louisiana, gami da yankunan da ke kusa da New Orleans.[94][95][96]

North Carolina da Virginia
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Great Dismal Swamp maroons sun zauna a cikin fadama na Great Dismal Swamp a Virginia da North Carolina. Kodayake yanayin yana da wahala, bincike ya nuna cewa dubban mutane sun zauna a can tsakanin kimanin 1700 da 1860s.[97][98]

Kudancin Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Brazil

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ɗaya daga cikin quilombos (matsugunan Maroon) da aka fi sani a Brazil shine Palmares (Ƙasar Dabino) kusa da Recife, wanda aka kafa a kusan 1600. Quilombo dos Palmares al'umma ce mai cin gashin kai ta bayin da suka tsere daga matsugunan Fotigal a Brazil, "yankin wataƙila girman Fotigal a cikin ƙasar Bahia". Wani ɓangare na dalilin girman Palmares shine saboda wurin da yake a tsakiyar tsakanin Tekun Atlantika da Guinea, wani yanki mai mahimmanci na cinikin bayi na Afirka.[99] A lokacin da yake kan ganiyarsa, yana da yawan jama'a sama da mutane 30,000 masu 'yanci kuma Sarki Zumbi ne ya mulke shi.[100][101] Zumbi da Ganga Zumba su ne shugabannin yaƙi biyu da aka fi sani na Palmares waɗanda suka fatattaki hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Holland sannan kuma na Fotigal.[102]

A cikin 1612, Fotigal sun yi ƙoƙari a banza su mamaye Palmares a cikin balaguron da ya kasance mai tsada sosai.[103] A cikin 1640, wata tawagar leƙen asiri ta Holland ta gano cewa al'ummar Palmares mai 'yanci ta bazu a matsuguni biyu, tare da kimanin 6,000 da ke zaune a wuri ɗaya da kuma wasu 5,000 a wani wuri. Balaguron Holland game da Palmares a cikin 1640s sun kasance marasa nasara.[104] Tsakanin 1672 da 1694, Palmares ya jure, a matsakaita, balaguron Fotigal kusan kowace shekara.[105] Bayan da ya ci gaba da kasancewarsa mai cin gashin kai kusan tsawon shekara ɗari, a ƙarshe Fotigal sun ci shi a 1694.[100][101]

Daga cikin manyan quilombos 10 a mulkin mallaka na Brazil, bakwai an halaka su cikin shekaru biyu da kafuwarsu. Huɗu sun faɗi a jihar Bahia a 1632, 1636, 1646 da 1796. Sauran ukun sun gamu da irin wannan kaddara a Rio a 1650, Parahyba a 1731, da Piumhy a 1758.[106] Wani quilombo a Minas Gerais ya daɗe daga 1712 zuwa 1719. Wani kuma, "Carlota" na Mato Grosso, an shafe shi bayan ya kasance na tsawon shekaru 25, daga 1770 zuwa 1795.[105] Hakanan akwai wasu ƙananan quilombos. An fara bayar da rahoton quilombo a 1575 a Bahia. An ba da rahoton wani quilombo a Bahia a farkon ƙarni na 17. Tsakanin 1737 zuwa 1787, wani ƙaramin quilombo ya bunƙasa a kewayen São Paulo.[107] Yankin Campo Grande da São Francisco galibi quilombos ne ke zaune a ciki. A cikin 1741, Jean Ferreira ya shirya wani balaguro game da quilombo, amma yawancin masu gudu sun tsere daga kamawa. A cikin 1746, wani balaguro mai zuwa ya kama mambobi 120 na quilombo. A cikin 1752, wani balaguro wanda Pere Marcos ya jagoranta ya fuskanci hari daga mayakan quilombo, wanda ya haifar da asarar rayuka masu yawa.[108]

Quilombos sun ci gaba da kafuwa a ƙarni na 19. A cikin 1810, an gano wani quilombo a Linhares a jihar São Paulo. Shekaru goma bayan haka, an sami wani a Minas. A cikin 1828, an gano wani quilombo a Cahuca, kusa da Recife, kuma bayan shekara guda an shirya balaguro game da wani a Corcovado, kusa da Rio de Janeiro. A cikin 1855, an lalata quilombo na Maravilha a Amazonas.[109] Yawancin zuriyar mazaunan Quilombo, ko Quilombola, suna ci gaba da zama a matsugunan quilombo na tarihi bayan 'yanci. An gane matsayinsu a matsayin "mutanen gargajiya" a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Brazil na 1988, kodayake suna ci gaba da yaƙi don haƙƙin mallakar filaye da kariya daga tashin hankali.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Colombia

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Samfuri:One source section

Main article: Afro-Venezuela § Tarihi

A cikin 1529, a abin da yanzu ake kira Colombia, bayin masu tawaye sun lalata Santa Marta.[13]:35 Bayin da suka tsere sun kafa al'ummomi masu cin gashin kai tare da nesa na Tekun Pasifik, bayan isa ga mulkin mallaka. A farkon ƙarni na 17, wata ƙungiyar masu gudu sun kafa palenque a wajen Kogin Magdalena. Daga ƙarshe, a cikin 1654, gwamnan Cartegena de Indias, Don Pedro Zapata, ya ci nasara kuma ya mallaki wannan al'ummar Maroons masu gudu.[110]:76–77

A abin da yanzu ake kira gundumar Popayán, an kafa palenque na Castillo da nasara ta hanyar bayin da suka gudu. A cikin 1732, hukumomin Spain sun yi ƙoƙari su tabbatar da yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tare da Maroons na Castillo ta hanyar saka wani sashe da ke buƙatar su mayar da masu gudu, amma masu mulkin Castillo sun ƙi waɗannan sharuɗɗa. A cikin 1745, hukumomin mulkin mallaka sun ci nasara a Castillo, kuma sama da 200 na Afirka da Indiya masu gudu sun mika wuya.[110]:76

A farkon ƙarni na 17, an kafa al'ummar Maroon ta San Basilio de Palenque, lokacin da Benkos Biohó ya jagoranci wata ƙungiyar masu gudu kimanin 30 cikin dazuzzuka, kuma ya ci nasara a kan ƙoƙarin da aka yi na mallaka su. Biohó ya ayyana kansa Sarki Benkos, kuma palenque ɗin sa na San Basilio ya ja hankalin ɗimbin masu gudu don shiga al'ummarsa. Maroons ɗinsa sun ci nasara a balaguron farko da aka tura musu, inda suka kashe shugabansu Juan Gomez. Mutanen Spain sun cimma yarjejeniya da Biohó, amma daga baya suka kama shi a 1619, suka zarge shi da shirya makirci game da Spain, kuma suka rataye shi. Amma masu gudu sun ci gaba da tserewa zuwa 'yanci a San Basilio.[110]:79–80

A cikin 1696, hukumomin mulkin mallaka sun mallaki wani tawaye a San Basilio de Palenque, kuma kuma tsakanin 1713 da 1717. Daga ƙarshe, Mutanen Spain sun amince da yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tare da palenque na San Basilio, kuma a cikin 1772, an haɗa wannan al'ummar Maroons cikin gundumar Mahates, muddin ba su sake karɓar ƙarin masu gudu ba. Al'ummar San Basilio, inda ake magana da yaren Palenquero na creole, tana ɗaya daga cikin da yawa da har yanzu suke wanzuwa tare da gabar Caribbean.[110]:79–80

Ecuador

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Baya ga bayin da suka tsere, waɗanda suka tsira daga jiragen ruwa da suka rushe sun kafa al'ummomi masu cin gashin kai tare da koguna na arewacin gabar teku kuma sun haɗu da al'ummomin 'yan asali a yankunan da ba su kai ga mulkin mallaka ba. Za a iya bambanta al'ummomi daban-daban daga cantones Cojimies y Tababuela, Esmeraldas, Limones.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Guianas

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Mutumin Saramaka, hoto c. 1910
Maza Maroons a Suriname, an ɗauki hoto tsakanin 1910 da 1935

Marronage ya kasance ruwan dare a Burtaniya, Holland, da Faransanci Guiana, kuma a yau zuriyar Maroons suna da kusan kashi 15% na yawan jama'ar Suriname na yanzu[111] da kashi 22% a Faransanci Guiana.[112] A cikin Guianas, bayin da suka tsere, waɗanda aka fi sani da 'Bushinengues', sun gudu zuwa cikin ƙasa kuma sun haɗu da 'yan asali kuma sun kirkiro ƙabilu masu cin gashin kansu, daga cikinsu akwai Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka (Aukan), Kwinti, Aluku (Boni), da Matawai.[113]:295,[114]

A cikin mulkin mallaka na Suriname, wanda Ingila ta ba wa Netherlands a cikin Yarjejeniyar Breda (1667), bayin da suka tsere sun yi tawaye kuma sun fara gina ƙauyukan su daga ƙarshen ƙarni na 17. Kamar yadda yawancin gonaki suka wanzu a yankin gabashin ƙasar, kusa da Kogin Commewijne da Kogin Marowijne, marronage ya faru tare da iyakokin kogin kuma wani lokaci a kan iyakokin Faransanci Guiana. A shekara ta 1740, Maroons sun kafa kabilu kuma sun ji ƙarfi sosai don kalubalanci masu mulkin Holland, suna tilasta musu su sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya. A ranar 10 ga Oktoba, 1760, Ndyuka sun fara sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya, wanda tsohon bawa dan Jamaica Adyáko Benti Basiton na Boston, Suriname ya tsara, yana ba su cin gashin kai na yanki a 1760.[115] A cikin 1770s, Aluku ma suna son yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya, amma Ƙungiyar Suriname ta fara yaƙi da su,[116] wanda ya haifar da tserewa zuwa Faransanci Guiana.[117] Sauran kabilun sun sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tare da gwamnatin Surinamese, Kwinti shine na ƙarshe a 1887.[118] A ranar 25 ga Mayu, 1891 Aluku sun zama 'yan ƙasar Faransa a hukumance.[119]

Bayan da Suriname ta sami 'yancin kai daga Netherlands, an soke tsoffin yarjejeniyoyi tare da Bushinengues. A cikin 1980s Bushinengues a Suriname sun fara fafutukar neman haƙƙin mallakar filayensu.[120] Tsakanin 1986 da 1992,[121] Sojojin Cikin Gida na Suriname sun yi yaƙi da Jungle Commando, ƙungiyar 'yan ta'adda da ke fafutukar neman haƙƙin 'yan tsiraru na Maroon, game da mulkin soja na Dési Bouterse.[122] A cikin 2005, bayan yanke hukunci daga Kotun Haƙƙin Bil'adama ta Amurka, gwamnatin Suriname ta amince da biyan diyya ga waɗanda suka tsira daga kisan kiyashi na ƙauyen Moiwana na 1986, inda sojoji suka kashe mutane 39 marasa makami na Ndyuka, galibi mata da yara.[111] A ranar 13 ga Yuni, 2020, Ronnie Brunswijk an zaɓe shi Mataimakin Shugaban Suriname ta hanyar amincewa a zaɓen da ba a fafata ba.[123] An rantsar da shi a ranar 16 ga Yuli[124] a matsayin Maroon na farko a Suriname da ya yi aiki a matsayin mataimakin shugaban ƙasa.[125]

A Guyana ta zamani, jami'an Holland a 1744 sun gudanar da balaguro game da sansanonin Maroons aƙalla 300 a yankin Arewa maso Yamma na Essequibo. Hollandawa sun kafa hannaye da aka yanke na Maroons da aka kashe a balaguron zuwa sanduna a cikin mulkin a matsayin gargaɗi ga sauran bayi.[126] A cikin 1782, wani jami'in Faransa a yankin ya kiyasta cewa akwai fiye da 2,000 Maroons a kewayen Berbice, Demerara, da Essequibo.[127]

Venezuela

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai tawaye da dama na bayi a cikin tarihin abin da daga baya ya zama Venezuela.[13]:37 Ta yankin Barlovento, mutane da yawa masu 'yanci da kuma bayin da suka tsere sun kafa al'ummomi, waɗanda aka sani da cumbes. Ɗaya daga cikin sanannun waɗannan matsugunan shine Curiepe, inda ake gudanar da Fiesta de San Juan a kowace shekara. Wani kuma shine cumbe na Ocoyta, wanda Guillermo Ribas mai gudu ke jagoranta, wanda aka ruwaito ya shiga cikin hare-hare da dama a kan garuruwan Chuspa da Panaquire da ke maƙwabta. Waɗannan Maroons na Venezuela kuma suna cinikin koko. Guillermo ya gudu a 1768, kuma ya kafa cumbe wanda ya haɗa da masu gudu na asalin Afirka da Indiya.[128]:65–67

An lalata cumbe na Ocoyta a ƙarshe a 1771. Wani balaguro na soja wanda German de Aguilera ya jagoranta ya lalata matsugunin, inda ya kashe Guillermo, amma ya yi nasara ne kawai wajen kama manya takwas da yara biyu. Ragowar masu gudu sun koma cikin dazuzzukan da ke kewaye, inda suka ci gaba da zama a ɓoye.[128]:64–65 Ɗaya daga cikin mataimakan Guillermo, Ubaldo ɗan Ingila, wanda sunansa na baftisma shine Jose Eduardo de la Luz Perera, an haife shi bawa a London, an sayar da shi ga wani kyaftin na jirgi, kuma ya yi tafiye-tafiye da dama kafin a ba shi 'yanci a ƙarshe. Yana ɗaya daga cikin mutane da yawa masu baƙar fata masu 'yanci waɗanda suka shiga al'ummar Ocoyta. A cikin 1772, hukumomin Spain suka kama shi.[128]:70–71

Akwai cumbes da yawa a cikin ƙasar mulkin mallaka. A cikin 1810, lokacin da Yaƙin Neman 'Yanci ya fara, yawancin mambobin waɗannan cumbes sun yi yaƙi a bangaren masu tawaye, kuma sun bar ƙauyukansu.[128]:72–73

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Diouf, Sylviane A. (2016). Slavery's Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons. New York: NYU. pp. 81, 171–177, 215, 309. ISBN 978-0-8147-2449-1. OCLC 864551110.
  2. ↑ "Maroon definition and meaning". Collins Dictionary (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Empty citation (help)
  4. ↑ Spitzer, Leo (1938). "Spanish cimarrón". Language. Linguistic Society of America". 14 (2): 145–147. doi:10.2307/408879. JSTOR 408879. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains maroon 'fugitive negro slave' as from 'Fr. marron, said to be a corruption of Sp. cimarrón, wild, untamed'. But Eng. maroon is attested earlier (1666) than Fr. marron 'fugitive slave' (1701, in Furetière). If there is a connection between Eng. maroon, Fr. marron, and Sp. cimarrón, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America).
  5. ↑ Samfuri:Cite OED
  6. ↑ "Maroon definition and meaning". Collins Dictionary (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  7. ↑ Arrom, José Juan (1983). "Cimarrón: Apuntes sobre sus primeras documentaciones y su probable origen" [Cimarrón: Notes on its first documentation and probable origin]. Revista Española de Antropología Americana (in Sifaniyanci). Madrid: Universidad Complutense. XII: 10. Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. English: And if we pay attention to the testimony of Oviedo when, after having lived in Hispaniola for many years, he asserts that cimarrón "means, in the language of this island, fugitives", it would be demonstrated that we are, in fact, before an early loan of the Taíno language.
  8. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  9. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  10. ↑ Tardieu, Jean-Pierre (2006). "Cimarrôn–Maroon–Marron, note épistémologique" [Cimarrôn–Maroon–Marron, epistemological note]. Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire (in Faransanci). 93 (350): 237–247. doi:10.3406/outre.2006.4201.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Drake, Frances (1909–1914). Voyages and Travels: Ancient and Modern. The Harvard Classics. para. 21 – via Bartleby Great Books Online.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dinnerstein, Leonard; Jackson, Kenneth T., eds. (1975). American Vistas: 1607–1877 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 64.
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 Franco, José (1996). "Maroons and Slave Rebellions in the Spanish Territories". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Price, Richard (1973). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press. p. 25. ISBN 0-385-06508-6. OCLC 805137.
  15. ↑ Ohadike, Don C. (1 January 2002). Pan-African Culture of Resistance: A History of Liberation Struggles in Africa and the Diaspora. Global Publications, Binghamton University. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-58684-175-1.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Rogozinski, Jan (1999). A Brief History of the Caribbean (revised ed.). New York: Facts on File Inc. pp. 155–168. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2 – via Internet Archive.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 Price, Richard (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 1–30. ISBN 0-8018-2247-5.
  18. ↑ Edwards, Bryan (1801). Historical Survey of the Island of Saint Domingo. London: J. Stockdale.
  19. ↑ Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies: The Settling of North America. New York: Penguin Books.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Siva, Michael (2018). After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739-1842 (PDF) (PhD). Southampton, England: Southampton University.
  21. ↑ Mavis Campbell, The Maroons of Jamaica (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 209–49.
  22. ↑ Sartorio, Blanchie (13 March 2004). "El Templo de los Cimarrónes" [Haikalin Maroons]. Guerrillero: Pinar del Río (in Sifaniyanci). Archived from the original on 8 May 2008.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Campbell, Mavis Christine (1988). The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal. Granby, Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-148-1..
  24. ↑ Edwards, Bryan (1801) [1796]. "Observations on the disposition, character, manners, and habits of life, of the Maroons of the island of Jamaica; and a detail of the origin, progress, and termination of the late war between those people and the white inhabitants". Historical Survey of the Island of Saint Domingo. London: J. Stockdale. pp. 303–360.
  25. ↑ van Stipriaan, Alex (1995). Surinaams Contrast. Roofbouw en Overleven in een Caraïbische Plantagekolonie, 1750–1863 [Bambancin Suriname. Fashi da Rayuwa a cikin Mallaka ta Shuka ta Caribbean, 1750–1863] (in Holanci). Leiden, Netherlands: KITLV Uitgeverij. ISBN 90-6718-052-1.
  26. ↑ Buddingh', Hans (2012). Geschiedenis van Suriname [Tarihin Suriname] (in Holanci). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Nieuw Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-468-1172-6.
  27. ↑ van Stipriaan, Alex; Polimé, Thomas, eds. (2009). Kunst van Overleven. Marroncultuur uit Suriname [Fasahar Rayuwa. Al'adun Maroon daga Suriname] (in Holanci). Amsterdam, Netherlands: KIT Publishers. ISBN 978-94-6022-040-1.
  28. ↑ Kopytoff, Barbara (1 June 1976). "The Development of Jamaican Maroon Ethnicity". Caribbean Quarterly. 22 (2–3): 33–50 (37–46). doi:10.1080/00086495.1976.11671900.
  29. ↑ Kopytoff 1976, p. 37.
  30. ↑ Cohen, Milton (1973). Medical beliefs and practices of the Maroons of Moore Town: A study in acculturation (Thesis). pp. 36–7.
  31. ↑ For more about Maroon medical practices, see:Samfuri:PbRamdas, Sahiensha (2020). "Seeking Health in Multiple Ways". In Menke, Henk; Buckingham, Jane; Gounder, Farzana; Kumar, Ashutosh; Hassankhan, Maurits S. (eds.). Social Aspects of Health, Medicine and Disease in the Colonial and Post-colonial Era. doi:10.4324/9781003140597. ISBN 978-1-003-14059-7.Samfuri:Pbvan't Klooster, Charlotte; van Andel, Tinde; Reis, Ria (2 August 2016). "Patterns in medicinal plant knowledge and use in a Maroon village in Suriname". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 189: 319–330. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2016.05.048. PMID 27215681.Samfuri:PbMilton 1973, pp. 93–100
  32. ↑ Kopytoff 1976, pp. 33–50.
  33. ↑ St.-Hilaire, Aonghas (26 February 2000). "Global Incorporation and Cultural Survival: The Surinamese Maroons at the Margins of the World-System". Journal of World-Systems Research (in Turanci): 101–131. doi:10.5195/jwsr.2000.232. ISSN 1076-156X.
  34. ↑ "Google books".
  35. ↑ "UNESCO Slave Route Project".
  36. ↑ "African Origins of Suriname Maroons (Journal Study)".
  37. ↑ Carter, Marina; Ng Foong Kwong, James (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 21. ISBN 978-90-04-17572-3.
  38. ↑ Peerthum, Satyendra. "Histoires du marronage: Les combattants de la liberté" [Marronage Stories: The Freedom Fighters] (in Faransanci). Defimedia. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  39. ↑ "Histoire du marronage" [History of Maroonage] (in Faransanci). Histoires Mauriciennes. 6 February 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
  40. ↑ Hintjens, Helen (2003). "From French Slaves to French Citizens: The African Diaspora in Réunion Island". In Jayasuriya, Shihan de S.; Pankhurst, Richard (eds.). The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press Inc. p. 99. ISBN 0-86543-980-X.
  41. ↑ Hamilton, James Cleland (1890). The African in Canada ; The Maroons of Jamaica and Nova Scotia [microform]. Canadiana.org. [S.l. : s.n. ISBN 978-0-665-05348-1.
  42. ↑ Taylor, Bankole Kamara (2014). Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History (in Turanci). New Africa Pres. ISBN 978-9987-16-038-9.
  43. ↑ Grant, John N (2002). The Maroons in Nova Scotia (Softcover). Formac. p. 203. ISBN 978-0887805691.
  44. ↑ James Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783-1870 (London: Longman, 1976), pp. 240-3. Michael Sivapragasam, "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town", Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond, ed. by Nicholas Faraclas, etc (Curacao/Puerto Rico: University of Curacao, 2020), p. 17. Simon Schama, Rough Crossings (London: BBC Books, 2002), p. 382. Mavis Campbell, Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons (Trenton: Africa World Press, 1993), p. 48.
  45. ↑ Siva, Michael (Winter 2021). "Why Did the Black Poor of London Not Support the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme?". History Matters Journal. 1 (2): 25–47.
  46. ↑ "Birchtown Plaque - 'The Black Loyalists at Birchtown' (1997)". nsgna.ednet.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-11-08. Retrieved 2025-05-22.
  47. ↑ James Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783-1870 (London: Longman, 1976), pp. 240-3.
  48. ↑ Schama, Simon (2005). Rough crossings: Britain, the slaves, and the American Revolution. London: BBC Books. pp. 380–383. ISBN 978-0-06-053916-0.
  49. ↑ Michael Sivapragasam, "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town", Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond, ed. by Nicholas Faraclas, etc (Curacao/Puerto Rico: University of Curacao, 2020), pp. 13, 18.
  50. ↑ Robert Baron and Ana C. Cara, Creolization as Cultural Creativity, University Press of Mississippi, 2011; accessed 12 July 2016, available online through Project MUSE
  51. ↑ Aimes, Hubert H. S. (1967). A History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511 to 1868. New York: Octagon Books.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 Perez de la Riva, Francisco (1996). "Cuban Palenques". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  53. ↑ Guanche, Jesús; Acosta, Nilson (2006–2007). "Cuba". Places of Memory of the Slave Route in the Latin Caribbean. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  54. ↑ Morales Pino, Loraine. "Viñales celebra semana de la Cultura" [Viñales celebrates Culture Week]. Periódico Guerrillero (in Sifaniyanci). Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Henning Roessingh, Carel (2001). The Belizean Garifuna: Organization of Identity in an Ethnic Community in Central America. Rozenberg. p. 71. ISBN 978-90-5170-574-4.
  56. ↑ Samfuri:Cite podcast
  57. ↑ Helg, Aline (2019). "The Shock Waves of the Haitian Revolution". Slave No More: Self-Liberation before Abolitionism in the Americas. Translated by Vergnaud, Lara. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4696-4963-4.
  58. ↑ Howard, Martin (2015). Death Before Glory: The British Soldier in the West Indies in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 1793–1815. Pen and Sword. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4738-7152-6.
  59. ↑ Hegart Breen, Henry (1844). St. Lucia: Historical, Statistical, and Descriptive. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 96 – via Internet Archive.
  60. ↑ Stark, James Henry (1893). Stark's History and Guide to Barbados and the Caribbee Islands: Containing a Description of Everything on Or about These Islands of which the Visitor Or Resident May Desire Information ... Fully Illustrated with Maps, Engravings and Photo-prints. Photo-Electrotype Company. p. 55.
  61. ↑ "Black prisoners at Portchester Castle". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019.
  62. ↑ Brown, Mark (18 July 2017). "Hidden story of 2,000 African-Caribbean PoWs in a medieval castle". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Schwaller, Robert C. (2018). "Contested Conquests: African Maroons and the Incomplete Conquest of Hispaniola, 1519–1620". The Americas (in Turanci). 75 (4): 609–638. doi:10.1017/tam.2018.3. hdl:1808/29355.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Landers, Jane (2002). "The Central African Presence in Spanish Maroon Communities". In Linda M. Heywood (ed.). Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora. Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-521-00278-3.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Landers, Jane (2008). "Transforming Bondsmen into Vassals". In Brown, Christopher Leslie; Morgan, Philip D. (eds.). Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age. Yale University Press. p. 139, note 17. ISBN 978-0-300-13485-8.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 Moreau de Saint-Mery, Médéric Louis Élie (1996). "The Border Maroons of Saint Domingue". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  67. ↑ "The History of Haiti and the Haitian Revolution". The City of Miami. Archived from the original on 26 August 2007. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
  68. ↑ Corbett, Bob. The Haitian Revolution of 1791–1803, An Historical Essay in Four Parts. Archived from the original on 14 September 2019.
  69. ↑ "Albert Mangones, 85; His Bronze Sculpture Became Haitian Symbol". Los Angeles Times. 27 April 2002. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  70. ↑ Saunders, Nicholas J. (2005). The Peoples of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archaeology and Traditional Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-57607-701-6.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Eugene D. Genovese (1 January 1992). From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. LSU Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8071-4813-6. Some maroon communities became powerful enough to force the European powers into formal peace treaties designed to pacify the interior while recognizing the freedom and autonomy of the rebels. Jamaica and Surinam provided the most famous of these cases, which had counterparts in Mexico...
  72. ↑ Accilien, Cécile; Adams, Jessica; Méléance, Elmide (2006). Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti. Educa Vision Inc. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-58432-293-1.
  73. ↑ Sivapragasam, Michael (2020). "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town". In Faraclas, Nicholas; et al. (eds.). Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond. Curaçao: University of Curaçao. pp. 18–19.
  74. ↑ Batson-Savage, Tanya (13 June 2004). "A Maroon masterpiece". Jamaica Gleaner. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  75. ↑ Garfield L. Angus (17 July 2015). "Scott's Hall Maroons Looking to Develop Area as Major Attraction". Jamaica Information Service. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  76. ↑ "11th Annual International Maroon Conference & Festival Magazine 2019". Charles Town Maroons. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  77. ↑ "Historical Meeting Between The Kingdom Of Ashanti And The Accompong Maroons In Jamaica", Modern Ghana, 2 May 2016
  78. ↑ Knight, Franklin W. (May 1986). "Review of Benjamin Nistal-Moret, Esclavos prófugos y cimarrones: Puerto Rico, 1770–1870". Hispanic American Historical Review. 66 (2): 381–382. JSTOR 2515149.
  79. ↑ Cwik, Christian (1 January 2019). "Displaced Minorities: The Wayuu and Miskito People". The Palgrave Handbook of Ethnicity: 1593–1609. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_117. ISBN 978-981-13-2897-8.
  80. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Drake2
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Davidson, David (1996). "Negro Slave Control and Resistance in Colonial Mexico, 1519–1650". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  82. ↑ Jimenez Roman, Miriam. "Africa's Legacy". www.smithsonianeducation.org. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  83. ↑ Agorsalt, E. Kofi (2007). Ogundiran, Akinwumi; Falola, Toyin (eds.). Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-253-34919-4. OCLC 87082740.
  84. ↑ Vaughn, Bobby (1 September 1998). "Mexico's Black heritage: the Costa Chica of Guerrero and Oaxaca". Mexconnect newsletter. ISSN 1028-9089. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  85. ↑ Grant, Richard (July–August 2022). "The Southbound Underground Railroad Brought Thousands of Enslaved Americans to Mexico". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  86. ↑ Watson W. Jennison (18 January 2012). Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750-1860. University Press of Kentucky. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-8131-4021-6.
  87. ↑ Robertson, Ray Von (2008). "Estelusti Marginality: A Qualitative Examination of the Black Seminole" (PDF). The Journal of Pan African Studies. 2 (4): 60, 65–69. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
  88. ↑ Robertson, Ray Von (2011). "A Pan-Africanist Analysis of Black Seminole Perceptions of Racism, Discrimination, and Exclusion" (PDF). The Journal of Pan African Studies. 4 (5): 102–121. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Dawers, Bill (27 October 2022). "The story of the maroons is another gap in Savannah's history. Let's find ways to tell it". Savannah Morning News. Gannett. ISSN 1047-028X. OCLC 51656980. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 16 November 2024.
  90. ↑ "Memories of Lakeview, Jewell Cofield, 1976
  91. ↑ Monuments, Paper; Frisbie-Calder, Pippin; artist; Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo; narrative. "San Malo Maroons". New Orleans Historical (in Turanci). Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  92. ↑ Din, Gilbert C. (1999). Spaniards, Planters, and enslaved people: The Spanish Regulation of Slavery in Louisiana, 1763–1803. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-904-3.
  93. ↑ Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo (1995). Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-1999-7.
  94. ↑ Beaver, Jessica; Gillette, Jessica; Mason, Kate; O'Dwyer, Kathryn. "Maroons in Antebellum New Orleans: Independence at Any Cost - Stop 8 of 9 on the Urban Slavery and Everyday Resistance tour". New Orleans Historical (in Turanci). Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  95. ↑ "More Than A Runaway: Maroons in Louisiana". WWNO (in Turanci). Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  96. ↑ Diouf, Sylviane A. (2014). Slavery's Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2437-8. JSTOR j.ctt9qfc3r.Samfuri:Pn
  97. ↑ Maris-Wolf, Ted (September 2013). "Hidden in Plain Sight: Maroon Life and Labor in Virginia's Dismal Swamp". Slavery & Abolition. 34 (3): 446–464. doi:10.1080/0144039X.2012.734090.
  98. ↑ "The Great Dismal Swamp". 99% Invisible (in Turanci). 15 August 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2025.
  99. ↑ Braudel, Fernand (1984). "The Perspective of the World". Civilization and Capitalism. III. p. 390.
  100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 Kent 1996, p. 185.
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 Décio, Freitas (1982). Palmares: A Guerra dos Escravos [Palmares: The Slave War] (in Harshen Potugis) (4 ed.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Graal. pp. 123–132.
  102. ↑ Kent 1996, pp. 186–187.
  103. ↑ Kent 1996, p. 175.
  104. ↑ Kent 1996, pp. 177–179.
  105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 Kent 1996, p. 172.
  106. ↑ Kent, R. K. (1996). "Palmares: An African State in Brazil". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 172.
  107. ↑ Bastide, Roger (1996). "The Other Quilombos". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 191–192.
  108. ↑ Bastide 1996, p. 193.
  109. ↑ Bastide 1996, p. 195.
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 110.3 Escalante, Aquiles (1996). "Palenques in Colombia". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 Kuipers, Ank (30 November 2005). "Villagers return to site of 1986 Suriname massacre". Forest Peoples Programme. Reuters. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
  112. ↑ Bellardie, Tristan; Heemskerk, Marieke (May 2019). Maroons in French Guiana: History, culture, demographics, and socioeconomic development along the Maroni and Lawa Rivers (PDF) (Report). Denver, Colorado: Newmont.
  113. ↑ Price, Richard, ed. (1996). "The Guianas". Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  114. ↑ Price, Richard (1976). The Guiana Maroons: A Historical and Bibliographical Introduction. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-1840-0. OCLC 2121443.
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  117. ↑ "The Aluku and the Communes in French Guiana". Cultural Survival. September 1989. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  118. ↑ Hoogbergen, Wim (1992). "Origins of the Suriname Kwinti Maroons". New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids. 66 (1–2): 27–59. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002003.
  119. ↑ "Parcours La Source". Parc-Amazonien-Guyane (in Faransanci). Archived from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  120. ↑ Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment of November 28, 2007, Kotun Haƙƙin Bil'adama ta Amurka (La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos), an shiga 21 ga Mayu, 2009.
  121. ↑ Boven, Karin M. (2006). Overleven in een grensgebied: Veranderingsprocessen bij de Wayana in Suriname en Frans-Guyana - Page 207 (PDF). Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers.
  122. ↑ French, Howard W (14 April 1991). "To Suriname Refugees, Truce Means Betrayal". The New York Times (in Turanci). Retrieved 14 June 2018.
  123. ↑ "Live blog: Verkiezing president en vicepresident Suriname". De Ware Tijd (in Holanci). Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  124. ↑ "Inauguratie nieuwe president van Suriname op Onafhankelijkheidsplein". Waterkant (in Holanci). Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  125. ↑ "Marronorganisaties blij met Brunswijk als vp-kandidaat". De Ware Tijd (in Holanci). Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  126. ↑ Thompson, Alvin O. (1999). Maroons of Guyana: Some Problems of Slave Desertion in Guyana, c. 1750–1814. Georgetown, Guyana: Free Press. pp. 15, 21. ISBN 976-8178-03-5. OCLC 49332819.
  127. ↑ Thompson 1976, p. 16.
  128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 128.2 128.3 Acosta Saignes, Miguel (1996). "Life in a Venezuelan Cumbe". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Majiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Rubutu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • History of the Maroons
  • Russell Banks (1980), The Book of Jamaica.
  • Campbell, Mavis Christine (1988), The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: a history of resistance, collaboration & betrayal, Granby, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-148-1
  • Corzo, Gabino La Rosa (2003), Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression (translated by Mary Todd), Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2803-3
  • Dallas, R. C. The History of the Maroons, from Their Origin to the Establishment of Their Chief Tribe at Sierra Leone. 2 vols. London: Longman. 1803.
  • De Granada, Germán (1970), Cimarronismo, palenques y Hablas "Criollas" en Hispanoamérica Instituto Caro y Cuero, Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia, OCLC 37821053 (in Spanish)
  • Diouf, Sylviane A. (2014), Slavery's Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons, New York: NYU Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-2437-8
  • Honychurch, Lennox (1995), The Dominica Story, London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-62776-8 (Includes extensive chapters on the Maroons of Dominica)
  • Hoogbergen, Wim S. M. Brill (1997), The Boni Maroon Wars in Suriname, Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09303-6
  • Learning, Hugo Prosper (1995), Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas Garland Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8153-1543-0
  • Price, Richard (ed.) (1973), Maroon Societies: rebel slave communities in the Americas, Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-06508-6
  • Schwaller, Robert, ed. African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents. University of Oklahoma Press, 2021.
  • Thompson, Alvin O. (2006), Flight to Freedom: African runaways and maroons in the Americas University of West Indies Press, Kingston, Jamaica, ISBN 976-640-180-2
  • Thompson, Alvin O. (1976). Some Problems of Slave Desertion in Guyana, C. 1750-1814. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies. p. 16.
  • van Velzen, H.U.E. Thoden and van Wetering, Wilhelmina (2004), In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society, Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-323-3

Mahaɗa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wikimedia Commons on Maroons

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