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Masu Hanyar 'Yanci

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Infotaula d'esdevenimentMasu Hanyar 'Yanci

Iri zanga-zanga
caravan (en) Fassara
Kwanan watan 4 Mayu –  10 Disamba 1961
Muhimmin darasi racial segregation in the United States (en) Fassara
Mai-tsarawa Congress of Racial Equality (en) Fassara
Participant (en) Fassara

 

Freedom Riders sun kasance masu fafutukar kare hakkin jama'a wadanda suka hau motocin bas zuwa cikin keɓaɓɓiyar Kudancin Amurka a cikin 1961 da kuma shekaru masu zuwa don ƙalubalantar rashin aiwatar da hukuncin Kotun Koli ta Amurka Morgan v. Virginia (1946) da Boynton v. Virginia (1960), waɗanda suka yanke hukuncin cewa keɓancewar motocin jama'a sun sabawa tsarin mulki. Jihohin Kudu sun yi watsi da hukuncin kuma gwamnatin tarayya ba ta yi wani abu ba don tilasta su. Hawan 'Yanci na farko ya bar Washington, DC, a ranar 4 ga Mayu, 1961, [1] kuma an shirya isa New Orleans ranar 17 ga Mayu.

Boynton ya haramta wariyar launin fata a cikin gidajen abinci da dakunan jira a cikin tashoshi masu ba da motocin bas waɗanda suka ketare layin jihar. [2] Shekaru biyar kafin hukuncin Boynton, Hukumar Kasuwanci ta Interstate (ICC) ta ba da wani hukunci a Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company (1955) wanda ya fito fili ya yi Allah wadai da koyaswar Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) na daban amma daidai a cikin tafiye-tafiyen bas. Kotun ta ICC ta gaza aiwatar da hukuncin da ta yanke, kuma dokokin tafiye-tafiye na Jim Crow sun ci gaba da aiki a duk Kudancin kasar.

Kungiyoyin Freedom Riders sun kalubalanci wannan halin da ake ciki ta hanyar hawa motocin bas na jihohin Kudu a cikin ƙungiyoyin kabilanci don ƙalubalantar dokokin gida ko kwastan da ke tilasta wariya a wurin zama. Rikicin 'Yanci, da tashin hankali da suka tada, sun ƙarfafa amincin ƙungiyoyin 'yancin ɗan adam na Amurka. Sun ja hankalin al’ummar kasar kan rashin mutunta dokar tarayya da tashe-tashen hankula da ake amfani da su wajen tilasta wariya a kudancin Amurka. 'Yan sanda sun kama mahayan da laifin keta doka, taron da ba bisa ka'ida ba, keta dokokin jihar da na karamar hukumar Jim Crow, da sauran laifukan da ake zarginsu da aikatawa, amma sau da yawa sun fara barin farar gungun masu zanga-zangar su far wa mahayin ba tare da tsangwama ba.

Tarihi

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Gabatarwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masu 'Yancin 'Yanci sun yi wahayi ne ta hanyar 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, wanda Bayard Rustin da George Houser suka jagoranta kuma tare da haɗin gwiwar Fellowship of Reconciliation da Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Kamar Rides na 'Yanci na 1961, Tafiya na Sulhunta an yi niyya don gwada hukuncin Kotun Koli na farko wanda ya haramta wariyar launin fata a cikin tafiye-tafiye tsakanin jihohi. Rustin, Igal Roodenko, Joe Felmet da Andrew Johnnson, an kama su kuma aka yanke musu hukuncin yin aiki a wata ƙungiya ta sarka a Arewacin Carolina saboda karya dokokin Jim Crow na gida game da wuraren zama na jama'a. [3]

Ride na farko na Freedom Ride ya fara ne a ranar 4 ga Mayu, 1961. Jagoran CORE Daraktan James Farmer, 13 matasa mahaya ( baƙar fata bakwai, fari shida, ciki har da amma ba'a iyakance ga John Lewis (21), Genevieve Hughes (28), Mae Frances Moultrie, Joseph Perkins, Charles Person (18), Ivor Moore, [4] William Muuer (1) da kuma Edwland E. Blankenheim ), ya bar Washington, DC, akan Greyhound (daga Greyhound Terminal ) da bas ɗin Trailways . Shirin su shi ne tafiya ta Virginia, Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, da Mississippi, wanda zai ƙare a New Orleans, Louisiana, inda aka shirya gangamin 'yancin ɗan adam. Yawancin Mahaya sun sami tallafin CORE da SNCC tare da kashi 75% na mahayan tsakanin shekaru 18 zuwa 30. Ƙungiyar masu sa kai daban-daban sun fito daga jihohi 39, kuma sun fito ne daga nau'o'in tattalin arziki daban- ] [ kuma launin fata. Yawancin daliban koleji ne kuma sun sami horo a cikin dabarun rashin tashin hankali. [5]

Dabarun ’Yancin na ’Yanci don tafiyarsu ita ce a samu aƙalla ma’aurata biyu suna zaune a kujerun da ke kusa, kuma aƙalla mahaya baƙar fata ɗaya zaune a gaba, inda aka keɓe kujerun da ke ƙarƙashin rarrabuwa ga abokan cinikin farar fata bisa ga al’adar gida a duk faɗin Kudancin. Sauran tawagar za su zauna a warwatse ko'ina cikin sauran bas. Wani mahayi zai bi ka'idojin wariyar launin fata na Kudu don gujewa kamawa da tuntuɓar CORE da shirya belin waɗanda aka kama.

An fuskanci ƙananan matsaloli a Virginia da North Carolina, amma an kai wa John Lewis hari a Rock Hill, South Carolina . An kama Fiye da Mahaya 300 a Charlotte, North Carolina; Winnsboro, Kudancin Carolina; da Jackson, Mississippi.

Rikicin 'yan zanga-zanga a Anniston da Birmingham

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Gidan harin bas na Greyhound (tsakiya) yana kudu da Anniston akan Old Birmingham Highway (dama). Dubi abin tunawa na Freedom Riders National Monument (hoton 2017)
Tashin hankali a Anniston Trailways Terminal, a 901 Noble St., ana tunawa da shi da bangon bango (hoton 2012)

Haɓaka lokacin rani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An kama masu fafutuka Patricia Stephens da Reverend Petty D. McKinney a Tallahassee, Florida, ranar 16 ga Yuni, 1961.

CORE, SNCC, da SCLC sun ƙi duk wani "lokacin sanyaya". Sun kafa Kwamitin Gudanarwa na 'Yancin Riders don ci gaba da tafiya har zuwa Yuni, Yuli, Agusta, da Satumba. A cikin waɗannan watanni, fiye da 60 daban-daban Freedom Rides criss-ƙetare Kudu, mafi yawansu convering a kan Jackson, inda kowane Rider aka kama, fiye da 300 a duka. An kama wasu da ba a san adadinsu ba a wasu garuruwan Kudancin kasar. An kiyasta cewa kusan mutane 450 ne suka halarci hawan 'Yanci daya ko fiye. Kimanin kashi 75% maza ne, kuma kashi iri ɗaya sun kasance ƙasa da shekaru 30, tare da kusan daidaitattun shiga daga baƙi da baƙi.

Tallahassee

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A tsakiyar watan Yuni, ƙungiyar Freedom Riders sun shirya don kawo karshen hawan su a Tallahassee, Florida, tare da shirye-shiryen tashi daga gida daga filin jirgin sama na Tallahassee . An ba su ‘yan sanda rakiya zuwa filin jirgin sama daga wuraren bas na birnin. A filin jirgin sama, sun yanke shawarar cin abinci a gidan cin abinci na Savarin wanda aka yiwa alama "For Whites Only". [6] Masu mallakar sun yanke shawarar rufe maimakon bauta wa gauraya ƙungiyar 'Yanci Riders. Duk da cewa gidan abincin na sirri ne, an yi hayarsa daga gwamnatin gundumomi. Soke ajiyar jirginsu, Masu Riders sun yanke shawarar jira har sai an sake buɗe gidan abincin don a ba su hidima. Sun jira har 11:00 pm a wannan dare kuma ya dawo washegari. A wannan lokacin, jama'a masu adawa sun taru, suna barazanar tashin hankali. A ranar 16 ga Yuni, 1961, an kama Ma’aikatan Freedom Riders a Tallahassee don taro ba bisa ka’ida ba. [7] Wannan kama da shari'ar da ta biyo baya ya zama sanannun Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, mai suna Isra'ila S. Dresner, wani rabbi a cikin kungiyar da aka kama. An yanke wa mahaya hukuncin daurin haramtacciyar taro ta Kotun Municipal na Tallahassee, kuma an tabbatar da hukuncin a Kotun Kotu ta Florida na Kotun Shari'a ta Biyu. [8] An daukaka karar hukuncin zuwa Kotun Koli ta Amurka a cikin 1963, wacce ta ki sauraron karar bisa dalilai na shari'a. [9] A cikin 1964, masu zanga-zangar Tallahassee 10 sun koma birni don yin taƙaitaccen hukuncin ɗaurin kurkuku. [6]

Monroe, North Carolina, da Robert F. Williams

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A watan Agusta, ma'aikatan SNCC James Forman da Paul Brooks, tare da goyon bayan Ella Baker, sun fara shirin Ride Freedom a cikin haɗin kai tare da Robert F. Williams . Williams ya kasance shugaban kungiyar NAACP na Monroe, North Carolina, mai gwagwarmaya da rigima. Bayan da ya bayyana wa jama'a cewa zai "gamu da tashin hankali da tashin hankali," (tunda gwamnatin tarayya ba za ta kare al'ummarsa daga hare-haren launin fata ba) Hukumar NAACP ta kasa ta dakatar da shi saboda rashin amincewa da kasancewar Williams a cikin gida. Williams ya ci gaba da aikinsa na adawa da wariya duk da haka, amma yanzu yana da babbar adawa a cikin al'ummomin baki da fari. Ya kuma fuskanci ] [ yawa yunkurin rayuwarsa saboda hakan. Wasu ma'aikatan SNCC sun nuna tausayi da ra'ayin kare kai da makamai, ko da yake da yawa a kan tafiya zuwa Monroe suna ganin wannan a matsayin wata dama ta tabbatar da fifiko na Gandhian rashin tashin hankali a kan amfani da karfi. [10] Forman yana cikin waɗanda har yanzu suna goyon bayan Williams.

Na asali da na gaba na 'Yanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Atlanta, GA, Greyhound Bus Station da Gidan Abinci, c. 1940
Birmingham, AL, Greyhound Bus Station, c. 1950
Tashar Tashar tashar Atlanta, asalin Hawan 'Yanci akan Tsakiyar Jojiya Railway .



(kallon gidan waya, c. 1949)
     Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v. Virginia (1960) decision at a terminal facility only
Ride Date Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref. Note
Original CORE Freedom Ride May 4–17, 1961 Trailways Washington, D.C. New Orleans, Louisiana [11] [note 2]
Greyhound Washington, D.C. New Orleans, Louisiana
Nashville Student Movement Freedom Ride May 17–21, 1961 Birmingham, Alabama New Orleans, Louisiana [11] [12]
Connecticut Freedom Ride May 24–25, 1961 Greyhound Atlanta, Georgia Montgomery, Alabama [11] [13]
Interfaith Freedom Ride June 13–16, 1961 Greyhound Washington, D.C. Tallahassee, Florida [11] [15]
Organized Labor–Professional Freedom Ride June 13–16, 1961 Washington, D.C. St. Petersburg, Florida [11] [17]
Missouri to Louisiana CORE Freedom Ride July 8–15, 1961 St. Louis, Missouri New Orleans, Louisiana [11] [19]
New Jersey to Arkansas CORE Freedom Ride July 13–24, 1961 Newark, New Jersey Little Rock, Arkansas [11] [20]
Los Angeles to Houston Freedom Ride August 9–11, 1961 Union Railway Station Los Angeles, California Houston, Texas [11] [21]
Monroe Freedom Ride August 17–September 1, 1961 Monroe, North Carolina [11] [23]
Prayer Pilgrimage Freedom Ride September 13, 1961 Trailways New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [26]
Albany Freedom Rides November 1, 1961 Trailways (terminal only) Atlanta, Georgia [11] [27]
Trailways Atlanta, Georgia Albany, Georgia [11] [28]
November 22, 1961 Trailways (terminal only) Albany, Georgia [11] [29]
December 10, 1961 Central of Georgia Railway Atlanta Terminal Station Albany, Georgia (Union Station) [11] [31]
McComb Freedom Rides November 29, 1961 Greyhound New Orleans, Louisiana McComb, Mississippi [11] [34]
December 1, 1961 Greyhound Baton Rouge, Louisiana McComb, Mississippi [11] [35]
December 2, 1961 Greyhound Jackson, Mississippi McComb, Mississippi [11] [36]

Mississippi Freedom Rides

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tashar Greyhound mai kiyayewa, Jackson, Mississippi
Bus Depot, Nashville, Tennessee c. 1940
New Orleans Union Terminal Fasinja
Tashar Union (Jackson, Mississippi)
     Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v. Virginia (1960) decision at a terminal facility only
Date Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref. Note
May 24, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [38]
Greyhound Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [40]
May 28, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [41]
Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [42]
May 30, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [43]
June 2, 1961 Trailways (#1) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [44]
Trailways (#2) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [46]
June 6, 1961 Trailways New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [47]
June 7, 1961 Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [49]
Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [50]
Hawkins Field (airport) St. Louis, Missouri Jackson, Mississippi [11] [51]
June 8, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [53]
Hawkins Field (airport) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [54]
June 9, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [55]
June 10, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [56]
June 11, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [58]
June 16, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [59]
June 19, 1961 Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [60]
June 20, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [61]
June 21, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [62]
June 23, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station[63] (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [64]
June 25, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [67]
July 2, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [68]
July 5, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [70]
July 6, 1961 Jackson Union Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [71]
Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [74]
July 7, 1961 Jackson Union Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [75]
Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [76]
July 9, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [80]
Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [82]
Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [83]
July 15, 1961 Greyhound New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [84]
July 16, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [85]
July 21, 1961 Hawkins Field (airport terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [87]
Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [88]
July 23, 1961 Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [89]
July 24, 1961 Hawkins Field (airport) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [11] [91]
July 29, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [92]
July 30, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [11] [93]
July 31, 1961 Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [94]
August 5, 1961 Trailways (bus and terminal) Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [11] [95]
August 13, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [11] [96]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "The Freedom Rides". Congress of Racial Equality. Archived from the original on July 10, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
  2. ↑ Catsam.
  3. ↑ "Journey of Reconciliation". Spartacus Educational. Archived from the original on July 15, 2017. Retrieved June 26, 2018.
  4. ↑ "Meet the Players: Freedom Riders | American Experience". www.pbs.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-07-30.
  5. ↑ "The Freedom Riders, Then and Now". Smithsonian Magazine (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-07-30.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Freedom Ride Stops in Tallahassee". Florida Historical Society (in Turanci). 1 April 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  7. ↑ Morgenroth.
  8. ↑ "Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, 375 U.S. 136, 11L ed 2d 208, 84 S.CT. 235 (1963)". 1963. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
  9. ↑ "Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, 378 U.S. 539 (1964)". 1964. Retrieved October 8, 2021.
  10. ↑ Tyson.
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.22 11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 11.27 11.28 11.29 11.30 11.31 11.32 11.33 11.34 11.35 11.36 11.37 11.38 11.39 11.40 11.41 11.42 11.43 11.44 11.45 11.46 11.47 11.48 11.49 11.50 11.51 11.52 11.53 11.54 11.55 11.56 11.57 11.58 Arsenault 2006.
  12. ↑ Included 23 participants – William Barbee, James Bevel, Paul Brooks, Catherine Burks-Brooks, Carl Bush, Charles Butler, Joseph Carter, Allen Cason Jr., Lucretia Collins, Rudolph Graham, William E. Harbour, Susan Hermann, Patricia Jenkins, Bernard Lafayette, Frederick Leonard, John Lewis, Salynn McCollum, William B. Mitchell Jr., Etta Simpson, Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson, Susan Wilbur, Clarence M. Wright and James Zwerg.
  13. ↑ Included 7 participants – Clyde Carter, William Sloane Coffin, Joseph Charles Jones, John Maguire, Gaylord Noyce, George B. Smith and David E. Swift.
  14. ↑ "Rabbi Walter Plaut, 44, Dead". The New York Times. January 4, 1964. Archived from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
  15. ↑ Included 18 participants – C. Donald Alstork, Robert McAfee Brown, John Collier, Israel S. Dresner, Malcolm Evans, Martin Freedman, Arthur L. Hardge, Wayne "Chris" Clyde Hartmire Jr., George Leake, Allan Levine, Petty McKinney, Walter Plaut,[14] Henry Proctor, Ralph Lord Roy, Perry A. Smith III, Robert J. Stone, A. McRaven (Mack) Warner and Edward White.
  16. ↑ Sullivan, Ronald (September 29, 1993). "Makaza Kumanyika, 60, Leader Of Civil Rights Protests in 1960's". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
  17. ↑ Included 14 participants – Jerald Bobrow, Herbert Callender,[16] Ralph Diamond, Joyce Lebowitz, Sheree Massaquoi, Edward Morton, Gordon Negen, James O'Connor, Francis Randall, Laura Randall, Leslie Smith, Daniel N. Stern, Dupree White and Benny Winston.
  18. ↑ Rogers, Alexis (February 23, 2016). "Freedom Riders: The 5 Who Forever Changed Arkansas". KATV ABC 7. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  19. ↑ Included 5 participants – Benjamin Elton Cox, Annie Lumpkin, Bliss Anne Malone, John Curtis Raines and Janet Reinitz.[18]
  20. ↑ Included 5 participants – John C. Harvard, Sidney Shanken, Woollcott Smith, Herman (Chaim) S. Stern and Hank Thomas.
  21. ↑ Included 18 participants – Charles Berrard, Marjorie Dunson, Robert Farrell, Herbert Hamilton, Willie Handy, Holly Hogrobrooks, John Hutchins, Eddie Jones, Robert E. Jones, Robert Paul Kaufman, Ellen Kleinman, Pat Kovner, Ronald La Bostrie, Steven McNichols, Marian Moody, Beverly Radcliffe, Steven Sanfield and Joseph McClendon Stevenson.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Alfonso, Fernando III (May 2, 2011). "Syracuse Minister Who Took Part in Civil Rights Freedom Rides Featured in WCNY Show". Syracuse.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  23. ↑ Included 19 participants – Robert M. Baum, Edward J. Bromberg, Paul Brooks, Charles Butler, Price Chatham, Paul David Dietrich, James Forman, Richard P. Griswold, Larry Fred Hunter, Edward W. Kale, Frederick Leonard, John Lowry, William Carl Mahoney, Joseph John Michael McDonald, David Kerr Morton, Heath Cliff Rush, Kenneth Martin Shilman, Daniel Ray Thompson and LeRoy Glenn Wright.[22]
  24. ↑ Marquard, Bryan (January 6, 2012). "Rev. John Crocker Jr., 88; Activist, College Chaplain". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  25. ↑ Smith, J. Y. (July 9, 2001). "Rev. William Wendt Dies at 81". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  26. ↑ Included 15 participants – Gilbert S. Avery III, Myron B. Bloy Jr., James Pleasant Breeden, John Crocker Jr.,[24] James Walker Evans, John Marvin Evans, Quinland Reeves Gordon, James Garrard Jones, John Burnett Morris, Robert Laughlin Pierson, Geoffrey Sedgewick Simpson, Robert Page Taylor, William Adrew Wendt,[25] Vernon P. Woodward and Merrill Orne Young.
  27. ↑ Included 4 participants – James Bevel, James Forman, Joseph Charles Jones and Bernard Lafayette
  28. ↑ Included 3 participants – Salynn McCollum, Cordell Reagon and Charles Sherrod.
  29. ↑ Included 5 participants – Julian Carswell, Bertha Gober, Blanton Hall, Evelyn Toney and Eddie Wilson.
  30. ↑ Ortiz, Keldy (January 20, 2013). "Segregated Victoria Shaped Civil Rights Leader's Life". Victoria Advocate. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  31. ↑ Included 9 participants – Joan Browning, Norma F. Collins, James Forman, Sandra Cason "Casey" Hayden,[30] Tom Hayden, Per Laursen, Bernard Lee, Lenora Taitt and Robert Zellner.
  32. ↑ Webster, Richard A. (September 14, 2015). "Alice Thompson, 75, Remembered as Civil Rights 'Warrior'". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  33. ↑ Webster, Richard A. (July 1, 2014). "New Orleans Freedom Riders and the Fight for Civil Rights". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  34. ↑ Included 5 participants – George Raymond Jr., Doratha Smith, Jerome H. Smith, Alice Thompson[32] and Thomas Valentine.[33]
  35. ↑ Included 6 participants – Willie Bradford, Thomas Peete, George Raymond Jr., Claude Reese, Patricia Tate and Jean Thompson.
  36. ↑ Included 5 participants – James Burnham, Jerome Byrd, MacArthur Cotton, Thomas Gaither and Joe Lewis.
  37. ↑ Tamburin, Adam. "Civil Rights Activist Matthew Walker Jr. Dead at 74". Tennessean. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  38. ↑ Included 12 participants – Julia Aaron, Alexander M. Anderson, Harold Andrews, James Bevel, Joseph Carter, Dave Dennis, Paul David Dietrich, Bernard Lafayette, James Lawson, Jean Catherine Thompson, C. T. Vivian, Matthew Walker Jr.[37]
  39. ↑ Thomas-Lester, Avis (May 31, 2011). "Local Freedom Riders Remember the Movement". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  40. ↑ Included 15 participants – Peter M. Ackerberg, Doris Castle, Lucretia R. Collins, John Lee Copeland, Dion Tyrone Diamond,[39] Grady H. Donald, James Farmer, Frank George Holloway, John Lewis, John H. Moody Jr., Ernest (Rip) Patton Jr., Jerome H. Smith, Clarence Lloyd Thomas, Hank Thomas and LeRoy Glenn Wright.[22]
  41. ↑ Included 9 participants – Catherine Burks-Brooks, William E. Harbour, Frederick Leonard, Lester G. McKinnie, William B. Mitchell Jr., Etta Simpson, Mary J. Smith, Frances L. Wilson and Clarence M. Wright.
  42. ↑ Included 8 participants – Allen Cason Jr., Albert Lee Dunn, David B. Fankhauser, Franklin W. Hunt, Larry Fred Hunter, Pauline Edythe Knight, William Carl Mahoney and Charles David Myers.
  43. ↑ Included 8 participants – James Keet Davis Jr., Glenda Jean Gaither, Paul S. Green, Joe Henry Griffith, Charles Haynie, Robert Lawrence Heller, Sandra Marie Nixon and Peter Sterling.
  44. ↑ Included 6 participants – Charles Butler, Price Chatham, Joseph John Michael McDonald, Meryle Joy Reagon, Kenneth Martin Shilman and Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson.
  45. ↑ Marble, Steve (April 1, 2019). "Ralph Fertig, '60s Freedom Rider who became the conscience of L.A., dies at 89". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
  46. ↑ Included 8 participants – Ralph Fertig,[45] Richard LeRoy Gleason, Jesse J. Harris, Cordell Reagon, Carolyn Yvonne Reed, Felix Jacques Singer, Leslie Word and Elizabeth Porter Wyckoff.
  47. ↑ Included 7 participants – Johnny Frank Ashford, Abraham Bassfordt, James Thomas McDonough, Terry John Sullivan, Shirley Thompson, James Robert Wahlstrom and Ernest Newell Weber.
  48. ↑ Paulson, Kaitlin (October 29, 2008). "Former Freedom Rider Addresses Yalies". Yale Daily News. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  49. ↑ Included 6 participants – John Gager, Reginald Malcolm Green,[48] Edward W. Kale, Raymond B. Randolph Jr., Carol Ruth Silver and Obadiah Lee Simms.
  50. ↑ Included 1 participant – Michael Audain.
  51. ↑ Included 3 participants – Gwendolyn C. Jenkins, Robert L. Jenkins and Ralph Edward Washington.
  52. ↑ Barnum, Art; Biddle, Fred Marc (July 23, 1988). "Activist Pastor Slain, Suspect Held". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  53. ↑ Included 9 participants – Travis O. Britt, Stokely Carmichael, Gwendolyn T. Greene, Teri Susan Perlman, Jane Ellen Rosett, Jan Leighton Triggs, Joan Harris Trumpauer, Robert Wesby[52] and Helene Dorothy Wilson.
  54. ↑ Included 2 participants – Mark Lane and Percy Sutton.
  55. ↑ Included 5 participants – Margaret Winonah Beamer, Edward J. Bromberg, Patricia Elaine Bryant, Del Greenblatt and Heath Cliff Rush.
  56. ↑ Included 6 participants – Leora Berman, Stephen John Green, Richard P. Giswold, Leon Daniel Horne, Katherine Pleune and Lowell A. Woods Jr.
  57. ↑ Tevlin, Jon (May 10, 2011). "Minnesota Freedom Rider has Remained True to the Cause". StarTribune. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
  58. ↑ Included 7 participants – Zev Aelony, Robert M. Baum, Marvin Allen Davidov, David Kerr Morton, Claire O'Connor,[57] Daniel Ray Thompson and Eugine John Uphoff.
  59. ↑ Included 5 participants – Elizabeth S. Adler, Bob Filner, Elizabeth Slade Hirschfeld, Karen Elizabeth Kytle and Leon N. Rice.
  60. ↑ Included 1 participant – Eugene Levine.
  61. ↑ Included 13 participants – Rita J. Carter, Margaret Ann Kerr, Robert Martinson, Paul Duncan McConnell, Frederick Dean Muntean, Grant Harland Muse Jr., Lestra Alene Peterson, Joan Pleune, Joseph Marion Pratt, Jorgia B. Yvonne Siegel, Buren Lewis Teale, Lawrence Triss Jr. and Thomas Van Roland.
  62. ↑ Included 9 participants – Miriam (Mimi) Feingold, Judith Ann Frieze, Margaret Burr Leonard, Samuel Timothy Nash, Henry Schwarzschild, Leon Felton Smith Jr., Theresa Edwards Walker, Wyatt Tee Walker and Melvin Lorenzo White.
  63. ↑ "Demolishing History Before It Becomes Historic". Preservation in Mississippi. 17 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  64. ↑ Included 4 participants – Thomas Madison Armstrong III, Mary Magdalene Harrison, Elnora R. Price and Joseph Lee Ross.
  65. ↑ "Mary Hamilton Wesley, 67; Civil Rights Activist Challenged Segregation". Los Angeles Times. December 12, 2002. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  66. ↑ Yeager, Andrew (July 12, 2013). "Mary Hamilton, The Woman Who Put The 'Miss' In Court". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  67. ↑ Included 20 participants – George Marion Blevins, Gloria Leevare-Dee Bouknight, Arthur Brooks Jr., John Luther Dolan, Mary Lucille Hamilton,[65][66] Gordon Lau Harris, Louise Jean Inghram, Frank Johnson, Marian Alice Kendall, Norma Libson, Claude Albert Liggins, Eddora Mae Manning, Robert William Mason, Fank Arthur Nelson, Janice Louise Rogers, John Copeland Rogers, Marica Arlene Rosenbaum, Wayne Leslie Taylor, Richard Thorne and Claire Drew Toombs.
  68. ↑ Included 5 participants – Barbara Jane Kay, Robert Allen Miller, Michael Leon Pritchard, Peter Harry Stoner and Leotis Thornton.
  69. ↑ Mitchell, Jerry (January 29, 2015). "Longtime Civil Rights Activist Jessie Harris Dies". Clarion-Ledger. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  70. ↑ Included 9 participants – Robert Earl Bass, Ralph Floyd, Eugene Lee, Marshall Bennett, Miller G. Green Jr., Robert Lee Green, Jesse L. Harris,[69] Percy Lee Johnson and James Wilson Jones.
  71. ↑ Included 6 participants – Frank Caston, Frankie Lee Griffin, Alpha Zara Palmer, West Davis Phillips, Tommie Watts Jr. and Mack Charles Wells.
  72. ↑ Watson, Dylan (January 17, 2011). "Hezekiah Watkins". Jackson Free Press. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Luster, Marla (February 16, 2002). "Freedom Riders Urge Students to Keep Fighting". Tuscaloosa News. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  74. ↑ Included 6 participants – Alfonzo Denson Jr., Samuel Givens, Landy McNair Jr., Earl Vance Jr., Hezekiah Watkins[72][73] and Paul Edward Young.
  75. ↑ Included 1 participant – Morton Bruce Slater.
  76. ↑ Included 8 participants – Charles Biggers, Elmer L. Brown, William Walter Hansen Jr., John Lowry, Norma Matzkin, Isaac (Ike) Reynolds Jr., Daniel Stevens and Willie James Thomas.
  77. ↑ "Goldbart, Lionel, 1934-". crdl.usg.edu - Civil Rights Digital Library. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
  78. ↑ Adams, Ann-Marie (October 28, 2013). "Freedom Rider Lula Mae White Comes to Hartford Public Library". Hartford Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  79. ↑ McLoughlin, Pamela (February 26, 2012). "Retired New Haven Teacher Taught, Lived History as Member of Freedom Riders". New Haven Register. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  80. ↑ Included 8 participants – Daniel E. Bukholder, Lionel Goldbart,[77] Albert Forrest Gordon, Stephen Greenstein, Jeanne H. Herrick, Saul Bernard Manfield, Ralph Robert Rogers and Lula Mae White.[78][79]
  81. ↑ Treadway, Chris (April 1, 2014). "John Taylor, a 1961 Freedom Rider, dies at 78". Mercury News. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  82. ↑ Included 9 participants – Patricia Dale Baskerville, Larry Bell, Tommie Eldridge Brashear, Edmond Dalbert Jr., Reginald Jackson, Edward B. Johnson, Philip Jonathan Perkins, Roena Rand and John Charles Taylor Jr.[81]
  83. ↑ Included 11 participants – Leo Vone Blue, Mildred Juanita Blue, Fred Douglas Clark,[73] Jessie James Davis, Gainnel Hayes, Andrew Horne Jr., Erma Lee Horne, Delores Williams Lynch, Henry Rosell, Oneal Vance and Joe Watts Jr.
  84. ↑ Included 12 participants – Carroll Gary Barber, Charles Henry Booth, Ray Allen Cooper, Marilyn Irene Eisenberg, Robert Lewis Owens, Jean Estil Kidwell Pestana, David Lering Richards, Rose Schorr Rosenberg, Leon Russ Jr., Leo Vernon Washington, Douglas Albert Williams and Jack Mikhail Wolfson.
  85. ↑ Included 8 participants – James Emerson Dennis, Mary Freelon, Phillip Jay Havey, Rudolph Mitaritonna, Shirley B. Smith, Willard Hooker Svanoe, James Edward Warren and Lewis Richard Zuchman.
  86. ↑ "Rabbi Joseph H. Gumbiner; Civil Rights Activist". Los Angeles Times. March 27, 1993. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  87. ↑ Included 9 participants – James T. Carey, Francis L. Geddes, Joseph Henry Gumbiner,[86] Mary Jorgensen, Russell F. Jorgensen, Allan Levine, Orville B. Luster, Charles G. Sellers and John R. Washington.
  88. ↑ Included 4 participants – Paul Breines, Donna Sage Garde, Joel Ben Greenberg and Ruth Esther Moskowitz.
  89. ↑ Included 7 participants – Albert Roy Huddleston, Margaret Ihra, Candida Lall, Morton G. Linder, Michael Harry Powell, Alexander Weiss and Ralph Alan Williams.
  90. ↑ "The Petways – Kredelle Petway Dendy and Rev. Alfonso K. Petway". Vimeo. Winter Institute. August 2013. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  91. ↑ Included 4 participants – Alphonso Kelly Petway, Kredelle Petway, Matthew Petway and Cecil A. Thomas.[90]
  92. ↑ Included 10 participants – Byron Baer, Hilmar Ehrenfreid Pabel, Catherine Jo Prensky, Sally Rowley, Judith Norene Scroggins, Rick Stanley Sheviakov, Woollcott Smith, Widijonaiko Tjokroadisunatto, Norma Wagner and Ellen Lee Ziskind.
  93. ↑ Included 15 participants – Albert Barough, Winston Fuller, Joseph Edward Gerbac, Michael Grubbs, Alan Kaufman, William Leons, Herbert S. Mann, Max Gregory Pavesic, Philip M. Posner, Helen Singleton, Robert Singleton, Richard C. Steward, Lonnie Thurman, Sam Joe Townsend and Tanya Wren.
  94. ↑ Included 1 participant – James Robert Wahlstrom.
  95. ↑ Included 2 participants – Earl C. Bohannon and Norma Wagner.
  96. ↑ Included 2 participants – George Raymond Jr. and Pauline K. Sims.
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