Mata A Afrika

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Mata A Afrika
women in a geographic region (en) Fassara
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Facet of (en) Fassara women's history (en) Fassara
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 21°05′38″N 7°11′17″E / 21.09375°N 7.1881°E / 21.09375; 7.1881
A Congolese woman defends and promotes the rights of women via a message printed on the fabric she wears, 2015.
Wata mata 'yar Congo ta kare da kuma inganta 'yancin mata ta hanyar sakon da aka buga akan masana'anta da ta sanya a shekarar 2015.

Al'adu, juyin halitta, da tarihin matan da aka haifa a ciki, suke zaune a ciki, kuma daga nahiyar Afirka suna nuna juyin halitta da tarihin nahiyar Afirka kanta.

An gudanar da gajerun nazari da dama dangane da tarihin mata a ƙasashen Afirka. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Yawancin karatu suna mayar da hankali kan matsayi na tarihi da matsayi na mata a wasu ƙasashe da yankuna, irin su Masar, Habasha, Maroko, Nigeria [6] Lesotho, [7] da kuma yankin kudu da hamadar Sahara . [8] [9] Kwanan nan, masana sun fara mayar da hankali kan juyin halittar mata a tsawon tarihin Afirka ta hanyar amfani da kafofin da ba a saba amfani da su ba, kamar waƙoƙin Malawi, fasahohin saka a Sakkwato, da kuma ilimin harshe na tarihi.

Matsayin mata a Afirka ya bambanta a cikin ƙasashe da yankuna. Misali, Ruwanda ita ce ƙasa ɗaya tilo a duniya da mata ke rike da fiye da rabin kujeru a majalisar dokoki - kashi 51.9% a watan Yulin shekara ta 2019, [10] to amma Maroko tana da minista mace guda a majalisar ministocinta. An yi gagarumin ƙoƙari wajen tabbatar da daidaiton jinsi ta hanyar samar da Yarjejeniya ta Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a, wadda ke ƙarfafa ƙasashe mambobin ƙungiyar su kawo ƙarshen wariya da cin zarafin mata. [11] Ban da Maroko da Burundi, duk kasashen Afirka sun amince da wannan yarjejeniya. Duk da haka, duk da wadannan yunƙurin zuwa daidaito, mata har yanzu suna fuskantar matsaloli daban-daban da suka shafi rashin dai-daito tsakanin jinsi, kamar rashin dai-daito na talauci da ilimi, rashin lafiya da abinci mai gina jiki, rashin ikon siyasa, iyakancewar aikin aiki, cin zarafin jinsi, kaciya . da auren yara .

Tarihin matan Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mural na wata mace mai martaba Makurian wacce Budurwa Maryamu ta kare, karni na 12
Mace sojan sojan 'yantar da PAIGC wasan katunan, Guinea-Bissau, 1973

Nazarin tarihin matan Afirka ya fito a matsayin fage jim kaɗan bayan tarihin Afirka ya zama abin da ake mutuntawa na ilimi. Masana tarihi irin su Jan Vansina da Walter Rodney sun tilasta wa ɗaliban ƙasashen yamma su amince da wanzuwar al'ummomin Afirka da jahohin da suka yi wa mulkin mallaka bayan yunkurin 'yancin kai na Afirka na shekarun 1960, kodayake sun fi mayar da hankali kan tarihin maza. Ester Boserup, masanin tattalin arziki na tarihi, ta buga littafinta mai ban mamaki, Rawar Mata a Ci gaban Tattalin Arziki, a cikin shekara ta 1970. Wannan littafi ya kwatanta rawar da mata suka taka a tarihin Afirka a matsayin masu samar da tattalin arziki da kuma yadda tsarin mulkin mallaka ya rushe . A cikin shekarun 1980, masana sun tattara bayanan tarihin matan Afirka a duk faɗin nahiyar, alal misali, binciken George Brooks na shekara ta 1976 na mata yan kasuwa a Senegal kafin mulkin mallaka, Margaret Jean Hays ta 1976 nazarin yadda sauyin tattalin arziki a Kenya yan mulkin mallaka ya shafi matan Luo, da kuma Nazarin Kristin Mann a 1985 akan aure a Najeriya . A tsawon lokaci, masana tarihi sun yi muhawara game da matsayi da matsayi na mata a cikin al'ummar mulkin mallaka da na mulkin mallaka, sun bincika yadda mata suka magance canje-canjen nau'i na zalunci, sunyi nazarin yadda abubuwan mamaki kamar na gida suka zama jinsi, sun gano matsayin mata a gwagwarmayar ƙasa don samun 'yancin kai, har ma sun yi jayayya da cewa nau'in "mace" a wasu lokuta ba za a iya amfani da shi a cikin yanayin mulkin mallaka ba. An nuna mata a matsayin masu taka rawar tarihi, tattalin arziki da zamantakewa a kusan kowane yanki na Afirka tsawon ƙarni.

Al'adu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin gida[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Daga cikin shekara ta 1940s har zuwa lokacin da Maroko ta ayyana 'yancin kai daga tarbiyar Faransa a Shekara ta 1956, matan Moroccan suna rayuwa a cikin rukunin dangi waɗanda ke “gidaje na rufaffiyar” ko kuma haramun . A hankali al'adar salon rayuwar haramun ga mata ta ƙare bayan samun 'yancin kai daga ƙasar Faransa a 1956.

Sashin ma'aikata na al'ada a Senegal yana ganin matan Senegal suna da alhakin ayyukan gida kamar dafa abinci, tsaftacewa, da kula da yara. Haka kuma sun ɗauki nauyin aikin noma mai yawa, da suka haɗa da ciyayi da kuma girbin amfanin gona na yau da kullun kamar shinkafa. A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, sauyin tattalin arziki da ci gaban birane ya sa samari da yawa yin hijira zuwa birane kamar Dakar . Matan karkara sun kara kaimi wajen sarrafa albarkatun gandun daji na ƙauyuka da kuma sana’ar gero da injinan shinkafa.

A cikin al'umma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An ƙarfafa wariyar jinsi a duk faɗin nahiyar a lokacin mulkin mallaka. A zamanin mulkin mallaka, mata suna rike da masarautu a kansu, kuma wasu kabilu ma suna da al'adu don ba da haƙƙin daular zuwa ga sarauta ga zuriyar sarauta ta hanyar matrilineal (misali, Asanteman, Balobedu, Ijawland, daular Wolof ). Mulkin mallaka ya lalata ikon waɗannan masarautu da al'adu, kuma ya ƙarfafa abin da ya kasance a lokacin da ya riga ya hau kan sarauta daga baya. Hakan ya fuskanci adawa mai zafi, wanda aka fi sani da rikicin mata a Abeokuta a Najeriya. Bayan samun ‘yancin kai, ƙasashe masu cin gashin kansu sun ƙarfafa ƙa’idojin jinsi da tsarin ajin da suka gada daga magabatan su ‘yan mulkin mallaka, saboda dukkanin gwamnatocin farko da na biyu na gwamnatocin Afrika sun kasa maido da mulkin gargajiya na mata. Wannan ya haifar da ƙarin adawa, kuma a cikin shekaru biyun da suka gabata an sami gagarumin ci gaba a cikin lamarin.

Matan da aka yi wa lakabi da su a tarihin Afirka sun hada da Fatim Beye, Ndoye Demba da Ndate Yalla Mbodj na Senegal, Moremi, Idia, Amina, Orompoto, Nana Asma'u da Efunroye Tinubu na Najeriya, Yaa Asantewaa na Ghana, Yennenga na Burkina Faso, Hangbe na Benin, Makeda, Zawditu da Embet Ilen na Habasha da Eritrea, Nandi na Afirka ta Kudu da Hatshepsut na Masar. Dukkanin ana yaba su azaman abin ƙarfafawa ga matan Afirka na zamani. Yawancin matan Afirka na wannan zamani membobi ne na kungiyar Queens and Women Cultural Networks Network, kungiyar sa kai .

A cikin adabi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fitattun marubutan Afirka sun mayar da hankali kan ayyukansu kan batutuwan da suka shafi mata musamman a Afirka, ciki har da Nawal El Saadawi (a cikin littattafai irin su Woman at Point Zero da The Hidden Face of Eve ), Flora Nwapa ( Efuru ), Ama Ata Aidoo ( Anowa, Canje-canje ). : Labarin Soyayya ), da Buchi Emecheta ( Farashin Amarya, Yarinyar Bauta, Farin Ciki na Iyaye ).

Ilimi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yankin Saharar Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Duk da cewa kasashen dake kudu da hamadar sahara sun samu gagarumin ci gaba wajen samar da ilimi ga maza da mata, kashi 23% na 'yan mata ba sa samun ilimin firamare. Abubuwan da suka shafi zamantakewar yarinya da ilimin uwa suna tasiri sosai ga ikonta na samun ilimi Ba tare da samun sauƙin shiga makarantu ba, yawancin iyaye mata ne na farko kuma watakila kawai nau'in ilimin da yarinya za ta iya samu. A Cote d'Ivoire, 'yan mata sun fi zuwa makarantar sakandare sau 35 idan mahaifinsu ya kammala karatun jami'a. [12] Yayin da kashi 40% na ‘yan mata ke yin aure kafin su kai shekara 18 a yankin kudu da hamadar Sahara, ‘yan mata kan tilasta wa barin makaranta don fara iyali. Auren wuri yana ƙarfafa imanin al'adun cewa tarbiyyar 'ya'ya mata ɓarna ce ta dukiya domin iyaye ba za su sami wata fa'ida ta tattalin arziki ba da zarar 'yar su ta auri wani dangi. Wannan yana haifar da al'amuran da aka fi sani da son son ɗa, inda iyalai za su zaɓi su tura 'ya'yansu maza makaranta maimakon 'ya'yansu mata saboda tattalin arzikin da 'ya'yan maza masu ilimi za su iya samun iyali. Bugu da kari, 'yan matan da suke zuwa makaranta suna zuwa makarantun da ba su da inganci. Makarantun da ba su da inganci suna da alaƙa da rashin bayar da kwas da kuma raunin shirye-shiryen ma'aikata. [12] Wani batu a tsarin ilimi shi ne rarrabuwar darussan makaranta ta jinsi. 'Yan mata sun fi yin kwasa-kwasan ilimin kimiyyar gida da ilmin halitta, yayin da maza suka fi samun ilimin lissafi, ilmin sinadarai, injiniyanci, da koyar da sana'o'i. [13] A cewar Cibiyar Kididdiga ta UNESCO, kashi 58.8% na mata sun yi karatu a shekarar 2018. Koyaya, yawan karatun karatu a yankin kudu da hamadar sahara ya sha banban sosai daga kasar Chadi mai kashi 14% na mata idan aka kwatanta da Seychelles 96%. [14]

Afirka ta Kudu

A cewar binciken da Rowena Martineau ta yi kan bambance-bambancen ilimi tsakanin maza da mata a Afirka ta Kudu, an yi watsi da mata a tarihi a cikin tsarin ilimi. [15] Wasu shingaye da mata ke fuskanta wajen samun ilimi shi ne kasancewar iliminsu bai fi 'yan uwansu fifiko ba, cin zarafi wani lamari ne da ya zama ruwan dare gama gari kuma abin tsoro ne da yaduwa a cikin al'umma, da matsi na zamantakewar aure da samun iyali duk yana hana mata damar samun ilimi. Bugu da ƙari, mata sun zaɓi karatun aikin jinya da koyarwa fiye da kowace sana'a, wanda ke daɗa hana su shiga ayyukan da ake biyan kuɗi mafi girma a STEM, wanda kuma ke haifar da rashin daidaito tsakanin jinsi. [15]

Saliyo

Tun bayan kafuwar kasar Saliyo a shekara ta 1787, matan kasar Saliyo sun kasance babban tasiri a harkokin siyasa da tattalin arzikin kasar. Har ila yau, sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a fannin ilimi, da kafa makarantu da kwalejoji, inda aka karrama wasu kamar Hannah Benka-Coker da gina mutum-mutumi saboda gudunmawar da ta bayar da Lati Hyde-Forster, mace ta farko da ta kammala karatun digiri. Kwalejin Fourah Bay da Jami'ar Saliyo ta karrama shi da digirin digiri na shari'a.

Angola

A Angola, an kafa ƙungiyoyi irin su Ƙungiyar Mata ta Angola don samar da sauƙin samun ilimi da ikon jefa kuri'a. Kungiyar ta kuma ba da shawarar zartar da dokar yaki da wariya da karatu.

Arewacin Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙasashe bakwai—Algeria, Masar, Libya, Maroko, Sudan, Tunisia, da Sahara ta Yamma—wadanda ke Arewacin Afirka suna da muhallin karatu na musamman saboda arzikin da suke da shi da kuma karfin imaninsu na Musulunci. An bayyana ka'idojin jinsi da matsayinsu sosai don kare mutunci da mutuncin mata, wanda ba da gangan ba ya zama shinge ga mata su sami ilimi daidai gwargwado kamar yadda ake son mata su zauna a gida su tara iyali. Wadannan tsammanin jinsi na rage darajar ilimin mata da hana 'yan mata samun ilimi. Sakamakon haka, kasashen arewacin Afirka kamar Masar da Maroko sun fi yawan jahilci ga mata fiye da sauran ƙasashe masu irin wannan GDP. Hakazalika da yankin kudu da hamadar sahara, mata sun fi yawa a cikin sana'o'in koyarwa, likitanci, da jin dadin jama'a. An ƙara ƙarfafa ra'ayoyin jinsi ta hanyar cewa kashi 20 cikin 100 na mata ne kawai ke cikin aikin aiki. Wannan yana haifar da mummunan yanayi inda ake tsammanin mata su zauna a gida, tare da hana su ci gaba da samun ilimi, da kuma haifar da shinge ga mata don samun ilimi da basirar da ake bukata don samun aikin yi. [16]

Maroko

Adadin karatun mata na Morocco ya kai kashi 65%, wanda har yanzu ya yi kasa sosai fiye da na Arewacin Afirka na mata da kashi 73%. Matan Morocco suna rayuwa ƙarƙashin ƙaƙƙarfan tsari na yarda da matsayin jinsi da tsammanin. Binciken da Agnaou ya yi a shekara ta 2004 ya gano cewa kashi 40% na matan da ba su iya karatu ba, babban abin da ke hana mata samun ilimi shi ne iyayensu. Saboda ra'ayoyin al'umma na "ilimi" da "ilimi" a matsayin maza, babu wata manufa mai karfi da za ta ƙulla don ilmantar da mata a Maroko. [17] An yi yakin neman karatu daban-daban da gwamnati ta gudanar kamar yadda aka kafa Cibiyar Karatun Manya a 1997 da Yarjejeniya Ta Ilimi da Koyarwa ta Kasa. [17] Waɗannan kamfen ɗin karatu sun sami nasarori daban-daban wajen rage jahilci saboda ƙarancin kuɗi, ƙarancin albarkatun ɗan adam, da rashin fahimtar al'adu.

Siyasa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

See also: African feminism and Human rights in Africa

Arewacin Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Aljeriya

Ana kallon Aljeriya a matsayin kasa mai sassaucin ra'ayi kuma matsayin mata ya nuna hakan. Ba kamar sauran ƙasashen yankin ba, an tanadi daidaiton mata a cikin dokokin Aljeriya da kuma kundin tsarin mulkin ƙasar. [18] Za su iya kada kuri'a da tsayawa takarar mukaman siyasa.

Tun bayan samun ‘yancin kai, shugabannin Libya sun himmatu wajen inganta yanayin mata amma suna cikin tsarin Larabci da Musulunci. Babban jigon juyin juya halin 1969 shine karfafawa mata da kuma kawar da matsayi na ƙasa da ƙasa. A jamhuriyar Nijar, yawancin dokokin da gwamnatin Nijar ta amince da su na kare haƙƙin matan Nijar, galibi sun dogara ne kan akidar musulmi .

Afirka ta Yamma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Benin

Halin ‘ yancin mata a Benin ya samu ci gaba sosai tun bayan dawo da tsarin dimokuradiyya da tabbatar da kundin tsarin mulki, da kuma zartar da kundin tsarin mulki da na iyali a shekarar 2004, wadanda dukkansu suka yi watsi da al’adun gargajiya daban-daban da suka saba wa mata. Har yanzu, rashin daidaito da wariya na ci gaba da wanzuwa. Auren mace fiye da daya da auren dole haramun ne amma har yanzu suna faruwa.

Najeriya

'Yanci da 'yancin da mata a Afirka ke da su na shiga harkokin shugabanci da gudanar da zabe ya sha bamban da kasashe da ma kabilun da ke cikin kasa daya. Misali a Najeriya mata a Kudancin Najeriya suna da ‘yancin kada kuri’a tun a shekarar 1950 [1] Archived 2022-03-14 at the Wayback Machine kuma sun tsaya takara a zaben 1959 a Najeriya, yayin da matan Arewacin Najeriya ba su iya zabe ko tsayawa takara ba sai 1976 [2] Archived 2022-03-14 at the Wayback Machine .

Afirka ta Tsakiya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo

Mata a Jamhuriyar Dimokaradiyyar Kwango ba su kai ga samun cikakkiyar daidaito da maza ba, yayin da gwagwarmayarsu ke ci gaba da wanzuwa har yau. Duk da cewa gwamnatin Mobutu ta yi watsi da muhimmiyar rawar da mata ke takawa a cikin al'umma, kuma ko da yake mata suna da wasu haƙƙoƙin doka (misali 'yancin mallakar dukiya da 'yancin shiga a fagagen tattalin arziki da siyasa), al'ada da ƙaƙƙarfan doka har yanzu suna da iyaka. damar su. [19] Daga 1939 zuwa 1943, sama da kashi 30% na manyan matan Kongo a Stanleyville (yanzu Kisangani ) sun yi rajista sosai. Harajin da suka biya shine tushen kudaden haraji na biyu mafi girma ga Stanleyville. [19]

Gabashin Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Seychelles

Mata a Seychelles suna more haƙƙoƙin doka, siyasa, tattalin arziki da zamantakewa kamar maza. [20] Al'ummar Seychelles ita ce ainihin matrirchal . [20] [21] Iyaye mata sukan kasance masu rinjaye a cikin gida, suna sarrafa yawancin abubuwan da ake kashewa da kuma kula da bukatun yara. [20] Uwar da ba a yi aure ba ita ce al’adar al’umma, kuma doka ta bukaci iyaye su tallafa wa ’ya’yansu . [21] Maza suna da mahimmanci don iya samun kuɗinsu, amma aikinsu na gida yana da ɗanɗano kaɗan. [20] Tsofaffi mata yawanci suna iya dogaro da tallafin kuɗi daga ’yan uwa da ke zaune a gida ko kuma gudummawar kuɗin da yaran da suka girma suka samu. [20]

Ƙungiyar mata daga Limuru a tsakiyar Kenya, 2010.

Su ma matan Jamhuriyar Sudan ta Kudu sun kasance masu fafutuka a fagen ‘yantar da su, ta hanyar samar da abinci da matsuguni ga sojoji, da kula da yara da kuma kula da jarumai da jarumta wadanda suka jikkata a lokacin gwagwarmayar siyasarsu kafin samun ‘yancin kai. Misali shine kafuwarsu ta Katiba Banat ko bataliya ta mata. [22]

Sudan

Sudan ƙasa ce mai tasowa da ke fuskantar ƙalubale da dama dangane da rashin daidaito tsakanin jinsi . Freedom House ta baiwa Sudan matsayi mafi ƙasƙanci a tsakanin gwamnatocin danniya a shekara ta 2012. Sudan ta Kudu ta sami wani matsayi mafi girma amma kuma an kiyasta ta a matsayin "ba kyauta ba". [23] A cikin rahoton shekara ta 2013 na bayanan shekara ta 2012, Sudan ta kasance ta 171 a cikin ƙasashe guda 186 a kan kididdigar ci gaban bil'adama (HDI). Kasar Sudan kuma tana daya daga cikin kasashe kalilan da ba su sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar kawar da duk wani nau'i na nuna wariya ga mata ba (CEDAW). Duk da wannan, an sami sauye-sauye masu kyau dangane da daidaiton jinsi a Sudan. Ya zuwa shekara ta 2012, mata sun ƙunshi kashi 24.1% na Majalisar Dokokin ƙasar Sudan .

Cin zarafin jinsi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mace daga Guinea-Bissau, a shekara ta 1974

Yarjejeniyar Maputo ta Tarayyar Afirka ta 2003 ta yi magana game da cin zarafin mata da aka danganta da jinsi, wanda aka bayyana a matsayin ma'ana "dukkan ayyukan da ake yi wa mata wanda ke haifar da cutarwa ta jiki, jima'i, tunani, da tattalin arziki, gami da barazanar daukar irin wadannan ayyukan; ko don aiwatar da sanya takunkumi na sabani akan ko tauye yancin kai a cikin zaman sirri ko na jama'a a lokacin zaman lafiya da lokacin rikice-rikice na maƙami ko na yaƙi. . ." .

Kariyar doka don cin zarafin jima'i[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A jamhuriyar Benin, aiwatar da dokar hana fyade, hukuncin da zai iya kai shekaru biyar a gidan yari, yana da nasaba da cin hanci da rashawa, rashin ingantaccen aikin ‘yan sanda, da kuma fargabar cin mutuncin jama’a. Rashin cancantar 'yan sanda yana haifar da yawancin laifukan jima'i da aka mayar da su zuwa ga kuskure. Rikicin cikin gida ya zama ruwan dare, inda ake yanke hukuncin daurin shekaru uku a gidan yari, amma mata ba sa son kai rahoton kararraki, sannan hukumomi ba sa son sa baki a cikin abin da ake dauka na sirri.

Kaciyar mata[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A wasu al'adun Afirka, ana kallon kaciyar mata a matsayin hanyar da ta saba shiga mace kuma hanya ce ta tsarkake jikin mace. Akwai matakai guda hudu na kaciyar mata: Nau'i na daya ya hada da cire kwarjinin gaba ɗaya, Nau'i na 2 ya wuce nau'in 1 kuma yana cire ƙananan labia shima, Nau'i na 3 yana dinke farji bayan an yi nau'in nau'in 2, kuma Nau'i na 4 shine duk wani katsewa. farji nama. [24] Hanyar yana da zafi sosai kuma sau da yawa ana yin shi ba tare da ingantaccen kayan aikin likita da hanyoyin tsabta ba wanda ke haifar da haɗarin kamuwa da cuta da ciwo mai tsanani. [25] Ana yiwa mata kaciya a ƙasashen Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Egypt, Cameroon, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Central African Republic, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Saliyo da sauransu. [26]

Cin mata[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An fayyace ma'anar kisan kai a matsayin "kisan mata da gangan," wanda ya haɗa da kisan gilla, kisan sadaki, laifuffukan ƙiyayya da jima'i, da kisan gilla. A cewar wani bincike na shekara taa 2013 da Abrahams ya yi, [27] Afirka ta Kudu tana da matsayi na huɗu na kisan gilla mata tare da 12.9 cikin 100,000 mata da abokan haɗin gwiwa ke kashewa a Afirka ta Kudu kowace shekara. Tare da adadin mata 7.5/100,000, mata a Afirka ta Kudu sun fi mace-mace a Amurka sau huɗu ana kashe su da bindiga. [28]

Duba kuma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Nassoshi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  1. ↑ For a brief guide to the historiography see HIST 4310, Twentieth Century African Women's History by J. M. Chadya
  2. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  3. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  4. ↑ Kathleen Sheldon, Historical dictionary of women in Sub-Saharan Africa (Scarecrow press, 2005).[page needed]
  5. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  6. ↑ Bolanle Awe, Nigerian women in historical perspective (IbDn: Sankore, 1992).[page needed]
  7. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  8. ↑ Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, African Women: A Modern History (1997).[page needed]
  9. ↑ M.J. Hay and Sharon Stitcher, Women in Africa South Of the Sahara (1995).[page needed]
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  11. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  13. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Empty citation (help)
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Algerian Policewomen
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Template:Loccs
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Tartter, Jean R. "Status of Women". Indian Ocean country studies: Seychelles (Helen Chapin Metz, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (August 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Seychelles (2007), Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (11 March 2008). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  22. ↑ Mabor, Beny Gideon. Women and Political Leadership in Africa: A demand In South Sudan transitional democracy Archived 2017-04-22 at the Wayback Machine, Sudan Tribune, 22 April 2013.
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named FITW2013
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :7
  25. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  26. ↑ (LaVerle ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  27. ↑ . JSTOR Mills. Invalid |url-status=e1001412 (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  28. ↑ Empty citation (help)

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