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Saliyo

Mutanen Sierra Leone Creole (Krio Pipul) kungiyoyin kabilu ne na Saliyo. Kasar Saliyo Creole mutane ce zuriyar 'yan Amurka, ta Afro-Caribbean, kuma masanin' yan kasar Burtaniya da suka zauna a yankin Sierra Leone a matsayin wani wuri na 'yanci. Mazauna sun kira sabon sasantawa. ,[1] A yau, Leone Creoles sune kashi 1.2 na yawan jama'a na Saliyo.[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Creoles na Saliyo suna da digiri daban-daban na asalinsu, [7] [8] ] [9] Yi kama da makwabta na Liberiya da makabcinsu a Laberiya. [10]] [11] A Saliyo, wasu daga cikin mazauna masu haddi tare da mazauna Turanci da sauran Turawa.[12] Ta hanyar maroons na Jamaica, wasu Crimles tabbas suma suna da asalin asalin asalinsu.[13] [14] fata na Nava [15] da kuma Jamiican Maroons daga' 'Yan Afirka, kamar yadda Akuba 19 da farko, [16] Americo-Liberians da Saliyo sune kawai Kabilar kabilanci na Afirka ta Amurka, da kuma zuriyar Afrika da Afro-Caribbean a Yammacin Afirka. [17] Yaba da aka watsa a cikin halayensu, crosles a matsayin aji na kud da kudade tare da gwamnatin Biritaniya; Sun zama masu ilimi a cibiyoyin Biritaniya da kuma ci gaba da manyan matsayin jagoranci a mulkin mallaka Saliyo da Afirka ta Yamma. [18] saboda wannan tarihin, yawancin matukan Saliyo suna da sunaye na farko da / ko sunan mahaifinsu waɗanda ke fitowa ko Ingila a asalin. [19] Creolles sun mamaye Kiristocin da akasarinsu suna zaune a yankin yankin Saliyo na kewayen Saliyo. [20] ] Daga haɗarin mutanensu, waɗanda suka kirkiro waɗanda suka faru menene yanzu harshen Krio na ɗan'uwan Krio, ɗan yaren Afirka, da sauran yaren Turai. Yaren da aka ficewar yalwar harshe a kusan dukkanin sassan Saliyo. Kamar yadda aka yi magana da yaren Krio ta kashi 96 na yawan jama'ar ƙasar, [21] [22] Ya ƙunshi dukkanin kabilu daban-daban, musamman a cikin kasuwancin su da juna. [23] [24] [25] shi ne babban yare na farko a tsakanin Saliyo a gidajen kasashen waje. [26]

Kungiyar Saliyo ta zauna a karni na Yammacin Afirka a karni na goma sha tara a cikin al'ummomin kamar su LAGHE (Kamaru); Conakry (Guinea); Banjul (Gambam); Legaros, Abeokuta, Calabar, Onisha (Nigeria); Accra, Cape Coast (Ghana) da Fernando Pó (Equatorial Guinea). [27] harshen Krio na mutanen Creole mutane sun yi tasiri ga sauran PIDEROPIAN Ingilishi, Ingilishi na Najeriya, [28] [29] As a result of their history, the Gambian Creole people, or Aku people of the Gambia,,,[30] [31] the Saro people of Nigeria,[32] [33] [34] and the Krio Fernandinos of Equatorial Guinea,[[35] [36] [37] sub-ethnic groups or partly descended from the Sierra Leone Creole people or their ancestors.

Kabilanci da bayyani

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Kalmar Turanci creole[38] ta samo asali ne daga harshen Faransanci, wanda kuma ya fito daga Portuguese crioulo, raƙuman cria, ma'ana mutum ya tashi a cikin gidan mutum. Cria ya samo asali ne daga criar, ma'ana "dogo ko kawowa", ita kanta ta samo asali ne daga kalmar Latin creare, ma'ana "yi, fitarwa, samarwa, haifa";[39] shi kansa tushen kalmar Ingilishi "ƙirƙira". Kalmar creole tana da cognates da yawa a cikin wasu harsuna, kamar créole, creolo, criol, criollo, crioulo, kreol, kreyol, krio, kriol, kriolu, da kriyoyo.

A Louisiana, an yi amfani da kalmar Creole tun 1792 don wakiltar zuriyar Afirka ko iyayen gauraye na kabilanci da kuma 'ya'yan Faransanci da Mutanen Espanya ba tare da haɗakar launin fata ba.[40] [41] [42] An fara amfani da shi don siffanta harsuna daga 1879, yayin da a matsayin sifa, daga 1748.[43] A cikin wasu ƙasashe masu jin Spanish, ana amfani da kalmar Criollo a yau don kwatanta wani abu na gida ko kuma na musamman na wata ƙasa ta Latin Amurka.[44] A cikin Caribbean, kalmar a faɗo tana nufin dukan mutane, ko wane ajinsu ko zuriyarsu - Afirka, Gabashin Asiya, Turai, Indiya - waɗanda ke cikin al'adun Caribbean.[[45] cikin Trinidad, ana amfani da kalmar Creole don zayyana duk Trinidadians ban da waɗanda asalin Asiya. A cikin Faransanci Guiana kalmar tana nufin kowa, ba tare da la'akari da launin fata ba, wanda ya ɗauki hanyar rayuwa ta Turai, kuma a cikin Suriname maƙwabta, kalmar tana nufin zuriyar ƴan Afirka da aka bautar kawai[46] [47]

Tarihi

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A shekara ta 1787, Birtaniya ta taimaka wa bayi 400 da aka 'yanta, musamman Ba'amurke 'yan Afirka da aka 'yantar a lokacin yakin juyin juya halin Amurka da aka kwashe zuwa London, da Afro-Caribbean da Afirka daga London, don ƙaura zuwa Saliyo don zama a cikin abin da suka kira "Lardin 'Yanci." Wasu daga cikin [48] wadanan mutanen na farko an 'yantar da su tun da farko kuma sun yi aiki a matsayin bayi a London. Yawancin rukuni na farko sun mutu saboda cututtuka da kuma yakin da aka yi da 'yan asalin. Kimanin 64 ne suka tsira don kafa Garin Granville na biyu bayan yunƙurin farko na mulkin mallaka tsakanin 1787 da 1789. [49] [50] [51] [52] A cikin 1792, Mazauna Nova Scotian 1200 daga Nova Scotia sun zauna kuma suka kafa Mulkin mallaka na Saliyo da zama na Freetown; wadannan ’yan Afirka ne da zuriyarsu. Yawancin manya sun bar masu Patriot kuma sun yi yaƙi da Burtaniya a cikin Yaƙin Juyin Juya Hali. Crown ya ba wa bayi 'yanci waɗanda suka bar shugabannin 'yan tawaye, kuma dubbai sun shiga layin Burtaniya. Birtaniyya ta sake tsugunar da 3,000 daga cikin Ba-Amurkan Afirka a Nova Scotia, inda da yawa suka sami yanayi mai tsauri kuma suka yi fama da wariya daga farar fata Nova Scotians. Fiye da 1,200 ne suka ba da kansu don daidaitawa da kafa sabon yankin Freetown, wanda ’yan Burtaniya suka kafa a karkashin Kamfanin Saliyo. [53] [54]

Bakar Talakawa da Lardin 'Yanci 1787-1789

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Babban labarin: Kwamitin Taimakawa Baƙaƙen Talakawa Mazaunan farko da suka sami mulkin mallaka a Saliyo su ne waɗanda ake kira "Baƙaƙen Talakawa": Baƙin Amurkawa da Afro-Caribbean. Mazauna 411 sun isa a watan Mayun shekarar 1787. Wasu ’yan akidar Bakar fata ne wadanda ko dai an kwashe su ko kuma suka tafi Ingila don neman kasarsu; Masu aminci baƙar fata sun shiga sojojin Biritaniya a lokacin Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Amurka, da yawa akan alkawuran 'yanci daga bauta.[55] [56]

A kan tafiya tsakanin Plymouth da Saliyo, fasinjoji 96 ne suka mutu.[57] da haka, isa ya tsira don kafawa da gina mulkin mallaka. Mata farare saba'in ne suka raka mutanen zuwa Saliyo. Anna Falconbridge ta kwatanta wadannan fararen fata a matsayin karuwai daga gidan yarin Deptford, amma sun kasance mataye da budurwa na bakar fata.[58] an san yankin nasu da sunan "Lardin 'Yanci" kuma ana kiran matsugunin su "Granville Town" bayan mai mulkin Ingila Granville Sharp. Birtaniya sun yi shawarwari kan filin don sasantawa tare da shugaban Temne na gida, King Tom.

Duk da haka, kafin jiragen ruwa su tashi daga Saliyo, mata farare 50 ne suka mutu, kuma kusan 250 suka rage daga cikin 440 na asali da suka bar Plymouth. Wasu mazauna 86 sun mutu a cikin watanni hudu na farko. Ko da yake da farko babu wata gaba tsakanin ƙungiyoyin biyu, amma bayan mutuwar sarki Tom sai sarkin Temne na gaba ya ramuwar gayya kan kona wani ɗan kasuwa da ya yi a ƙauyensa.[59] Ya yi barazanar lalata garin Granville. Temne ya mamaye garin Granville kuma ya ɗauki wasu Baƙaƙen Talakawa cikin bauta, yayin da wasu suka zama yan kasuwa na bayi. A farkon 1791 Alexander Falconbridge ya dawo, don gano 64 kawai na mazaunan asali (maza 39 baƙar fata, mata baƙi 19, da mata farare shida). Mutanen 64 sun samu kulawa daga wani dan kasar Girka kuma dan mulkin mallaka mai suna Thomas Kallingree a Fourah.[60]

Maƙwabta ko 'Yancin Afirka na shekarar 1807 zuwa shekara ta 1830s

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Babban labarin: Saliyo 'Yancin Afirka [61] Misali na shekarar 1835 na ’yantattun bayi da suka isa Saliyo. Babban rukuni na ƙarshe na baƙin haure zuwa mulkin mallaka shine ’yan Afirka masu ‘yanci ko kuma “Masu Kame[62]. An gudanar da shi a kan jiragen ruwa don sayarwa a yammacin kogin, sojojin ruwa na Royal sun 'yantar da su, wanda, tare da Squadron na yammacin Afirka, ya tilasta soke cinikin bayi na duniya bayan 1808. [63]

Kama jirgin bawa El Almirante da Rundunar Sojan Ruwa ta Burtaniya ta yi a cikin 1800s. HMS Black Joke ya 'yantar da bayi 466.[64] ’Yan Afirka da aka ’yantar sun kasance kabilu dabam-dabam kuma sun kasance Akan, Aja, Ewe, Angola, Wolof, Hausa, Yarbawa, Igbo, Bambara, Nupe, da Fulani waɗanda aka bautar da su ba bisa ƙa’ida ba. 'Yan Afirkan da suka 'yantar kuma sun hada da Sherbro, Mende da Temne mutanen da aka bautar da su a yankunan da ke makwabtaka da Turawan mulkin mallaka na Saliyo.

’Yan Afirka da aka kwato, waɗanda kuma ake kira Recaptives, sun ba da gudummawa sosai ga al’adun Creole. Yayin da Mazaunawa, Maroons, da baƙi na Atlantika suka ba Creoles Kiristanci, wasu al'adunsu, da tasirinsu na Yamma, 'yan Afirka masu 'yanci sun gyara al'adarsu don ɗaukar na Nova Scotians da Turawa, duk da haka suna kiyaye wasu al'adun kabilanci.[65] Da farko gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta Biritaniya ta shiga tsakani don tabbatar da cewa 'yan kwato sun kafu a cikin al'ummar Freetown; sun yi aikin soja tare da Regiment na Yammacin Indiya, kuma an sanya su a matsayin masu koyo a gidajen Mazauna da Maroons. Wani lokaci idan iyayen yaro sun mutu, dangin Maroon ko Maroon za su karɓi recaptive. Ƙungiyoyin biyu suna gauraye da cuɗanya a cikin al’umma,[66]

Matsugunai

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Kakannin Creoles sun kafa mulkin mallaka na Saliyo kuma suka kafa mazaunin Freetown a shekara ta 1792. Sun kafa tsarin akan abin da suka saba da shi - grid na wani gari mai mulkin mallaka na Arewacin Amirka.[67] Iyalan sun fito ne daga Nova Scotia - Bukukuwa, Burdens, Chambers, Davis, Dixon, Georges ( zuriyar David Georges), Keelings, Leighs, Moores, Peters ( zuriyar Thomas Peters ko Stephen Peters), Prestons, Snowballs, Staffords, Turners, Willoughsby, Williams, da Kayayyakin gari sun zauna a cikin Garin - Settler. Garin yana kusa da Cline Town (sai Garin Granville). Kashi tamanin na Nova Scotians sun rayu a kan tituna biyar: Rawdon, Wilberforce, Howe, Gabas, da titin Charlotte. [68] [69] Rukunin mazauna na gaba su ne Jamaican Maroons daga garin Cudjoe, waɗanda suka isa Freetown, ta Nova Scotia, a cikin shekara ta 1800. Manyan iyalai irin su Jarretts, Smiths, Hortons, Coles, Porters, Jones, da Morgans, sun zauna a Garin Maroon, Saliyo. Kashi saba'in na Maroons sun rayu a kan tituna biyar: Gloucester, George, Trelawney, Walpole, da titin Westmoreland. Mazaunan Maroon na Jamaican ya kasance yammacin garin Settler tsakanin titin Walpole da King Tom.[70] [71]

Addini

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St. George's Cathedral, Freetown

St. John's Maroon Church a Freetown [72] Alfarmar Zuciya Cathedral, Freetown Creoles Kiristoci ne, ko na kan layi ko a aikace, sama da kashi 98 cikin ɗari. Yawancin mazaunan Nova Scotia da Caribbean Kiristoci ne. Yawancin mutanen Afirka da suka sami ‘yanci su ma sun koma Kiristanci.[73]

Creoles sun taka rawa wajen kafa addinin Kiristanci na Pan-Afrika.[[74] Tsakanin shekara ta 1840 zuwa shekarar 1900, aƙalla shida daga cikin goma baƙar fata limaman Afirka a cikin Cocin Anglican a yammacin Afirka sun kasance Creole [75] A cikin shekarun 1820s, Saliyo ta riga ta sami kiristoci fiye da dukan Afirka masu zafi.[76] An fara kafa cibiyoyin ilimi kamar Fourah Bay College da manufar horar da limaman Kirista da malamai, wadanda daga baya aka tura zuwa yammacin Afirka don yada addinin Kiristanci.[77] [78] Ƙungiyoyin Creole galibi Furotesta ne tare da majami'un Anglican da Methodist waɗanda ke da babban taron Creole. Duk da haka, ƙananan ƙungiyoyi irin su cocin Baptist da Countess na Huntingdon a wurare kamar Freetown, da Waterloo, Saliyo, suna da masu halarta na Creole, ko da yake waɗannan ƙananan adadin idan aka kwatanta da Creole Anglicans da Methodist.

Masu halartar cocin Creole suna taruwa a majami'un "Creole" na gargajiya a Freetown kamar St. George's Cathedral, Trinity Church, St John's Maroon Church, Ebenezer Methodist Church, Rawdon Street Methodist Church, da Zion Methodist Church, Wilberforce Street.

Harshe

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Babban labarin: harshen Krio Harshen hukuma na Saliyo shine Ingilishi. Baya ga Ingilishi, Saliyon Creoles kuma suna magana da wani yare na musamman [79]  mai suna sunan ƙabilarsu mai suna Creole ko Krio. Krio ya sami tasiri sosai daga Ingilishi na Biritaniya, Gullah, Baƙin Amurkan Vernacular Turanci, Jamaican Creole, Akan, Igbo da Yoruba.[80]

Krio ana magana da shi a ko'ina cikin Freetown da garuruwan da ke kewaye, ta yadda masu jin Krio ba a ɗaukan su 'yan kabilar Creole ne.[81] Mutanen Creole sun zama ‘yan kasuwa da masu wa’azi na mishan a wasu sassa na Yammacin Afirka a ƙarni na 19.[82] Sakamakon yanayin ƙaura na Saliyo, a ƙasar Gambiya, ƙabilar Gambian Creole ko Aku suna magana da yare da ake kira yaren Aku wanda yayi kama da Krio a Saliyo. Fernando Po Creole Turanci kuma galibi sakamakon bakin haure na Saliyo Creole ne. ’Yan tsirarun ’yan Afirka da suka samu ‘yanci sun koma qasar asalinsu, irin su Saros na Nijeriya, ba wai kawai sun xauki sunayensu na Yamma da su ba, har ma sun shigo da kalmomin Krio kamar sabi cikin Turancin Pidgin na Nijeriya.[83] [84] [85] ][86]

A cikin shekara ta 1993, akwai masu magana 473,000 a Saliyo (493,470 a duk ƙasashe); Krio shine yare na uku mafi yawan magana bayan Mende (1,480,000) da Themne (1,230,000). A yau, Krio shine yaren da aka fi magana da shi a Saliyo wanda kashi 96 cikin ɗari na al'ummar ƙasar ke amfani da shi.[87] [88] yana hada kan dukkan kabilu daban-daban, musamman wajen cinikayya da mu’amala da juna[89] shine harshen farko na sadarwa tsakanin ƴan Saliyo da ke zaune a ƙasashen waje, [90] kuma ya yi tasiri sosai ga Turancin Saliyo.[91]

Masu magana da 'yan asalin Krio na ƙabilar Creole sun kasance galibi a cikin al'ummomin Freetown, a kan Tsibirin Banana da Tsibirin York, da kuma cikin Bonthe.

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870,
  2. ↑ "CIA World Factbook (2022)"
  3. ↑ Arthur Porter, Creoledom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp.53, 58
  4. ↑ Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (2020). "Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality". Conviviality at the Crossroads. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 43–63. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28979-9_3. ISBN 978-3-030-28978-2.
  5. ↑ "Sierra Leone: Brief Introduction"
  6. ↑ Baron, Robert A.; Cara, Ana C. (2011). Creolization as Cultural Creativity. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781617031069
  7. ↑ "Crowning the work of Wilberforce? The Settlers Descendants' Union and the challenges of Sierra Leone's independence"
  8. ↑ Colonial Office Brief: CO554/2884, Note on the Attorney General's 'Note of the Supreme Court Judgement', 10 August 1960, op.cit
  9. ↑ Colonial Office Brief: CO554/2884, Note on the Attorney General's 'Note of the Supreme Court Judgement', 10 August 1960, op.cit
  10. ↑ R.W. July, Nineteenth Century Negritude: Edward W. Blyden in the Journal of African History, v, 1964, p. 77, n. 9. "This attitude to ‘mulattoes’ was of course racialist in view; cf. Burton, op. cit. p, 271 – ‘the worst class of all is the mulatto’. The correspondence recently published in Holden, op. cit. shows that Blyden had developed his views about ‘mulattoes’ during his conflicts with the Americo-
  11. ↑ Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril Raschid (2006). "Introduction". New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-8204-7937-8. A substantial part of this ex-slave population was Yoruba, but members of ethnic groups from other regions of the Atlantic (Igbo, Efik, Fante, etc) were also very much in evidence in this coterie of Liberated Africans. Individuals from ethnic communities indigenous to Sierra Leone were significantly represented among the Liberated Africans [...] Many a Temne, Limba, Mende, and Loko resident of Freetown, influenced by local European officials and missionaries, would come in time to shed their indigenous names, and cultural values, to take on a Creole identity which gave them a better chance of success
  12. ↑ "Socioeconomic Status and Group Belonging: Evidence from Early-Nineteenth-Century Colonial West Africa"
  13. ↑ Harcourt; Torres, Jada Benn (2 January 2018). "Investigating the 'Taíno' ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons". Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies. 43 (1): 47–78. doi:10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227
  14. ↑ ] Mingling na 'yanci na baƙi da launinMadrilejo, N; Lombard, H; Torres, JB (2015). "Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27 (3): 432–437. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22656. PMID 25392952. S2CID 30255510.
  15. ↑ "Looking Back, Moving Forward: Documenting the Heritage of African Nova Scotians"
  16. ↑ Arthur Porter, Creoledom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp.53,
  17. ↑ Poplack, Shana
  18. ↑ Sierra Leone in Colonial West Africa: A Synoptic Socio-Political History". History Compass. 7 (3): 583–603. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00596
  19. ↑ Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at over 98 percent. Recently, some scholars consider the Oku ethnic group to be Creoles,[19] although others reject this premise given the differentiation in admixture, religion, and cultural practices between the Oku and Creoles, such as the practice of female genital mutilation, bundu society membership and polygamy among the
  20. ↑ Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History
  21. ↑ "CIA World Factbook (2022)"
  22. ↑ ]"Translators without borders: Language data for Sierra Leone"
  23. ↑ "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration"
  24. ↑ "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration"
  25. ↑ "Sierra Leone languages"
  26. ↑ Thompson, V. A. D. (2013). The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation, University of
  27. ↑ Little, K. L. (1950). "The Significance of the West African Creole for Africanist and Afro-American Studies". African Affairs. 49 (197): 308–319. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.
  28. ↑ Yakpo, Kofi (2019). A Grammar of Pichi. Studies in Diversity Linguistics. Vol. 23. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.2546450. ISBN 978-3-96110-133
  29. ↑ Leone Krio and two West African Anglophone Pidgins: A case for common origin University of South Carolina. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1995. 9541244.
  30. ↑ Frederiks, Martha (2002). "The Krio in the Gambia and the Concept of Inculturation". Exchange. 31 (3): 219–229. doi:10.1163/157254302X00399
  31. ↑ Ashcroft, Shaka (2015). "Roots and Routes: Krio Identity in Postcolonial London". Black Theology. 13 (2): 102–125. doi:10.1179/1476994815Z.
  32. ↑ Agiri, Babatunde "The Introduction of Nitida Kola into Nigerian Agriculture, 1880–1920", African Economic History, No. 3, Spring 1977, p.
  33. ↑ Fyle, Mac, "The Saro in the Political Life of Early Port Harcourt, 1913–49", The Journal of African History, Vol. 30, No. 1, p.
  34. ↑ ]Derrick, Jonathan, "The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa", African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326, p. 65.
  35. ↑ Martín del Molino, Amador. 1993. La ciudad de Clarence. Malabo: Ediciones Centro Cultural Hispano-Guineano
  36. ↑ García Cantús, M. Dolores. 2006. Fernando Poo: Una aventura colonial español, vol. 1: Las islas en litigio: Entre la esclavitud y el abolicionismo, 1777–1846. Barcelona: Ceiba
  37. ↑ Lynn, Martin. 1984. "Commerce, christianity and the origins of the ‘creoles’ of Fernando Po". Journal of African History 25(3), 257
  38. ↑ etymological dictionary states the meaning of creole as a "person born in a country but of a people not indigenous to it," but also notes that the meaning varies according to local use.
  39. ↑ -"creole | Origin and meaning of creole by Online Etymology Dictionary"
  40. ↑ Dominguez, Virginia R. White by Definition: Social Classification in Creole Louisiana. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press
  41. ↑ Dormon, James H. Louisiana's 'Creoles of Color': Ethnicity, Marginality, and Identity, Social Science Quarterly 73, No. 3, 1992: 615-623.
  42. ↑ Eaton, Clement. A History of the Old South: The Emergence of a Reluctant Nation, third edition. New York: Macmillan, 1975
  43. ↑ "creole | Origin and meaning of creole by Online Etymology Dictionary"
  44. ↑ "Criollo, criolla | Diccionario de la lengua española"
  45. ↑ britannica.com. 31 May 2024
  46. ↑ Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (2020). "Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality". Conviviality at the Crossroads. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 43–63. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28979-9_3. ISBN 978-3-030-28978
  47. ↑ . www.britannica.com. 31 May
  48. ↑ Berlin, Ira (April 1996). "From Creole to African". William and Mary Quarterly. 53 (2): 266. doi:10.2307/2947401. JSTOR 2947401
  49. ↑ Markey, Thomas L. (1982). "Afrikaans: Creole or Non-Creole?". Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik. 49 (2): 169–207. JSTOR 40501733
  50. ↑ Glimpses of Africa, West and Southwest coast. By Charles Spencer Smith; A.M.E. Sunday School Union, 1895; p. 164
  51. ↑ Murray, Robert P., Whiteness in Africa: Americo-Liberians and the Transformative Geographies of Race (2013). Theses and Dissertations--History. 23. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/history_etds/23
  52. ↑ "Creoles of Africa"
  53. ↑ 978-0-203-44029-2
  54. ↑ The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870
  55. ↑ Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty, (Beacon Press, Boston, 2006).[page needed]
  56. ↑ Holten, Woody (1996). "Review of The Black Loyalist Directory: African Americans in Exile After the American Revolution". The William and Mary Quarterly. 53 (4): 831–833. doi:10.2307/2947159. JSTOR 2947159
  57. ↑ Sivapragasam, Michael, 'Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?’ Unpublished Masters
  58. ↑ not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?" Unpublished master's dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), pp. 40–
  59. ↑ Sivapragasam, Michael, 'Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?’ Unpublished Masters dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), p. 37
  60. ↑ Sivapragasam, Michael, 'Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?’ Unpublished Masters dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), p. 37
  61. ↑ Horton, James Oliver; Horton, Lois E (1998). In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700–1860. Oxford University Press. p. 186. ISBN 0-19-512465-0. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
  62. ↑ Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America
  63. ↑ Leone". San José State University, Department of Economics. Retrieved 1 December
  64. ↑ "Navy News"
  65. ↑  5 New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio
  66. ↑ Kreolisierung versus Pidiginisierung als Kategorien kultureller Differenzierung. Varianten neoafrikanischer Identität und Interethnik in Freetown, Sierra Leone
  67. ↑ The town grid was laid out by the Sierra Leone company's British surveyor Richard Pepys. Schama, pp. 352-253
  68. ↑ "Jan. 15, 1817: The Vote on Colonization of Free Blacks in West Africa"
  69. ↑ African Creole for Africanist and Afro-American Studies". African Affairs. 49 (197): 308–319. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a093841
  70. ↑ Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-
  71. ↑ "Sierra Leone languages", Joshua Project
  72. ↑ Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History
  73. ↑ Northrup, David (2006). "Becoming African: Identity formation among liberated slaves in nineteenth-century Sierra Leone1". Slavery & Abolition. 27 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/01440390500499794
  74. ↑ Hanciles, Jehu J. (2014). "'Africa is our Fatherland': The Black Atlantic, Globalization, and Modern African Christianity". Theology Today. 71 (2): 207–220. doi:10.1177/0040573614530140
  75. ↑ Paracka Jr., D. J. (2003), p. 11, The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone: Routledge.
  76. ↑ Hanciles, Jehu J. (2001). "Anatomy of an Experiment: The Sierra Leone Native Pastorate". Missiology: An International Review. 29 (1): 63–82. doi:10.1177/009182960102900106,
  77. ↑ Paracka Jr., D. J. (2003), p. 3, The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at,
  78. ↑ Thompson, V. A. D. (2013). The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation, University of London.
  79. ↑  The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870
  80. ↑ "Krio, a language of Sierra Leone"
  81. ↑ Thompson, V. A. D. (2013). The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation
  82. ↑ Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C.
  83. ↑ Frederiks, Martha (2002). "The Krio in the Gambia and the Concept of Inculturation". Exchange. 31 (3): 219–229. doi:10.1163/157254302X00399
  84. ↑ Dixon-Fyle, Mac, "The Saro in the Political Life of Early Port Harcourt, 1913–49", The Journal of African History, Vol. 30, No. 1, p.
  85. ↑ Derrick, Jonathan, "The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa", African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326,
  86. ↑ Lynn, Martin. 1984. "Commerce, christianity and the origins of the ‘creoles’ of Fernando Po".
  87. ↑ "CIA World Factbook (2022)"
  88. ↑ "Translators without borders: Language data for Sierra Leone"
  89. ↑ "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration"
  90. ↑ Thompson, V. A. D. (2013). The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation, University of London
  91. ↑ Saidu Bangura, 2015 A Roadmap to Sierra Leone English: A Sociohistorical and Ecological Perspective, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, PhD thesis, p. 124, 222, 232-242.
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