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Nasarar Menelik II

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Infotaula d'esdevenimentNasarar Menelik II

Iri series of wars (en) Fassara
Kwanan watan 1878 –  1904
Wuri Habasha
Participant (en) Fassara

Yakin Menelik II, wanda kuma aka fi sani da Agar Maqnat ( Amharic ), sun kasance jerin yaƙin neman zaɓe na ƙarshen ƙarni na 19 da Sarkin Shewa Menelik II ya jagoranta don faɗaɗa yankin daular Habasha .

Fitowa daga rarrabuwar kawuna na tsaunukan Abyssiniya, Menelik - wanda ya hau kan karagar mulki a 1866 - ya fara, shekaru goma bayan haka, don cin gajiyar yunƙurin ci gaban ƙasa, haɓaka kayan aikin soja, da shigo da makamai masu yawa daga ƙasashen Turai don ƙaddamar da guguwar faɗuwa da sau da yawa tashe tashen hankula a Gabas ta Tsakiya da Afirka ta Kudu 8. Waɗannan kamfen, waɗanda sojojin Amhara suka yi daga Shewa, [1] suka yi kama da ayyukan turawa na mulkin mallaka -kamar mulkin kai tsaye, yaƙin neman zaɓe, da ƙwace ƙasa - kuma Menelik ya ba da hujja akai-akai a matsayin wani ɓangare na manufa ta wayewar Kirista. [2] [3] Tsakanin tsarin daular a yawancin yankunan kudanci shi ne tsarin neftenya-gabbar, tsarin mulkin mallaka wanda ya kafa ikon Amhara a kan sabbin yankunan da aka haɗa ta hanyar tallafin filaye, haraji, da aikin tilastawa . [4]

Yunkurin fadadawa da Menelik ya yi ya sa Habasha ta zama ɗaya daga cikin ƴan daulolin Afirka da ke shiga cikin Scramble for Africa . [5] Duk da yake ta kiyaye ikonta akan mulkin mallaka na Turai - musamman ta hanyar nasara a yakin Italiya da Habasha na farko - an sami ci gaban daular ta hanyar mummunan tashin hankali da danniya wanda yawancin masana tarihi a yau suka kwatanta da kisan kiyashi . [6] [7] [8]

Girman girma na Habasha ya karu sosai kuma ya taimaka wajen kafa gadon Menelik a matsayin wanda ya tsara kasar Habasha ta zamani. [9] Dorewar gadon zamantakewa da siyasa da al'adu na wadannan mamaya na da matukar tasiri ga kafuwar kasar Habasha da alakar kabilanci, sakamakon da ke ci gaba da daidaita rikice-rikicen cikin gida na kasar zuwa yau. [10]

Fage

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Bayan wani lokaci na rashin haɗin kai, yawancin karni na 19 ya ga sarautar sarakunan Abyssiniya biyu, Tewodros II (1855-68) da Yohannes IV (1871-89), waɗanda suka ci gaba da zama ƙasa. Sarki na uku kuma na karshe na karni, Menelik II, Sarkin Abyssinia Shewa, ya yi nasarar mayar da dukkan Arewacin Abyssinia karkashin ikonsa, daga bisani kuma ya fara fadada daular Habasha . [11] Daga karshen 1880s, ya aika da sojoji da ’yan mulkin mallaka a fadin yamma, kudu, da kudu maso gabas. [7] A cikin ƙarnuka da suka gabata kafin wannan, al'ummar Oromo da Somaliya galibi sun yi nasara wajen ɗaukar faɗaɗa Abyssiniya. [12] Mulkin daular Menelik ya kasance ƙarshen ƙarni na sojojin Abyssiniya . Sojojinsa sun fadada zuwa irin wannan matakin da ci gaba da kai hari da sace-sacen mutane ya zama jigon daular, wanda ya zama dole don sanya matasa da masu dauke da makamai su shagaltu. [7]

Fadadawar da Menelik ya yi ya zo daidai da zamanin da Turawa suka ci gaba da yin mulkin mallaka a yankin Kahon Afirka, a lokacin da Daular Habasha ta samu dimbin albarkatun soji daga kasashen waje. Faransa musamman ta zuba makamai a cikin kasar a cikin shekarun 1880, tare da Rasha da Italiya; neman samun tagomashi don matsayin kariya akan daular. [1] A lokacin farko na fadadawa Menelik a cikin 1870s, yana samun shawarar soja da taimako daga Faransa. [8] Tuwowar kayan aikin soji ya taimaka wa sarki Menelik ya yi yaƙin da ba a taɓa yin irinsa ba na mamaye da kuma faɗaɗa yankin Amhara . Sarkin sarakuna ya isar wa takwarorinsa na Turai ' aikinsa mai tsarki na wayewa' don mika fa'idar mulkin Kirista ga 'arna'. [1]

Menelik ya zama mai rattaba hannu kan dokar Brussels ta 1890, wadda ta tsara shigar da makamai cikin nahiyar Afirka. Italiya ta dauki nauyin shigar Habasha cikin wannan aikin, wanda ya baiwa Abyssinia damar shigo da makamai "bisa doka". [13] Wannan matakin ya kuma yi aiki don halalta jigilar makamai da ke gudana tsawon shekaru kafin daga Faransa. Don haka, lokacin da aka fara rikici daga baya da Italiya a lokacin yakin farko na Italo da Habasha na 1895-96, daular Habasha ta tara adadi mai yawa na makamai na zamani wanda ya ba su damar yin yaki daidai da ma'auni na Turai da kuma ci gaba da fadadawa. [14] Marubuciya ’yar Burtaniya Evelyn Waugh da ke kwatanta abin da ya faru a karni na sha tara ta ce:   A karkashin Menelik II, daular Habasha ta taka rawar gani sosai a cikin Scramble don Afirka tare da ikon Turai. Duk da yake a wasu lokuta tana adawa da Turawa da ke yankin Kahon Afirka (musamman Italiya ), ta kulla yarjejeniya da yarjejeniyoyin turawa 'yan mulkin mallaka kan bangarori masu tasiri, kamar irin wadanda kasashen waje masu fafatawa suka yi a tsakaninsu. [5]

Dabarun daular Menelik

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Daular Habasha karkashin Menelik II ta baje kolin abubuwa da dama na mulkin mallaka na Turawa, da suka hada da mulkin kai tsaye, dabarun rarraba da mulki, hadin kan manyan mutane na cikin gida, da fifita muradun mazauna sama da komai. [5] Fadada daular ta yi kama da fadada mulkin mallaka na dauloli na Sipaniya da na Fotigal . [2] A cikin shekarun 1870 zuwa 1880, Menelik ya samu shawara daga Faransawa game da tafiyar da runduna mai tsayi da gudanar da lardunan da aka kama ta hanyar amfani da hanyoyin mulkin mallaka. [3]

Tsarin mamaye daular da ya dogara akan turawan mulkin mallaka, wanda ya hada da tura matsugunai masu dauke da makamai a cikin sabbin yankunan soja da aka kirkira, ya yadu a ko'ina cikin yankunan kudanci da yamma da suka zo karkashin mulkin Menelik. [1] A karkashin tsarin 'Neftenya-Gabbar' Daular Habasha ta samar da ingantaccen tsarin mamaya da sulhu. Mazaunan sojoji da iyalansu sun ƙaura zuwa ƙauyuka masu kagara da aka fi sani da katamas a yankuna masu mahimmanci don tabbatar da faɗaɗa kudanci. Wadannan matsugunan da ke dauke da makamai da iyalansu an san su da neftenya da manoma manoma wadanda aka ba su gabbar . [4] Neftenya ( lit. ' ) an sanya gabbar daga cikin jama'ar da aka ci nasara a cikin gida, waɗanda suka yi aiki sosai a cikin ƙwazo don masu nasara. [1] Galibin neftenya 'yan kabilar Amhara ne daga Shewa . Dangantakar neftenya-gabbar ta kasance 'dangantaka mai kama da abokin ciniki' tsakanin mazauna arewa da mazauna kudu. Yayin da aka karbe filaye, masu gudanar da mulkin arewa sun zama masu mallaka kuma suna da haƙƙin mallakar fili yadda suka ga dama. [11] Waɗanda aka ci galaba a kansu sun sami gudun hijira, sau da yawa sun zama masu haya a ƙasarsu ta sabon ƴan mulkin Amhara. [1] Wajiban feudal da aka ɗora akan gabbar sun yi yawa har suka ci gaba da hidima ga dangin neftegna ko da bayan mutuwar ta ƙarshe. [1] Tsarin gabbar ya yi aiki yadda ya kamata na kusan rabin karni wajen ba da tallafin garrison da gudanar da harkokin kudanci har zuwa lokacin da aka rushe a shekarar 1941. [11] Ba a yi amfani da wannan tsarin ba a duk sassan yankunan da Menelik ya faɗaɗa don dalilai daban-daban. Dangane da yawancin 'yankunan kudancin kudancin kasar, yankin bai dace da mulkin mallaka daga Shewan Highlander Plow manoma ba, kuma makiyayan da ke cikin karkara sun fi masu noman noma na tsaunukan kuda wuya wuyar sarrafawa da sarrafawa. A maimakon haka an kai hare-hare ga waɗannan yankuna don hakar kudaden shiga, galibi ta hanyar dabbobi, zuwa karni na 20. [11]

Ko da yake wasu gwamnatocin sun yi shawarwari daban-daban na samun yancin kai ta hanyar biyan haraji da haraji, a wasu wurare ana rage yawan jama'ar gida ta hanyar faɗaɗa ta'addancin 'yan mulkin mallaka wanda ya dogara ne akan haɗakar al'adu . [7] Saboda dalilai na tattalin arziki da ke haifar da faɗaɗa arewa, yawanci an fi son a dagula tattalin arziƙin ƴan asalin ƙasa kaɗan a yankunan da ba a da juriya. [11] An yi mummunar tashin hankali a lokacin da aka mamaye yankuna kamar Masarautar Wolaita da Kaffa a kudu, tare da Illubabor da sauran yankuna a kan iyakokin Sudan . Yakin da sojoji suka yi zuwa yankin Ogaden da ke Somaliya a karkashin Ras Makonnen ya kasance da kisan kiyashi da kwace, wanda ya kafa harsashin shigar daular Habasha nan gaba. Jami'ar Oxford Farfesa na Tarihin Afirka Richard Reid ya lura cewa, "Daular Menelik ta kasance mai tsananin tashin hankali da kuma dogara ga tsarin zalunci-kamar yadda ake amfani da shi na mulkin mallaka kamar yadda ayyukan mulkin mallaka na Turai ke bunkasa a kan iyakokin Menelik." [7]

Nasara na farko

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An fara faɗaɗa Shewan tun kafin Menelik, yayin da sarakunan yankin suka fara tunkarar Oromo a farkon karni na 19. [11] A farkon rabin shekarun 1880, Sarkin Shewa Sahla Selassie na lokacin ya gudanar da balaguron soji da dama a kan al'ummar Oromo da ke zaune a tudun Shewan.

Yaƙin farko na Menelik na faɗaɗa daular ya faru ne lokacin da yake ƙarƙashin ikon sarki Yohannes IV a cikin shekarun 1870s. Tare da haɗin gwiwar da Menelik ya yi na Wollo a arewacinsa a ƙarshen 1870s, an haɗa dukkanin yankin tsakiya. Menelik ya aike da sojoji zuwa gabas don yakar Gojjam, suka ci nasara. Sarki Yohannes ya hukunta Menelik da mai mulkin Gojjam saboda zuwa yaki ta hanyar kwace sassan yankunansu, amma ya amince da ‘yancin Menelik na kudu maso yamma. Bayan tabbatar da magudanar ruwa zuwa kudu maso yamma, Menelik ya mayar da hankalinsa ga musulmi mazauna kudu maso gabas. A lokacin wannan farkon lokacin faɗaɗa, Menelik ya kawo sarakunan larduna waɗanda a al'adance suka mamaye Abyssinia a ƙarƙashin mulkinsa. Yawancin lardunan arewacin kasar da ke da rinjayen kiristoci sun fi na musulmi ko maguzawa da Menelik ya karbe a kudancin kasar, saboda ba su da yawa daga manyan dakaru masu girma da Sarakuna kuma mazauna yankin sun fi samun makamai don kare kansu

Hadiya

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A ƙarshen 1870s Menelik ya jagoranci yaƙin shigar da ƙasashen Hadiya wanda ya haɗa da mutanen Gurage cikin Shewa . A cikin 1878, Soddo Gurage da ke zaune a Arewa da Gabashin Gurage cikin lumana sun mika wuya ga Menelik kuma sojojinsa sun bar yankunansu ba su taba ba, mai yiwuwa saboda bangaskiyar Orthodox na Habasha da kuma mika wuya ga Negus Sahle Selassie, kakan Sarkin sarakuna . Duk da haka, a Yammacin Gurage da Hadiya waɗanda Sebat Bet, Kebena, da Wolane suke zaune sun yi tur da Menelik. [15] Hassan Enjamo na Kebena ne ya jagorance su wanda bisa shawarar shehunan sa suka shelanta jihadi da shewa. Sama da shekaru goma Hassan Injamo ya yi yaki ya kori Shewawa daga yankunan musulmi na Hadiya da Gurage har zuwa 1888 a lokacin da Gobana Dacche ya fafata da shi a yakin Jebdu Meda inda sojojin Hadiya musulmi da na Gurage suka fatattaki Shewan, kuma da haka aka fatattake duk yankin Gurage . Farfesa Lapiso ya bayyana cewa taimakon Habte Giyorgis Dinagde da aka kama daga yakin da aka yi da ‘yan Hadiyya a baya ya taimaka matuka wajen samun nasara a rikicin.

Halaba Hadiya a karkashin shugabansu Barre Kagaw sun ci gaba da yin turjiya har zuwa shekara ta 1893 lokacin da Abyssiniyawa suka ci moriyar yunwar da ta addabi yankin suka kai farmaki a yankinsu.

Welega

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A farkon shekarun 1880, sojojin Shewan da na Gojjam sun fara kai farmaki kan kogin Gibe zuwa yankin Welega da sarki Kumsa Moroda ke mulki daga kabilar Machaa na Oromo. Ras Gobena, wani janar na kabilar Oromo mai yiwa Menelik hidima, ya isa yankin ne a gaban shugaban wata rijiya mai dauke da makamai na sojojin Shewan. [11] Babban dalilin da ya sa Menelik ya ci Welega shi ne iko da gundumomin da ake samar da zinare a yamma. [11] Yaƙin Ras Gobenas a Yammacin Welega daga 1886 zuwa 1888 ya kafa mulkin Shewan a duk yankin kuma ya kawo ƙarshen barazanar kutse na Mahdist . Nasarar da Menelik ya samu a wadannan yankuna na Oromo yana da matukar girma saboda Ras Gobena, tare da manyan sojojin dawakai da ya ci tare da karbo haraji daga shugabannin Oromo don kotun Shewan.

Babban Fari na 1888-92 ya baiwa Menelik damar zana kan talakawan manoman Amhara. Da su ne ya tara wata babbar runduna wadda ta yi ta fita daga Shewa domin neman ganima da haraji. [2]

Mulkin mallaka da juriya daga bangaren Oromawa

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Yayin da dakarun Abyssinia suka ci gaba da kutsa kudu cikin ƙasashen da kabilar Oromawa ke zaune (ƙasar Galla), ƙoƙarin juriya daga sassan Oromawa da dama bai iya hana wannan mamaya da sojojin suka yi ba. Daya bayan daya, Oromawa sun sha kaye, sai dai kabilar Arsi kaɗai ce ta tsaya tsayin daka. [8] Saboda bambancin makamai, talakawan yankin arewacin da ke da addinin Kirista sun fi ƙarfin makamai, amma a kudu a zamanin Menelik, ba su da isassun makamai da za su iya jurewa harin sojojin Menelik. [16] Yaƙin Menelik da Arsi yana daga cikin mafiya muni da ɗaukar lokaci mai tsawo. Bayan jerin hare-hare na shekaru da dama, an samu nasarar murkushe su ta hanyar harbin sojojin Shewa. [17]

Mamayar Harar

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Daga shekarar 1883 zuwa 1885, dakarun Shewa ƙarƙashin jagorancin Menelik sun yi ƙoƙarin mamaye yankin Chercher na Harar, amma aka kayar da su daga hannun 'yan Ittu Oromo.[18] A cikin shekarar 1886, Menelik ya fara wani gagarumin yaƙi don ɗora iko a yankunan kudu.[4] A wannan shekarar, wani ɗan bincike Ba-Italiya da duk tawagarsa sun rasa rayukansu a hannun sojojin Daular Harar, abin da ya ba wa Sarki Menelik dalili na farmakar Harar. Sojojin Shewa sun kai hari, amma lokacin da suka kafa sansani a Hirna, ƙaramin rundunar Sarkin Harar, Abdullah II, ta harba wutar wasan kwaikwayo zuwa cikin sansanin, hakan ya firgita sojojin Shewa kuma suka gudu zuwa Kogin Awash a lokacin Yaƙin Hirna.

Menelik ya fara amfani da makaman Turawa da yawa da ya samu a Harar.[19] Harar ce mafi shahara daga cikin dukkan daulolin Musulmi masu cin gashin kansu a yankin.[20] Menelik ya rubuta wa kasashen Turai cewa: "Habasha tsawon ƙarni 14 tana zama tsibirin Kiristoci a cikin teku na kafirai. Idan ƙasashen duniya za su zo su raba Afirka tsakaninsu, ni ba zan tsaya gefe ina kallo ba."[21] Ya aika da saƙo zuwa ga Sarkin Harar, Abdullah, wanda ke mulkin birnin tarihi na Harar, cibiyar Musulunci a Gabashin Afirka, ya karɓi ikon Menelik. Sarkin ya ba da shawara Menelik ya karɓi Musulunci. Menelik ya ce zai mamaye Harar kuma ya mayar da babban masallaci coci, yana cewa: "Zan zo Harar in mayar da Masallaci zuwa Coci. Ku jira ni." Coci Medihane Alam na nuna Menelik ya cika alkawurinsa.[22][23][24]

A shekarar 1887, sojojin Shewa sun sake turo wata babbar runduna ƙarƙashin jagorancin Menelik II da kansa don mamaye Harar. A lokacin Yaƙin Chelenqo, Sarkin Harar, Abdullah, ya yanke shawarar kai farmaki da sassafe a ranar Kirsimatin Habasha, yana tsammanin za su kasance cikin rashin shiri sakamakon shan giya da cin abinci, amma an kayar da shi domin Menelik ya tashi rundunarsa tun da wuri yana tsammanin za a kai hari. Sarkin ya tsere zuwa yankin Ogaden, kuma Shewa ta mamaye Hararghe.[25][26] Bayan mamaye Harar, Menelik ya bunƙasa hanyoyin kasuwanci ta hanyar birnin, yana shigo da kayayyaki masu daraja kamar makamai, da fitar da abubuwa kamar kofi. Ya naɗa ɗan uwansa, Makonnen Wolde Mikael, a matsayin shugaban birnin. Tarihin baka na Harar na bayyana cewa dakarun Menelik sun kashe Hafiz 300 da sabbin ma'aurata sojoji 700 a cikin wannan ƙaramin faɗa. Tunawa da waɗanda aka kashe daga cikin waɗanda aka daura aure ya shiga al’adun biki na Harari har yanzu, inda ake ba angwaye kyautar wani yadi da ake kira "satti baqla" a Harari, wanda ke nufin “dubu bakwai.” Wannan yadi fari ne da aka saka jan layi a gefuna wanda ke nuna kisan. Mai ba da kyautar (wanda yawanci kawu ne daga ɓangaren uba) yana faɗa a kunne: “Domin kada ka manta.”Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag[27] Bayan hare-hare guda shida, a shekarar 1887 an ƙwace Arsi gaba ɗaya ƙarƙashin ikon Menelik. Bayan nasarar mamayar, mafi yawan ƙasashen kiwo masu kyau da Arsi ke da su an ba su ga sojoji a matsayin ganimar yaƙi. Arsi Oromo a shekarun 1960 sun bayyana zamanin mulkin Amhara da ya biyo bayan shan kaye a 1887 a matsayin “zamanin wahala.” [17]

Yawan mutanen Oromo ya ragu matuƙa sakamakon kisan ƙare dangi. [28] An tilasta wa yawancin Oromawa su karɓi addinin Kiristanci da kuma sauya sunayensu zuwa na Amhara. [2] Daga farkon hare-haren, Menelik da manyan kwamandojinsa sun kama dubban mutane, abin da ya ƙara yawan bayi a kasuwannin gida da na ƙasashen waje. [29] Shekara huɗu bayan mamayar Arsi, baki daga ƙetare da suka bi ta yankin sun lura cewa sabbin masu mulki na ɗaukar Arsi a matsayin bayi kuma ana sayar da su a fili a kasuwanni. [17] Hare-haren da aka kai a 1885 a yankin Ittu Oromo kafin a kwace Harar ya bar sassa da dama daga cikin yankin babu mutane. [29]

Mamayar Daular Wolaita da Kaffa

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Wolaita

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A shekara ta 1890, Menelik ya mamaye Daular Wolaita. Masanin tarihi Bahru Zewde ya bayyana wannan yakin mamaya a matsayin "daya daga cikin mafi zubar da jini a duk lokacin fadada daular," kuma al'adar baka ta Wolaita na cewa mutane 118,000 daga kabilar Welayta da sojoji 90,000 daga yankin Shewa ne suka mutu a wannan fada.[30] Kawo (Sarki) Tona Gaga, sarkin karshe na Wolayta, an kayar da shi kuma aka ci garinsu a shekara ta 1895. Daga nan sai aka hade Wolayta da Daular Habasha. Sai dai Wolayta ta ci gaba da samun wani irin ikon cin gashin kanta, inda ake nada gwamnonin da ke da alhakin kai tsaye ga sarki har zuwa lokacin faduwar Sarki Haile Selassie a shekara ta 1974.[30][31]

Kaffa

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Sojojin Ras Wolde Giyorgis bayan sun ci Kaffa suna rusuna wa Sarki

Daular Kaffa wata daula ce mai karfi da ke kudu da kogin Gojeb, a cikin dazuka masu yawa na tsaunukan Kaffa. Saboda yawan hare-hare daga Mecha Oromos, mutanen Kafficho sun kirkiro wata hanya ta tsaro wadda ba a taba gani ba a yankin Afirka ta Gabas. Kafficho sun gina rami mai zurfi (Hiriyoo) da magudanan ruwan kariya (Kuripoa) a kan iyakokin daular domin hana maharan shigowa. Haka kuma, sun yi amfani da shingen halitta kamar Kogin Gojeb da tsaunuka domin dakile hare-hare. Saboda haka ne Kaffa ta sami suna a matsayin wuri da ba za a iya kutsa kai cikinsa ba kuma mai wahalar samu.[Ana bukatan hujja]

A shekara ta 1895, Menelik II ya umurci a mamaye Daular Kaffa, inda ya tura dakaru uku da Dejazmach Tessema Nadew, Ras Wolde Giyorgis da Dejazmach Demissew Nassibu suka jagoranta, tare da goyon bayan Abba Jifar II na Jimma (wanda ya mika wuya ga Menelik), domin su ci wannan daula mai tsaunuka. Gaki Sherocho, sarkin Kaffa, ya buya a cikin dazukan daularsa yana kare kanta daga dakarun Menelik II har sai da aka kama shi a 1897 aka tura shi gudun hijira zuwa Addis Ababa. Bayan nasarar mamayar, Ras Wolde Giyorgis aka nada a matsayin gwamnan yankin.[32]

Faɗaɗa zuwa yankin Ogaden

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Taswirar shekarar 1873 da John Bartholomew ya zana tana nuna "Ugaden" a gabashin Harar

Bayan nasarar kwace birnin Harar a shekarar 1887, Menelik ya sanar da wani shiri na faɗaɗa iko da mulkin mallaka ga kasashen Turai a 1891. Wannan ne ya nuna farkon mamayar da aka fara kaiwa cikin yankin Ogaden, wadda ta kasance da rikici da tashin hankali. [33]

Sarki Menelik bai tsaya da Harar kawai ba, ya kuma nuna sha'awa kan biranen Zeila da Hargeisa da sauran manyan yankunan da ke karkashin mallakar Somawa. [12] A farkon mamayar, Menelik ya tura dakarunsa domin kai hare-hare da suka haddasa firgita da barna a yankin. An rika kashe jama'a ba tare da bambanci ba, tare da wawure dukiyoyi kafin sojojin su koma sansanoninsu da shanun da suka sace. Daga 1890 zuwa 1900, an rika kai hare-haren da suka jefa yankin Ogaden cikin halaka. [34]

Shigo da makaman zamani daga Turai ya lalata daidaito tsakanin Somawa da daular Habasha, domin kasashen Turai sun hana Somawa samun irin waɗannan makaman. [35][36]

Yawancin ƙabilun Somaliya da ke karkashin mallakar Birtaniya sun sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar kariya da Birtaniya domin kare hakkokinsu da ‘yancinsu. [37]

A shekarar 1897, domin kwantar da hankalin Menelik dangane da shirin faɗaɗawa, Birtaniya ta mika kusan rabin yankin Somaliland na Birtaniya ga Habasha karkashin yarjejeniyar Anglo-Ethiopian ta 1897. Daga wannan lokaci ne hukumomin Habasha suka fara jingina ikonsu na Ogaden da wannan yarjejeniya da takardun da suka biyo baya. [38]

Wannan yarjejeniya ba ta da ingancin doka domin tana jingina ikon da Somawa ba su taɓa bai wa Birtaniya ba. Yarjejeniyoyin da aka yi tsakaninsu sun kasance ne don kare filayensu. [39]

Yayin da hare-haren da suka gabata daga Habasha suka fi shafar harkar kasuwanci, shigowar sojojin Menelik cikin cikakken shiri da makamai a lokacin mulkin mallaka ya tayar da hankula a tsakanin Somawa har zuwa bakin gabar teku ta Banaadir. Wata rundunar sojojin Habasha da ke kan dawaki kuma dauke da bindigogi ta kutsa cikin kwarin Shabelle kusa da Balad – inda ake tafiya zuwa Mogadishu a cikin rana guda – a lokacin bazarar 1905. Wasu daga cikin ƙabilun yankin sun shiga fada da wadannan sojojin da suka kutsa yankinsu, suka kore su. [40]

A wasu lokuta, mayakan Somaliya da ke dauke da makamai marasa inganci sun fatattaki sojojin mamaya. A shekarar 1893, wani jami’in sojan Birtaniya mai suna Colonel Swayne, wanda ya kai ziyara Imi, ya ga “ragowar sansanin wani babban rundunar Habasha da aka fatattaka kimanin shekaru biyu ko uku da suka gabata.” [41]

A gabar yamma mai nisa da Somawa suka fi yawa, Farfesa Donald L. Donham na fannin al’adu ya lura cewa mulkin mallaka na Menelik bai dace da addini da siyasar yankin ba, kuma yana fuskantar cikas daga gungun masu gwagwarmayar adawa da mulkin mallaka na Somaliya – Dervish. [42][43]

A yayin da Habasha ta fara faɗaɗawa cikin ƙasar Somaliya tun daga farkon shekarun 1890, Jigjiga ta fara fuskantar mamaya ta soja sau da dama har zuwa shekarar 1900. A ƙarshen ƙarnin, dakarun Habasha sun mamaye Jigjiga kuma suka gina wani sansani kusa da garin. [44]

Daga nan ne kuma, mutanen Amhara suka fara shigowa garin Jigjiga da kewaye domin zama. [45]

A wannan shekarar ne mayakan Dervish na Somaliya suka kai hari na farko kan sojojin Habasha a Jigjiga da nufin kwato dabbobin da aka sace. [46]

A shekara ta gaba, rundunar haɗin gwiwar Birtaniya da Habasha ta kaddamar da farmaki domin murkushe Dervish. [47][48]

A farkon shekaru na ƙarni na 20, Habasha ba ta da cikakken iko a Ogaden dake gabashin Jigjiga duk da yarjejeniyar da aka yi. Lokacin da kwamitin iyaka ya zo domin zana iyakar yarjejeniya a 1934, mutanen yankin Somaliya ba su san cewa su na ƙarƙashin Habasha ba. [49]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Lewis 1983.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Ethiopia: Conquest and Terror". Horn of Africa (in Turanci). 4 (1): 8–19. 1981. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":5" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Hassen, Mohammed (2022-01-02). "Genocidal Conquest, Plunder of Resources and Dehumanization of the Oromo in Ethiopia". Journal of Genocide Research (in Turanci). 24 (1): 109–118. doi:10.1080/14623528.2021.1992925. ISSN 1462-3528. Menelik…operated with French technicians, French map makers, French advice on the management of a standing army, and more French advice as to holding captured provinces with permanent garrisons of conscripted colonial troops. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":8" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Keefer, Edward C. (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia, 1897–1910: Competition for Empire". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 6 (3): 468–474. doi:10.2307/216612. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 216612. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Natsoulas, Theodore (1981). "Ethiopia: The Anatomy of an Indigenous African Colonial Empire". Horn of Africa (in Turanci). 4 (3): 3–6. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":6" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ Mekuria Bulcha (2004-04-02). "Genocidal Violence in the Making of Nation and State in Ethiopia". African Sociological Review. 9 (2): 1–54. doi:10.4314/asr.v9i2.23257. ISSN 1027-4332.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Reid, Richard (2022-01-02). "Atrocity in Ethiopian History". Journal of Genocide Research (in Turanci). 24 (1): 97–108. doi:10.1080/14623528.2021.1992924. ISSN 1462-3528 – via Taylor & Francis. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Hassen, Mohammed (2022-01-02). "Genocidal Conquest, Plunder of Resources and Dehumanization of the Oromo in Ethiopia". Journal of Genocide Research (in Turanci). 24 (1): 109–118. doi:10.1080/14623528.2021.1992925. ISSN 1462-3528. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":3" defined multiple times with different content
  9. ↑ Selassie, Tsehai Brhane (1975). "The question of Damot and Wälamo". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 13 (1): 37–46. JSTOR 41965880.
  10. ↑ Assefa, Tefera (2022). "The Imperial Regimes as a Root of Current Ethnic Based Conflicts in Ethiopia". Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies. 9 (1): 95–130. doi:10.29333/ejecs/919. ISSN 2149-1291. JSTOR 48710291.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Donham & James 1986.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Greenfield, Richard (1979). "An Historical Introduction to Refugee Problems in the Horn". Horn of Africa (in Turanci). 2 (4): 14–26.
  13. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  14. ↑ Abdi, Said Y. (January–March 1978). "Self-Determination for Ogaden Somalis". Horn of Africa (in Turanci). 1 (1): 20–25.
  15. ↑ "The Introduction and Legacy of Menelik's life". 20 August 2018.
  16. ↑ Caulk 1978, p. 474.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Lewis 1983, pp. 140–141.
  18. ↑ Slikkerveer, Leendert (2013). Plural Medical Systems In The Horn Of Africa: The Legacy Of Sheikh Hippocrates. Taylor & Francis. p. 123. ISBN 9781136143304.
  19. ↑ Lewis 1983, pp. 2–3.
  20. ↑ Ali, Abdulkadir (2023). The Covert Genocide: Tragedy of a Nation Downtrodden (in Turanci). Fulton Books, Inc. ISBN 979-8-88731-671-0.
  21. ↑ Akbar, M. J. (2010). Have Pen, Will Travel (in Turanci). Roli Books Private Limited. ISBN 978-81-7436-993-2.
  22. ↑ Have Pen, Will Travel, M.J. Akbar, 2010
  23. ↑ Selassie, Bereket H. (2007). The Crown and the Pen: The Memoirs of a Lawyer Turned Rebel (in Turanci). Red Sea Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-56902-276-4.
  24. ↑ Sauldie, Madan M. (1987). Super Powers in the Horn of Africa (in Turanci). APT Books. ISBN 978-0-86590-092-9.
  25. ↑ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003). "Ugas Nuur". Historical Dictionary of Somalia (in Turanci). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. pp. 248–249. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
  26. ↑ Harold G. Marcus, The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913, (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1995), p. 91 ISBN 1-56902-010-8
  27. ↑ Tafla, Bairu (July 1975). "Ras Dargé Sahle Selassie, c 1827 – 1900". The Journal of African History. 13 (2): 17–37.
  28. ↑ Hassen, Mohammed (2002). "Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, ca. 1880s–2002". Northeast African Studies. 9 (3): 15–49. doi:10.1353/nas.2007.0013. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 41931279. the Oromo population was reduced substantially due to massacres committed in many places by the Abyssinians.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2013). "Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia". The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (in Turanci). Routledge. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-1-135-18214-4.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Sarah Vaughan, "Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia" Archived 2011-08-13 at the Wayback Machine (Jami'ar Edinburgh: Digirin Ph.D., 2003), shafi na 253.
  31. ↑ Yimam, Baye (2002). Ethiopian studies at the end of the second millennium. Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Jami'ar Addis Ababa. p. 930. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  32. ↑ "ETHIOPIA THROUGH RUSSIAN EYES". Archived from the original on 14 April 2014.
  33. ↑ Woodward, Peter; Forsyth, Murray (1994). Conflict and peace in the Horn of Africa : federalism and its alternatives. Dartmouth: Aldershot. pp. 105–106. ISBN 978-1-85521-486-6.
  34. ↑ Abdi 2021, pp. 35–36.
  35. ↑ Irons, Roy (2013). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899–1921 (in Turanci). Pen and Sword. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-78346-380-0.
  36. ↑ Saleh, Abdulkader (2008). Friedensräume in Eritrea und Tigray unter Druck: Identitätskonstruktion, soziale Kohäsion und politische Stabilität (in Jamusanci). LIT Verlag Münster. p. 351. ISBN 978-3-8258-1858-6.
  37. ↑ Gorman, Robert F. (1981). Political Conflict on the Horn of Africa (in Turanci). Praeger. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-03-059471-7. Facing the Ethiopian threat, many Somali clans accepted British protection.
  38. ↑ Ahmed Yusuf, Abdulqawi (1980). "The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 and the Somali-Ethiopian Dispute". Horn of Africa. 3 (1): 39.
  39. ↑ Lewis 1983, pp. 157–159.
  40. ↑ Cassanelli, Lee V. (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 (in Turanci). University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 199–201. ISBN 978-0-8122-7832-3.
  41. ↑ H. G. C. Swayne, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1773666 "A Trip to Harar and Imé", Geographical Journal, 2 (September 1893), p. 251
  42. ↑ Rivista coloniale organo dell'Istituto coloniale italiano (in Italiyanci). Unione coop. editrice. 1927. p. 203.
  43. ↑ Donham & James 1986, pp. 46–47.
  44. ↑ Martin, B. G. (2003). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa (in Turanci). Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-53451-2.
  45. ↑ Girma, Zerihun; Imana, Gutema (2020). "The Impact of Somali Nationalism on the Amhara-Somali Ethnic Interaction in Jigjiga Town and its Surroundings (1940s–1990s)". East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 5 (2): 21–28.
  46. ↑ Martin, B. G. (2003). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa (in Turanci). Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-53451-2.
  47. ↑ Irons, Roy (2013). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899–1921 (in Turanci). Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78346-380-0.
  48. ↑ Commons, Great Britain Parliament House of (1902). Parliamentary Papers (in Turanci). H.M. Stationery Office.
  49. ↑ Lewis, Modern History, p. 61
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