Jump to content

Nazarin shari'a

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Nazarin shari'a
scientific method (en) Fassara, study type (en) Fassara, test case (en) Fassara da scientific model (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare namethodology (en) Fassara da research work (en) Fassara

Nazarin shari'a bincike ne mai zurfi da cikakken bayani game da wani takamaiman lamari (ko shari'o'i) a cikin mahallin duniya na gaske. Misali, nazarin shari'o'i a fannin likitanci na iya mai da hankali kan mutum ɗaya ko rashin lafiya; nazarin shari'o'i a fannin kasuwanci na iya rufe dabarun wani kamfani ko kasuwa mai faɗi; haka nan, nazarin shari'o'i a fannin siyasa na iya kasancewa daga wani abu mai rikitarwa a tsawon lokaci kamar ayyukan wani takamaiman kamfen na siyasa, zuwa wani babban aiki kamar yakin duniya, ko kuma galibi nazarin manufofi na matsalolin gaske da ke shafar masu ruwa da tsaki da yawa.

Gabaɗaya, nazarin shari'a zai iya haskaka kusan kowane mutum, ƙungiya, ƙungiya, taron, tsarin imani, ko aiki. Ba lallai ne nazarin shari'a ya zama lura ɗaya ba ( N = 1), amma yana iya haɗawa da lura da yawa (ɗaya ko mutane da ƙungiyoyi da yawa a cikin lokutan lokaci da yawa, duk a cikin binciken shari'a ɗaya). [1] Ana kiran ayyukan bincike da suka shafi shari'o'i da dama da bincike daban-daban, yayin da ake kiran nazarin shari'a ɗaya da bincike a cikin shari'a. [2]

An yi amfani da binciken shari'o'i sosai a fannin kimiyyar zamantakewa da ta halitta. [3] [4] :5–6

Ma'anar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai ma'anoni da yawa na nazarin shari'o'i, waɗanda za su iya jaddada adadin abubuwan da aka lura (ƙaramin N), hanyar ( qualitative ), kauri na binciken (cikakken bincike na wani abu da mahallinsa), da kuma naturalism (ana duba "yanayin rayuwa na gaske") da ke cikin binciken. Akwai yarjejeniya gabaɗaya tsakanin malamai cewa nazarin shari'a ba lallai bane ya ƙunshi lura ɗaya (N=1), amma yana iya haɗawa da lura da yawa a cikin shari'a ɗaya ko a cikin shari'o'i da yawa. [1] Misali, nazarin juyin juya halin Faransa a taƙaice zai zama lura da abubuwan da aka lura guda biyu: Faransa kafin da kuma bayan juyin juya hali. John Gerring ya rubuta cewa ƙirar bincike ta N=1 ba kasafai ake samunta a aikace ba har ta zama "tatsuniya". [5]

Ana amfani da kalmar binciken shari'o'i daban-daban akai-akai don nazarin shari'o'i da yawa, yayin da ake amfani da binciken shari'o'i a cikin shari'o'i akai-akai don nazarin shari'o'i ɗaya.

John Gerring ya bayyana hanyar nazarin shari'a a matsayin "bincike mai zurfi na raka'a ɗaya ko ƙaramin adadin raka'a (shari'o'in), don manufar fahimtar babban aji na raka'o'i iri ɗaya (yawan shari'o'i)". A cewar Gerring, nazarin shari'o'i ya danganta da salon nazari na mutum, yayin da aikin adadi ya danganta da salon nazari na mutum . [6] Ya ƙara da cewa "fasaha mai ma'ana ta aikin inganci shine amfani da shi na lura marasa misaltuwa - lura da ta shafi fannoni daban-daban na tambayar dalili ko bayanin", yayin da lura da adadi yake kama. [6]

A cewar John Gerring, babban abin da ke bambanta nazarin shari'o'i daga duk sauran hanyoyin shine "dogara ga shaidu da aka samo daga shari'a ɗaya da kuma ƙoƙarinsa, a lokaci guda, don haskaka fasalulluka na manyan shari'o'i". Masana suna amfani da nazarin misalan don haskaka "aji" na abubuwan da suka faru.

Tsarin bincike

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kamar sauran hanyoyin kimiyyar zamantakewa, babu wani tsari guda ɗaya da ya mamaye binciken da aka yi a kan shari'o'i. Nazarin shari'o'i na iya amfani da aƙalla nau'ikan ƙira guda huɗu. Da farko, akwai yiwuwar samun tsarin nazarin shari'a na "babu ka'ida da farko", wanda ke da alaƙa da aikin hanyoyin Kathleen M. Eisenhardt . [7] [8] Nau'i na biyu na tsarin bincike yana nuna bambanci tsakanin nazarin shari'o'i ɗaya da na shari'o'i da yawa, bisa ga jagororin Robert K. Yin da misalai masu yawa. [7] [4] Tsarin zane na uku ya shafi "gina gaskiya ta zamantakewa", wanda aikin Robert E. Stake ya wakilta. [7] [9] A ƙarshe, dalilin ƙira don nazarin shari'a na iya zama don gano "rashin daidaituwa". Wakilin masanin wannan ƙira shine Michael Burawoy . [7] [10] Kowanne daga cikin waɗannan tsare-tsare guda huɗu na iya haifar da aikace-aikace daban-daban, kuma fahimtar zato na musamman na ontological da epistemological yana da mahimmanci. Duk da haka, kodayake ƙirar na iya samun bambance-bambance masu mahimmanci a cikin hanyoyin, ƙirar kuma ana iya amfani da su a cikin haɗuwa da aka yarda da juna.

Duk da cewa ana iya yin nazarin shari'o'i don samar da bayanai masu iyaka game da shari'o'i ko abubuwan da suka faru guda ɗaya, galibi ana yin su ne don haɓaka fahimtar ka'idoji game da siffofin jama'a gabaɗaya.

Zaɓin akwati da tsarinsa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Zaɓar shari'o'i a binciken nazarin shari'o'i gabaɗaya ana nufin nemo shari'o'in da suka wakilci samfura kuma waɗanda ke da bambance-bambance kan girman sha'awar ka'ida. Amfani da hakan wakilci ne kawai, kamar matsakaicin misali ko na yau da kullun ba sau da yawa yake da wadatar bayanai. Wajen fayyace tarihi da dalilai, ya fi amfani a zaɓi batutuwa waɗanda ke ba da yanayi mai ban sha'awa, wanda ba a saba gani ba, ko kuma wanda ke bayyana musamman. Zaɓin shari'a wanda ya dogara da wakilci ba zai yi wuya ya samar da irin waɗannan fahimta ba.

Duk da cewa zaɓin shari'o'i bazuwar dabara ce mai inganci ta zaɓin shari'o'i a cikin binciken manyan-N, akwai yarjejeniya tsakanin masana cewa yana haifar da babban son kai a cikin binciken ƙananan-N. Zaɓen shari'o'i ba bisa ƙa'ida ba na iya haifar da shari'o'i marasa wakilci, da kuma shari'o'in da ba su da tushe. [11] Ya kamata a zaɓi shari'o'in da ke da babban tsammanin samun bayanai. [12] Misali, shari'o'in da ba na al'ada ba (waɗanda suka wuce gona da iri, waɗanda ba su dace ba ko kuma waɗanda ba na al'ada ba) na iya bayyana ƙarin bayani fiye da shari'ar da za a iya wakilta. [13] [14] Ana iya zaɓar shari'a saboda sha'awar shari'ar ko kuma yanayin da ke kewaye da ita. A madadin haka, ana iya zaɓarsa saboda zurfin ilimin da masu bincike ke da shi a yankin; inda masu bincike ke da wannan ilimin na gida, suna cikin yanayin "jiƙa da kuma yin ɗimbin ruwa" kamar yadda Richard Fenno ya faɗa, [15] kuma ta haka ne za su bayar da bayanai masu ma'ana bisa ga wannan ilimin da ya dace game da yanayi da kuma yanayin da ake ciki.

Bayan yanke shawara game da zaɓen shari'a da kuma batun da manufar binciken, akwai buƙatar yanke shawara game da manufar, hanyar da za a bi, da kuma tsarin binciken shari'ar. Don haka Gary Thomas ya gabatar da wani tsari na nazarin yanayin inda aka fara gano manufofi (na kimantawa ko na bincike), sannan aka tsara hanyoyin (gwajin ka'ida, gina ka'ida, ko na misali), sannan aka yanke shawara kan hanyoyin, babban zaɓi shine tsakanin ko binciken zai zama ɗaya ko da yawa, da kuma zaɓuɓɓuka game da ko binciken zai kasance na baya-bayan nan, hoto ko na diachronic, da kuma ko an haɗa shi, a layi ɗaya ko a jere. [16]

A cikin wani kasidar da aka buga a shekarar 2015, John Gerring da Jason Seawright sun lissafa dabarun zabar shari'o'i guda bakwai:

  1. Al'amuran yau da kullun sune shari'o'in da ke misalta dangantaka mai dorewa tsakanin shari'o'i. Waɗannan shari'o'in suna wakiltar yawan shari'o'in da ake da su, kuma manufar binciken ita ce a duba cikin shari'ar maimakon kwatanta ta da wasu shari'o'in.
  2. Lamura daban-daban shari'o'i ne da ke da bambance-bambancen akan ma'aunin X da Y masu dacewa. Saboda bambancin da ke tsakanin masu canji masu dacewa, waɗannan shari'o'in suna wakiltar cikakken adadin shari'o'in.
  3. Mummunan yanayi sune shari'o'in da ke da matuƙar ƙima akan ma'aunin X ko Y idan aka kwatanta da sauran shari'o'in.
  4. Lamura masu karkacewa sune shari'o'in da suka saba wa ka'idojin da ake da su da kuma hankali. Ba wai kawai suna da ƙima mai tsauri akan X ko Y ba (kamar manyan lokuta) amma suna ƙin ilimin da ake da shi game da alaƙar dalili.
  5. Shari'o'in da suka fi tasiri su ne shari'o'in da suka fi muhimmanci ga wani tsari ko ka'ida (misali, Jamus ta Nazi a ka'idojin mulkin kama-karya da kuma masu tsattsauran ra'ayi na dama).
  6. Yawancin shari'o'in da suka yi kama da juna su ne shari'o'in da suka yi kama da duk masu canji masu zaman kansu, sai dai wanda mai bincike ke sha'awa.
  7. Yawancin shari'o'i daban-daban shari'o'i ne da suka bambanta a kan dukkan masu canji masu zaman kansu, sai dai wanda mai bincike ke sha'awa.

Don gano ka'idoji, Jason Seawright ya ba da shawarar amfani da shari'o'in da suka karkace ko kuma shari'o'in da suka wuce gona da iri waɗanda ke da matuƙar ƙima akan ma'aunin X.

Arend Lijphart, da Harry Eckstein sun gano nau'ikan tsare-tsaren bincike guda biyar (ya danganta da manufofin bincike), Alexander George da Andrew Bennett sun ƙara rukuni na shida:

  1. Nazarin shari'o'i na Atheotical (ko kuma na tsari) yana nufin bayyana shari'a da kyau, amma ba don bayar da gudummawa ga ka'ida ba.
  2. Nazarin shari'o'i masu fassara (ko kuma waɗanda aka tsara bisa ga ka'idoji) suna nufin amfani da ka'idoji da aka kafa don bayyana wani takamaiman lamari.
  3. Nazarin shari'o'i masu haifar da hasashe (ko heuristic) suna da nufin gano sabbin masu canji, hasashe, hanyoyin haddasawa, da hanyoyin haddasawa ta hanyar inductive.
  4. Nazarin gwaje-gwajen ka'ida yana da nufin tantance inganci da kuma yanayin ka'idojin da ake da su.
  5. Binciken da ake yi game da gaskiya, yana da nufin tantance sahihancin sabbin hasashe da ka'idoji.
  6. Gina nazarin nau'ikan ko ƙananan nau'ikan, yana da nufin gano alamu gama gari a cikin shari'o'i.

Aaron Rapport ya sake fasalin dabarun zabar shari'o'i "mafi ƙarancin yiwuwa" da "mafi yuwuwar" zuwa dabarun zaɓar shari'o'i "masu rikitarwa". Tsarin zaɓin shari'o'in da ke magance yanayi yana da sassa uku: [17]

  1. Lamunin da aka zaɓa sun faɗi cikin yanayin da ake amfani da shi na ka'idar farko da ake gwadawa da kuma wasu hasashe masu fafatawa.
  2. Ga ka'idojin da ake gwadawa, mai nazarin dole ne ya samo sakamako da aka bayyana a sarari.
  3. Wajen tantance irin wahalar da gwaji ke da ita, mai nazarin ya kamata ya gano ƙarfin yanayin da za a iya magancewa a cikin shari'o'in da aka zaɓa.

Dangane da zaɓin shari'o'i, Gary King, Robert Keohane, da Sidney Verba sun yi gargaɗi game da "zaɓar akan ma'aunin da ya dogara ". Misali, suna jayayya cewa masu bincike ba za su iya yin wani bincike mai inganci game da barkewar yaki ba ta hanyar duban wuraren da yaki ya faru kawai (mai binciken ya kamata ya duba wuraren da yaki bai faru ba). Duk da haka, masana kan hanyoyin inganci sun yi jayayya kan wannan da'awar. Suna jayayya cewa zaɓar ma'aunin da ya dogara da shi zai iya zama da amfani dangane da manufofin binciken. Barbara Geddes ta bayyana damuwarta game da zaɓar canjin da ya dogara (tana jayayya cewa ba za a iya amfani da shi don dalilan gwajin ka'ida ba), amma ta yi jayayya cewa zaɓar canjin da ya dogara zai iya zama da amfani wajen ƙirƙirar ka'ida da gyaran ka'ida.

King, Keohane, da Verba sun yi jayayya cewa babu wata matsala ta hanya wajen zaɓar canjin bayani, duk da haka. Suna gargaɗi game da multicollinearity (zaɓar masu canji guda biyu ko fiye waɗanda ke da alaƙa da juna).

Amfani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana ganin nazarin shari'o'i a matsayin hanya mai amfani ta fito da hasashe da kuma samar da ka'idoji. [6] Nazarin shari'o'i yana da amfani don fahimtar shari'o'in da ba na al'ada ba ko kuma waɗanda suka karkace. [18] Misalan nazarin shari'o'i na gargajiya waɗanda suka haifar da ka'idoji sun haɗa da ka'idar juyin halitta ta Darwin (wanda aka samo daga tafiye-tafiyensa zuwa Tsibirin Galapagos), da kuma ka'idojin ci gaban tattalin arziki na Douglass North (wanda aka samo daga nazarin shari'o'i na ƙasashe masu tasowa na farko, kamar Ingila). [19]

Iyakoki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsarin Binciken Jama'a (wanda kuma ake kira "KKV"), wani littafi mai tasiri na 1994 wanda Gary King, Robert Keohane, da Sidney Verba suka rubuta, ya yi amfani da darussa daga nazarin da ke mayar da hankali kan koma-baya zuwa binciken inganci, yana jayayya cewa ana iya amfani da irin wannan dabaru na fahimtar dalili a cikin nau'ikan bincike guda biyu. [20] [21] Shawarar marubutan ita ce a ƙara yawan abubuwan da aka lura (shawarar da Barbara Geddes ta bayar a cikin Paradigms da Sand Castles ), saboda ƙananan abubuwan da aka lura suna sa ya yi wahala a kimanta tasirin dalilai da yawa, da kuma ƙara haɗarin cewa akwai kuskuren aunawa, da kuma cewa wani abu a cikin shari'a ɗaya ya faru ne sakamakon kuskuren bazuwar ko abubuwan da ba a iya gani ba. [22] KKV tana ganin binciken tsari da bincike mai inganci a matsayin "ba za a iya samar da ƙaƙƙarfan ma'ana ba" saboda masana masu inganci za su yi wahala wajen tantance wanne daga cikin masu canji masu shiga tsakani da gaske ke haɗa mai canji mai zaman kansa da mai canji mai dogaro. Babbar matsalar ita ce binciken inganci ba shi da isassun bayanai da za a iya kimanta tasirin wani canji mai zaman kansa yadda ya kamata. Sun rubuta cewa ana iya ƙara yawan abubuwan da aka lura ta hanyoyi daban-daban, amma hakan zai haifar da wata matsala a lokaci guda: cewa adadin masu canji zai ƙaru kuma ta haka zai rage matakan 'yanci . [21] Christopher H. Achen da Duncan Snidal suma sun yi jayayya cewa nazarin shari'o'i ba su da amfani wajen gina ka'ida da gwajin ka'ida. [23]

Matsalar da ake cewa "digiri na 'yanci" da KKV ta gano ana ɗaukarta a matsayin matsala sosai; yayin da masana ƙididdiga ke ƙoƙarin tattara masu canji don rage adadin masu canji don haka ƙara matakan 'yanci, masana ƙwararru suna son masu canji su sami halaye da sarkakiya daban-daban. [24] Misali, James Mahoney ya rubuta, "yanayin Bayesian na tsarin bin diddigin bayanai ya bayyana dalilin da ya sa bai dace a ɗauki binciken inganci a matsayin wanda ke fama da matsalar ƙananan-N da wasu matsalolin gano dalilai na yau da kullun ba." [25] Ta hanyar amfani da Bayesian probability, yana iya yiwuwa a yi ƙaƙƙarfan bincike na dalili daga ƙaramin guntun bayanai. [26]

KKV ta kuma gano tunanin inductive a cikin binciken inganci a matsayin matsala, tana jayayya cewa bai kamata malamai su sake duba hasashe ba a lokacin ko bayan an tattara bayanai saboda yana ba da damar yin gyare-gyare na ka'ida ta musamman don dacewa da bayanan da aka tattara. Duk da haka, masana sun ja da baya kan wannan ikirarin, suna lura cewa tunanin inductive aiki ne na halal (a cikin binciken inganci da adadi). [27]

Iyakar nazarin shari'o'i da aka saba bayyanawa ita ce ba sa yarda da fahimtar gabaɗaya. Saboda ƙarancin adadin shari'o'in, yana iya zama da wahala a tabbatar da cewa shari'o'in da aka zaɓa sun wakilci yawan jama'a.

Ganin cewa binciken ƙananan-N bai kamata ya dogara da samfurin da ba a yi niyya ba, dole ne malamai su yi taka tsantsan wajen guje wa son zuciya wajen zaɓar waɗanda suka dace. Abin da aka fi suka game da ilimin da ya shafi inganci shi ne cewa ana zaɓen shari'o'i ne saboda sun yi daidai da ra'ayoyin da masanin ya riga ya yi, wanda hakan ke haifar da bincike mai son zuciya. [28] Alexander George da Andrew Bennett sun kuma lura cewa matsala da aka saba fuskanta a binciken da ake yi a kan lamarin ita ce daidaita fassarori masu karo da juna na bayanai iri ɗaya. Wani iyaka na binciken da aka yi a kan shari'o'i shi ne cewa yana iya zama da wahala a kimanta girman tasirin da ke tattare da hakan.

Koyar da nazarin shari'o'i

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Malamai za su iya shirya nazarin shari'a wanda za a yi amfani da shi a cikin azuzuwa a cikin nau'in nazarin shari'a na "koyarwa" (duba hanyar shari'a da hanyar littafin shari'a ). Misali, tun a shekarar 1870 a Makarantar Shari'a ta Harvard, Christopher Langdell ya bar tsarin lacca da bayanin kula na gargajiya wajen koyar da dokar kwangila kuma ya fara amfani da shari'o'in da aka shigar a gaban kotu a matsayin tushen tattaunawa a aji. Zuwa shekarar 1920, wannan tsari ya zama babban tsarin koyarwa da makarantun shari'a a Amurka ke amfani da shi. [29]

Ɗaliban injiniya suna shiga gasar nazarin shari'a.

Banda shari'a, nazarin koyarwa ya zama ruwan dare a fannoni da dama na sana'o'i, tun daga ilimin kasuwanci zuwa ilimin kimiyya. Makarantar Kasuwanci ta Harvard ta kasance ɗaya daga cikin fitattun masu haɓakawa da masu amfani da nazarin shari'o'i na koyarwa. [30] Malamai suna haɓaka nazarin misalai da la'akari da takamaiman manufofin koyo. Ƙarin takardu masu dacewa, kamar bayanan kuɗi, jadawalin lokaci, gajerun tarihin rayuwa, da ƙarin bayanai na multimedia (kamar rikodin bidiyo na tambayoyi) galibi suna tare da nazarin shari'o'in. Hakazalika, koyar da nazarin shari'o'i ya zama ruwan dare a fannin ilimin kimiyya, wanda ya shafi fannoni daban-daban na kimiyyar halittu da ta jiki. Cibiyar Nazarin Shari'o'i ta Ƙasa a Kimiyyar Koyarwa ta samar da ƙarin tarin nazarin shari'o'i na koyarwa don amfani a cikin aji, don jami'a da kuma ayyukan koyarwa na makarantun sakandare. [31]

Duba kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Labarin nazari
  • Hanyar Littafin Shari'a
  • Hanyar shari'a
  • Gasar shari'a
  • Rahoton shari'a
  • Bin diddigin tsari

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 Thies, Cameron G. (2002). "A Pragmatic Guide to Qualitative Historical Analysis in the Study of International Relations". International Studies Perspectives. 3 (4): 351–372. doi:10.1111/1528-3577.t01-1-00099. ISSN 1528-3577. JSTOR 44218229.
  2. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":13".
  3. ↑ (Gabrielle ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. 1 2 Empty citation (help)
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":16".
  6. 1 2 3 Gerring, John (2017). "Qualitative Methods". Annual Review of Political Science (in Turanci). 20 (1): 15–36. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-092415-024158. ISSN 1094-2939.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Ridder, Hans-Gerd (October 2017). "The theory contribution of case study research designs". Business Research. 10 (2): 281–305. doi:10.1007/s40685-017-0045-z. ISSN 2198-2627. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  8. ↑ Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. (1991). "Better Stories and Better Constructs: The Case for Rigor and Comparative Logic". The Academy of Management Review. 16 (3): 620–627. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4279496. JSTOR 258921.
  9. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  10. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":18".
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":2".
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":9".
  14. ↑ Underwood, Peter; Waterson, Patrick; Braithwaite, Graham (2016). "'Accident investigation in the wild' – A small-scale, field-based evaluation of the STAMP method for accident analysis". Safety Science. 82: 129–43. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2015.08.014.
  15. ↑ Fenno, Richard F. (2014). "Observation, Context, and Sequence in the Study of Politics". American Political Science Review. 80 (1): 3–15. doi:10.2307/1957081. JSTOR 1957081. S2CID 145630377.
  16. ↑ Thomas, Gary (2011). "A Typology for the Case Study in Social Science Following a Review of Definition, Discourse, and Structure". Qualitative Inquiry. 17 (6): 511–21. doi:10.1177/1077800411409884. S2CID 144895919.
  17. ↑ Rapport, Aaron (2015). "Hard Thinking about Hard and Easy Cases in Security Studies". Security Studies (in Turanci). 24 (3): 431–465. doi:10.1080/09636412.2015.1070615. ISSN 0963-6412. S2CID 131769695.
  18. ↑ Jennifer Invalid |url-status=Woolcock (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":17".
  20. ↑ Humphreys, Macartan; Jacobs, Alan M. (2015). "Mixing Methods: A Bayesian Approach". American Political Science Review. 109 (4): 654. doi:10.1017/s0003055415000453. ISSN 0003-0554. S2CID 1846974.
  21. 1 2 Mahoney, James (2010). "After KKV: The New Methodology of Qualitative Research". World Politics (in Turanci). 62 (1): 120–147. doi:10.1017/S0043887109990220. ISSN 1086-3338. S2CID 43923978.
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":3".
  23. ↑ Achen, Christopher H.; Snidal, Duncan (1989). "Rational Deterrence Theory and Comparative Case Studies". World Politics. 41 (2): 143–169. doi:10.2307/2010405. ISSN 0043-8871. JSTOR 2010405. S2CID 153591618.
  24. ↑ Bennett, Andrew (2008-08-21). Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M; Brady, Henry E; Collier, David (eds.). "Process Tracing: a Bayesian Perspective". The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology (in Turanci). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.001.0001. ISBN 9780199286546. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  25. ↑ Mahoney, James (2016-09-02). "Mechanisms, Bayesianism, and process tracing". New Political Economy. 21 (5): 493–499. doi:10.1080/13563467.2016.1201803. ISSN 1356-3467. S2CID 156167903.
  26. ↑ Bennett, Andrew (2008). Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M; Brady, Henry E; Collier, David (eds.). "Process Tracing: a Bayesian Perspective". The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology (in Turanci). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.001.0001. ISBN 9780199286546. Archived from the original on 2014-08-04. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  27. ↑ Yom, Sean (2015). "From Methodology to Practice: Inductive Iteration in Comparative Research". Comparative Political Studies (in Turanci). 48 (5): 616–644. doi:10.1177/0010414014554685. ISSN 0010-4140. S2CID 143936902.
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":6".
  29. ↑ Jackson, Giles (2011). "Rethinking the case method". Journal of Management Policy and Practice. 12 (5): 142–64.
  30. ↑ Garvin, David A. (2003). "Making the Case: Professional Education for the World of Practice". Harvard Magazine. 106 (1): 56–107. Archived from the original on 2020-07-29. Retrieved 2026-09-10.
  31. ↑ "About Us". National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS). University at Buffalo. Archived from the original on 2018-09-13. Retrieved 2018-09-12.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazarin_shari%27a&oldid=942858"