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Odinani

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Odinani
isolated human group (en) Fassara

Odinani ( Listen ⓘ ), also known as Odinala, Omenala, Odinana, and Omenana [1] ( Igbo ig ), shine imani da al'adun gargajiya na mutanen Igbo na Kudu maso Gabas da Kudancin Kudancin Najeriya. Waɗannan kalmomin, kamar yadda aka yi amfani da su a nan a cikin harshen Igbo, suna da alaƙa da tsarin addini na gargajiya na Igbo wanda ba a ɗauke shi daban da ƙa'idodin zamantakewa na tsoffin al'ummomin Igbo ko na gargajiya ba. A cikin yanayin Allahntaka, ruhaniya ta taka muhimmiyar rawa a rayuwarsu ta yau da kullun. Kodayake an haɗa ta da Katolika, tsarin imani na asali ya kasance yana da tasiri mai ƙarfi a tsakanin mazauna karkara, ƙauye da kuma mazauna ƙasashen waje na Igbo. Ana iya samun Odinani a cikin Voodoo na Haiti, Obeah, Santeria har ma da Candomblé . Odinani addini ne na pantheistic da kuma shirka, yana da allahntaka mai ƙarfi a kansa. Duk abubuwa sun fito ne daga wannan allahntaka. Ko da yake akwai wasu alloli da ruhohi, waɗanda suka haɗa da Ala, Amadiọha, Anyanwu, Ekwensu, Ikenga, a cikin tsarin imani, kamar yadda yake a cikin sauran addinai na gargajiya na Afirka, ƙananan alloli da suka yawaita a Odinani suna aiki a matsayin mataimaka ko abubuwan da ke cikin Chukwu, babban allahn.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

Ƙananan ruhohi da aka sani da ƙarfi ko ƙarfin hali suna aiki a ƙarƙashin sauran alloli da manyan ruhohi. Waɗannan ƙananan ruhohi suna wakiltar ƙarfin halitta; ƙarfi a matsayin ikon allahntaka yana bayyana a matsayin daban-daban a cikin pantheon na Igbo. Ra'ayi na 'idon rana ko Allah' ( Anyanwu, Igbo: ) yana wanzuwa a matsayin allahn rana na namiji da mace wanda ke zama wani ɓangare na bauta wa rana tsakanin Nri-Igbo a arewacin Igboland. Ana yin sulhu ta hanyar Dibia da sauran firistoci waɗanda ba sa tuntuɓar babban allah kai tsaye. Ta hanyar fa, 'duba', ana isar da dokoki da buƙatun masu addini ga masu rai. Ana girmama masu addini a wuraren ibada na al'umma da ke kusa da tituna da dazuzzuka yayin da ƙananan wuraren ibada ke cikin gida don girmama kakanni . Kakanni da suka mutu suna rayuwa a duniyar ruhohi inda za a iya tuntuɓar su. A ƙarƙashin masu addini akwai ƙananan ruhohi da aka sani da mummuọ waɗanda aka bayyana su ta hanyar halayensu na mugunta ko na kirki. Ba a girmama waɗannan ƙananan ruhohi kuma wani lokacin ana ɗaukar su a matsayin rayukan matattu da suka ɓace. Bauta wa kakanninsu da bauta wa alloli da ruhohi daban-daban, sune babban ɓangaren addinin gargajiya na Igbo, wanda ya bambanta da addinan Ibrahim.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]

Adadin mutanen da ke bin addinin Igbo ya ragu sosai a ƙarni na 20 sakamakon kwararar Kiristoci masu wa'azin Kirista a ƙarƙashin jagorancin gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta Birtaniya a Najeriya . A wasu lokuta, an haɗa addinin gargajiya na Igbo da Kiristanci, amma a lokuta da yawa, al'adun 'yan asalin ƙasar sun zama abin ƙyama ga Kiristoci masu wa'azin Kirista waɗanda suka nuna cewa ana yin hadayar ɗan adam (ta hanyar tsarin Osu ) da wasu al'adun gargajiya waɗanda ba bisa ƙa'ida ba a ƙarƙashin gwamnatin mulkin mallaka. Masu wa'azin farko sun kira yawancin al'adun gargajiya na 'yan asalin ƙasar da juju . Addinin Igbo ya fi kasancewa a yau a bukukuwan girbi kamar bikin sabuwar yam ( ƙwa ji ) da kuma ɓoye al'adu kamar mutane da Ekpe.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]

Ragowar al'adun addinin Igbo sun bazu a tsakanin zuriyar Afirka a Caribbean da Arewacin Amurka a lokacin cinikin bayi na Atlantika . An mayar da Igbo ƙauna zuwa Biritaniya ta Yamma Indies da Guyana a matsayin obeah kuma ana iya samun wasu al'adun gargajiya na Igbo a cikin bukukuwan mutanen Garifuna da jonkonnu a Yammacin Indies da North Carolina.[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]

Asalin Ma'anar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ɗanala a cikin yaren Igbo na tsakiya shine mahaɗin kalmomin da suke ('located') + n ( nà, 'within') + àla (allahu ɗaya) [wanda ya ƙunshi Elu a sama (sammai) da Ala, a ƙasan (ƙasa)]. Sauran bambance-bambancen yare sun haɗa da nau'ikan, nau'ikan, omenala, omenana, da kuma ma'ana . [38] Kalmar ƙasar da duk bambance-bambancen ta kuma tana da alaƙa da al'adu da dokokin al'ada na mutanen Igbo. Yawancin dokoki da al'adu sun kasance daidai da addini kamar haramun da dokoki game da wurare masu tsarki kamar dajin allahntaka. Tunda ana amincewa da dokar al'ada a Najeriya, mutane da yawa a cikin al'ummar Igbo suna ganin kansu suna haɗa waɗannan imani da wasu imani da addinai.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]

Imani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Magic lantern Image of the entrance to the cave of the Ibini Ukpabi oracle at Arochukwu.
Shiga kogon Ibini Ukpabi a Arochukwu, shekarun 1900

Ana iya siffanta Ɗanala a matsayin imani mai bauta wa Allah da kuma addinin da ba shi da addini, wanda ke da ƙarfi a cikin ruhaniya, wanda daga kansa ake ganin dukkan abubuwa suna fitowa; duk da haka, bambancin yanayin tsarin na iya ƙunsar ra'ayoyi daban-daban na addini waɗanda suka samo asali daga imani daban-daban da ake da su a cikin addinin. [ Chukwu a matsayin allahntaka ta tsakiya an rarraba shi tsakanin ndi mmuo, 'halittu marasa ganuwa', wani nau'in halittu masu rai wanda ya haɗa da Ala ikon duniya na allahntaka, chi 'abin bauta na mutum', ndichie kakannin, da mmuo ƙananan ruhohi. Wani nau'in halittu masu rai ya ƙunshi ndi mutane, 'halittu masu gani', waɗanda suka haɗa da dabbobi, shuke-shuken osísí, da kuma ajin ƙarshe na ùrò wanda ya ƙunshi abubuwa, ma'adanai da halittu marasa rai. Yayin da ake bauta wa alloli daban-daban, ruhohin Arusi, da kakanninsu kuma ana yi musu addu'a; Ba a yin hadaya ga Chukwu kuma ba a gina wuraren ibada da bagadai a kansa ba. [46] Idan aka bai wa mutum Arusi, zai zama chi, allah/ruhi mai kula da kansa.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

Rikici mai rikitarwa na arnanci yana gina babban ra'ayi na yawancin addinan gargajiya na Afirka, ciki har da Odinala, wanda ya haɗa da bauta wa allolin koyarwa, bautar yanayi, bauta wa kakanni da kuma imani da rayuwa bayan mutuwa . Yayin da wasu addinai suka rungumi ra'ayin duniya na arnanci, yawancinsu suna bin tsarin bauta wa Allah tare da alloli daban-daban, ruhohi da sauran halittu masu ban mamaki . [54] Addinan gargajiya na Afirka kuma suna da abubuwan da suka shafi fetishism, shamanism da kuma girmama kayan tarihi . [55][56][57]

Farfesa ɗan Najeriya ɗan asalin ƙasar Amurka a Jami'ar Harvard, Jacob Olupona, ya taƙaita addinan gargajiya na Afirka da yawa a matsayin al'adu da imani masu rikitarwa na addinin ɗan adam na mutanen Afirka kafin mulkin mallaka na Kirista da Musulunci na Afirka. Bauta wa kakanninmu koyaushe yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin al'adun gargajiya na Afirka kuma ana iya ɗaukarsa a matsayin babban abin da ke cikin ra'ayin Afirka. Kakannin (fatalwowi/ruhohin kakannin) muhimmin ɓangare ne na gaskiya. Ana kyautata zaton kakannin suna zaune a cikin daular kakanninsu (duniyar ruhohi), yayin da wasu ke ganin cewa kakannin sun zama daidai gwargwado a iko da alloli. [58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

Olupona ya yi watsi da ma'anar Tauhidi ta yamma/Musulunci kuma ya ce irin waɗannan ra'ayoyi ba za su iya nuna al'adun Afirka masu rikitarwa ba kuma suna da sauƙi sosai. Yayin da wasu al'adu suna da wani babban abu (kusa da wasu alloli), wasu kuma ba su da shi. Tauhidi ba ya nuna hanyoyi da yawa da ruhaniyar Afirka ta gargajiya ta yi tunani a kai game da alloli, alloli, da halittun ruhohi.[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]

Chukwuemeka Mbaegbu daga Jami'ar Nnamdi Azikiwe, Awka, Najeriya, ya bayyana tsarin addinin Igbo a matsayin " Monopolytheism ", yana nufin imani da alloli da ruhohi daban-daban da yawa, amma tare da iko ɗaya mai nisa wanda ba shi da wani takamaiman mutum, wanda ya haifar da ƙirƙirar komai, amma ba allah ba ne a kowane ma'ana.[73][74][75][76]

Chi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An interior photograph of a chi shrine with plates inset into the polished mud walls
Cikin gidan ibada na chi a Nkarahia, kudancin Igboland, shekarun 1900

A Odinani, kabilar Igbo sun yi imani cewa kowane mutum yana da mai kula da ruhaniya na kansa mai suna Chi (ko ḿmúọ́ ), wanda aka naɗa musu kafin da kuma lokacin haihuwarsa. Chi yana tare da su har tsawon rayuwarsa a Duniya. Chi na mutum shine siffanta ƙaddarar wannan mutumin, wanda ake yaba masa saboda nasarorin rayuwarsa, rashin sa'o'i da gazawarsa. 'Yan kabilar Igbo sun yi imanin cewa nasararsu a rayuwa ta dogara ne akan Chinsu, kuma babu wani mutum da zai iya wuce girman Chinsa. A wannan fanni, ra'ayin chi yayi kama da ra'ayin mala'ika mai tsaro a cikin Kiristanci, aljani a cikin addinin Girka na dā, da kuma baiwa a cikin addinin Romawa na dā . [77] [78] A al'ada, ana ganin mutane a matsayin masu ƙirƙira ko masu yin ƙaddarar kansu. Numfashin rai yana cikin zuciya, obi . [79] Chi na iya zama namiji da mace. Dibia na iya gano chi na mutum ta hanyar duba ( ájà ) kuma yana ba da shawara ga masu bin hanyoyin kwantar da hankali. [80] Éké ruhin mai kula da kakannin mutum ne amma yana wanzuwa a gefen rayuwar ɗan adam kuma ya kasance abin asiri ga mutane. [81] Gidaje yawanci suna da wurin ibada don girmama Chi, wanda za'a iya mai da hankali kan itace. A cikin aure, mace tana kai wurin ibadar chi tare da duk kayanta zuwa gidan aurenta. [46] Ana kafa wurin ibada ga chi ɗaya da asuba don kiran ruhin daga rana. Wurin ibadar chi na mutum yana lalacewa idan ya mutu. [82] A kusa da Nkarahia, a kudancin Igboland, akwai wuraren ibadar chi mafi kyau waɗanda aka ƙawata da faranti masu launuka iri-iri na chi a cikin bangon yumbu na ginin wurin ibadar chi; Bagadai suna ɗauke da tambarin tsarki, yayin da benayen laka masu gogewa ke ɗauke da abubuwan ci, gilashi, manillas, da abinci. [80] A matsayin alamar sa'a ko rashin sa'a, ayyukan alheri ko rashin lafiya, ana iya siffanta chi a matsayin wurin da ake mayar da hankali kan 'addini na mutum'. [46]

Ilimin Halittar Jiki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana kiran al'ummar halittu masu hulɗa da juna da kuma sararin samaniya da suna, wanda ya haɗa da dukkan halittu masu rai waɗanda suke da alaƙa da juna, gami da dabbobi da shuke-shuke da kuma ma'adanai waɗanda ke da ƙarfi mai mahimmanci kuma ana ɗaukar su a matsayin takwarorinsu ga ƙarfin da ba a iya gani a duniyar ruhi. Saboda haka, waɗannan halittu masu rai da siffofin ƙasa na duniya suna da allahntaka mai tsaro. Ilimin sararin samaniya na Igbo yana gabatar da daidaito tsakanin mace da namiji, wataƙila, tare da rinjayen wakilcin mace a cikin ilimin Igbo. [46] A cikin ilimin sararin samaniya na Igbo, an raba duniya zuwa kusurwoyi huɗu ta wurin babban allahn da ya dace da ilimin ranakun ǹkụọ waɗanda sune kwanakin mako a cikin kalandar Igbo waɗanda ake ɗauka a matsayin kwanakin kasuwa. [83] Ana ɗaukar sararin samaniya a matsayin haɗakar wurare masu iyaka a cikin tsarin hemispherical mai haɗuwa, ana kiran jimillar sarari a matsayin élú na ala . [46] A cikin wata ka'idar kimiyyar sararin samaniya ta Igbo da WRG Morton ya ruwaito a shekarun 1950 daga wani dattijo a Ibagwa Nike a arewacin Igboland, Chukwu ya ga cewa rana tana yawo a fadin duniya a lokacin rana sannan ta raba gida biyu domin wata ya wuce ta kan hanya mai lankwasa, don haka duniya ta rabu gida hudu da kwana hudu. [83] Raba duniya kwata-kwata da kwanaki ya sanya lamba hudu ta zama mai tsarki ( ńsọ ) ga Igbo. [83] [84] An ayyana sararin samaniya na duniya ta iyakoki biyu: élú ígwé, 'iyakar sararin sama' wanda ya kunshi jikin sama a karkashin manyan karfin rana 'namiji' da wata 'mata', da élú ala, 'iyakar duniya ko ƙasa' wanda ya kunshi abubuwa guda hudu na wuta da iska (namiji), da ƙasa da ruwa (mata). [46]

Picture of figures drawn in chalk on the ground
Ogbo Obodo ya yi kididdigar kungiyar asiri ta Nkpetime, kusa da Asaba, 1900s

Tsarin biyu da huɗu yana sake dawowa a cikin halittar Chukwu. [1] Kwanakin sun yi daidai da manyan wurare guda huɗu kuma sunayensu suna cikin Igbo, èké gabas, oorun yamma, arewa, ǹkwụ kudu. [2] Ndi-Igbo sun yi iƙirarin cewa an gabatar da kwanakin kasuwa ga Igbo ta hannun kakanninsu kuma sarki Eri a ƙarni na 9 bayan sun haɗu da kwanakin a matsayin alloli. [3] Ana girmama waɗannan Arusi a matsayin babban alloli ko kuma babban alloli a ƙarƙashin Chineke a sassan ƙasar Igbo. Dangane da matsayi, wasu al'ummomi suna gane cewa èké a matsayin shugaban waɗannan Arusi, yayin da wasu ke fifita oríè da ǹkwụ da farko bayan babban alloli. [3] Kwanakin kasuwa na iya samun alloli na gida waɗanda ke wakiltar ruhohi a wasu wurare, a yawancin garuruwan kudancin Igbo, Agwu shine mai kula da Eke, Ogwugwu shine mai kula da Orie, Amadioha shine mai kula da Afọ da Ala don Nkwo. [4]

An raba Cosmos zuwa "tsarin abubuwa guda huɗu" da aka sani da Okike, Alusi, Mmuo, da Uwa . Okike shine abin da ya faru na "Halitta", Alusi sune ƙananan alloli, Mutane sune ruhohin Kakannin da sauran halittu, Uwa kuma shine Duniya.

Adalci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙafa da ƙarfi doka ce ta adalci mai ɗaukar fansa . Tana kare duk wanda aka zarge shi da laifi ba daidai ba matuƙar "hannunsa suna da tsabta". Mutum ne kawai wanda ke gefen adalci na Ɗan-na-Ogụ zai iya kiran sunansa cikin addu'a, in ba haka ba irin wannan mutumin zai fuskanci fushin Amadiọha (allahn tsawa da walƙiya). Ana amfani da goro na Kola a bukukuwan girmama Chukwu, chi, Arusi da kakanninsa kuma ana amfani da shi azaman hanyar da za a yi iƙirarin rashin laifi idan aka haɗa shi da hadaya. Igbo galibi suna yin bagadai na yumbu da wuraren ibada na allolinsu waɗanda wani lokacin suna da alaƙa da ɗan adam, misali mafi shahara shine siffofi na katako na Ikenga. Yawanci, maza ne kawai ake yarda su yi siffofi masu wakiltar ikon allahntaka.

Rayuwa bayan mutuwa da sake haihuwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Igbo sun yi imani da rayuwa bayan mutuwa a duniyar ruhi ko girma, inda kakannin da suka mutu suke, kuma suna iya yin tasiri ga duniyar zahiri da zuriyarsu. Kakannin kakanninsu masu kariya ne kuma masu kula da zuri'arsu, abokai na kud da kud da gado, kuma suna iya zama ga manyan ruhohi (rabin alloli), kamar yadda yake a sauran addinai na gargajiya na duniya. Duk da haka, wasu lokuta, kakannin suna iya sake rayuwa cikin iyalai waɗanda suke cikin su yayin da suke raye. Ana kiran wannan da birnin-uwa. Ba kasafai ake samun sake haihuwa ba, amma yana iya faruwa lokaci-lokaci, idan mamacin ba zai iya shiga duniyar ruhi ba saboda dalilai daban-daban ko kuma ya shiga cikin sabuwar haihuwa idan zai mutu nan da nan bayan haihuwa. [85] Ba kamar a addinin Hindu ba, ana iya sake rayuwa ne kawai a matsayin mutane. [86] Iyalai suna hayar masu duba don bayyana ko yaron yana ɗauke da rai ko wani ɓangare na kakanni; wani lokacin ana sanya wa jaririn suna bayan wannan dangi. [86] Halin kakanni ba iri ɗaya bane da na yaron amma manufar tana kafa muhimmiyar dangantaka da yaron da halayen kakanni. Wasu alamu na iya zama wasu halaye, halaye na zahiri, da kuma maganganun yaron. Mai duba zai iya taimakawa wajen gano ko yaron ya sake rayuwa daga kakanni kuma yana iya gano wannan kakanni. Ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin cin zarafi idan aka ce namiji ya sake rayuwa a matsayin mace. Kaka (ko ɓangarorin kakanni) na iya sake rayuwa a cikin mutane da yawa, a wannan yanayin sake haihuwa suna da alaƙa da mutuwa; bayan mutuwar mutum ɗaya, ana kyautata zaton sauran na iya mutuwa kwatsam idan suka ga gawar. [87]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Ezekwugo, Charles M. (1991). "Omenana and Odinana in the Igbo World: A Philosophical Appraisal". Africana Marburgensia (in Turanci). 24 (2): 3–18.
  2. ↑ Ebelebe, Charles A. (2009). Africa and the New Face of Mission: A Critical Assessment of the Legacy of the Irish Spiritans Among the Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria. Univiversity Press of America. p. 24. ISBN 978-0761845966.
  3. ↑ Agbasiere, Joseph Thérèse (2000). Women in Igbo Life and Thought. Psychology Press. pp. 48–64. ISBN 0415227038.
  4. ↑ Wiredu, Kwesi (2008). A Companion to African Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 420. ISBN 978-0470997376.
  5. ↑ Kimmerle, Heinz (11 April 2006). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. 2 (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  6. ↑ Asukwo (2013). "The Need to Re-Conceptualize African Traditional Religion".
  7. ↑ The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 6 October 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  8. ↑ Achebe, Chinua (1975). Chi in Igbo Cosmology from Morning Yet on Creation Day. London: Heinemann Educational. pp. 93–103. ISBN 9780435180263.
  9. ↑ Udeani, Chibueze C. (2007). Inculturation as Dialogue: Igbo Culture and the Message of Christ. Rodopi. p. 35. ISBN 978-9042022294. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  10. ↑ Ndukaihe, Vernantius Emeka (2006). Achievement as Value in the Igbo/African Identity: The Ethics. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 185–187. ISBN 3825899292. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  11. ↑ Anyahuru, Israel; Ohiaraumunna, Tom (2009). Musical Sense and Musical Meaning: An Indigenous African Perception. Rozenberg Publishers. p. 56.
  12. ↑ Basden, G. S (1966). Among the Ibos of Nigeria, 1912. Psychology Press: p. 109, ISBN 0-7146-1633-8
  13. ↑ Opata, Damian Ugwutikiri (1998). Essays on Igbo World View. AP Express Publishers. p. 62. ISBN 9782001155.
  14. ↑ Asante, Molefi K.; Nwadiora, Emeka (2007). Spear Masters: An Introduction to African Religion. University Press of America. p. 108. ISBN 978-0761835745. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  15. ↑ Okoh, Michael (2012). Fostering Christian Faith in Schools and Christian Communities Through Igbo Traditional Values: Towards a Holistic Approach to Christian Religious Education and Catechesis in Igboland (Nigeria). LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 37, 58. ISBN 978-3643901682. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  16. ↑ Okoh, Michael (2012). Fostering Christian Faith in Schools and Christian Communities Through Igbo Traditional Values: Towards a Holistic Approach to Christian Religious Education and Catechesis in Igboland (Nigeria). LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 37, 58. ISBN 978-3643901682. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  17. ↑ Cole, Herbert M. (1982). Mbari: Art and the Life Among the Owerri Igbo. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253303974.
  18. ↑ Talbot, P. Amaury (July 1916). "Some Beliefs of To-day and Yesterday (Niger-Delta Tribes.)". Journal of the Royal African Society. 15 (60). The Royal African Society: 307–308.
  19. ↑ Ụkaegbu, Jọn Ọfọegbu (1991). "Igbo Identity and Personality Vis-à-vis Igbo Cultural Symbols". Pontifical University of Salamanca: 60.
  20. ↑ Morton, W. R. G. (1956). "God, man and the land in a Northern Ibo village-group". African Abstracts. 7–9. International African Institute: 15.
  21. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 247. ISBN 0-521-45599-5.
  22. ↑ Chigere, Nkem Hyginus M. V. (2001). Foreign Missionary Background and Indigenous Evangelization in Igboland. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 20, 56. ISBN 3825849643.
  23. ↑ Onwuejeogwu, 1975: The Igbo Culture Area in "Igbo Language and Culture," F. Chidozie Ogbalu & E Nolue Emenanjo
  24. ↑ Ejizu, Christopher I. (1986). Ofo: Igbo Ritual Symbol. Fourth Dimension Publishers. ISBN 9781562684.
  25. ↑ T. Phillips (ed.) "Ceramic altar for the new yam harvest festival" Archived 19 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, BritishMuseum.org, London, April 03, 2010
  26. ↑ Nwauwa, Apollos O.; Anyanwu, Ogechi E. (24 October 2019). Culture, Precepts, and Social Change in Southeastern Nigeria: Understanding the Igbo. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4985-8969-7.
  27. ↑ Nnam, Nkuzi Michael (2007). Colonial Mentality in Africa. Hamilton Books. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-1461626305.
  28. ↑ Short, J.A.; Pedersen, O.; Kendrick, G.A. (October 2015). "Turf algal epiphytes metabolically induce local pH increase, with implications for underlying coralline algae under ocean acidification". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 164: 463–470. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2015.08.006. ISSN 0272-7714.
  29. ↑ Udoye, Edwin Anaegboka (2011). Resolving the Prevailing Conflicts Between Christianity and African (Igbo) Traditional Religion Through Inculturation. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 45–53, 104. ISBN 978-3643901163.
  30. ↑ Newell, William Hare (1976). "Ancestoride! Are African Ancestors Dead?". Ancestors. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 293–294. ISBN 90-279-7859-X.
  31. ↑ Ilogu, Edmund (1974). Christianity and Ibo culture. Brill. pp. 34–36. ISBN 90-04-04021-8.
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  61. ↑ Agozino, Emmanuel. ‘Ekwensu:God of victory not devil’, Nigerian Compass, Nsukka, April 03, 2010
  62. ↑ Bewaji, John A. I. (1998). "Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief and the Theistic Problem of Evil" (PDF). African Studies Quarterly. 2 (1). University of Florida. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  63. ↑ Nwaorgu, Andrew E. (2001). Cultural symbols: the Christian perspective. T' Afrique International Association. pp. 92–95. ISBN 9780529020.
  64. ↑ Slattery, Katharine "Religion and the Igbo People", Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, April 03, 2010
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  66. ↑ Aguwa, Jude C. U. (1995). The Agwu deity in Igbo religion: a study of the patron spirit divination and medicine in an African society. Fourth Dimension Publishing. p. 108. ISBN 9789781563997.
  67. ↑ Peek, Philip M. (1991). African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing. Georgetown University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0253343097.
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  69. ↑ Opata, Damian Ugwutikiri (2009). Ajija: an Igbo agent of death and destruction. Great AP Express. p. 28. ISBN 978-9788087748.
  70. ↑ Chukwube, Okwuchukwu Stan (2008). Renewing the Community and Fashioning the Individual: A Study of Traditional Communal Reconciliation Among the Igbo. p. 30. ISBN 978-0549638605. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  71. ↑ Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South. University of North Carolina Press. p. 129. ISBN 0807846945.
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