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Phytosterol

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Phytosterol
class of chemical entities with similar source or occurrence (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naSterol
β-sitosterol, wani phytosterol na musamman

Phytosterols phytosteroids ne, kamar cholesterol, waɗanda ke aiki a matsayin sassan tsarin membranes na halittu na tsirrai . [1] Sun ƙunshi sterols na shuka da stanols . [1] An gano sama da sterols 250 da mahaɗan da ke da alaƙa. [2] Kwayoyin phytosterols da aka cire daga mai ba su narkewa a cikin ruwa, ba sa narkewa a cikin mai, kuma suna narkewa a cikin barasa.

An tallata abinci mai gina jiki da kari na abinci mai gina jiki da aka wadata da phytosterol tsawon shekaru da dama. [3] Duk da tasirin rage kiba na LDL cholesterol daga shan phytosterols na dogon lokaci, yawanci tsakanin kashi 5-10%, babu wata hujja ta ƙarshe daga gwaje-gwajen sakamako na dogon lokaci da ke nuna cewa phytosterols kansu suna rage yawan cututtukan zuciya da jijiyoyin jini, suna inganta sukarin jini na azumi, ko matakan haemoglobin mai glycated, ko kuma yawan mace-mace gaba ɗaya. [4] [5]

Saboda haka, kwararru sun jaddada cewa kayayyakin da aka wadatar da phytosterol za a iya ɗaukar su a matsayin zaɓi na abinci don rage LDL-cholesterol, amma tasirinsu ga "masu tauri" na zuciya da jijiyoyin jini da kuma mace-mace har yanzu ba a tabbatar ba. [6]

Tsarin gini

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Sunayen tsarin tetracyclic damarene triterpene

Suna da tsarin polycyclic mai haɗe kuma sun bambanta a cikin sarƙoƙin gefen carbon da/ko kasancewar ko rashin haɗin biyu (jimlar abinci). [3] Suna an raba su zuwa phytosterols 4,4-dimethyl, phytosterols 4-monomethyl, da 4-desmethyl phytosterols bisa ga wurin da ƙungiyoyin methyl suke a matsayin carbon-4. [7] Stanols sterols ne masu cike da sinadarai, ba su da alaƙa biyu a cikin tsarin zoben sterol.

Kwayoyin halittar da ke cikin gubar maganin shine β-sitosterol . An nuna suna a hannun dama.

  • Ta hanyar cire carbon 24 2, ana samun campesterol .
  • Ta hanyar cire carbon 24 1 da 24 2, ana samun cholesterol .
  • Cire hydrogen daga carbons 22 da 23 yana haifar da stigmasterol (stigmasta-5,22-dien-3β-ol).
  • Ta hanyar samar da haɗin hydrogen tsakanin carbons 5 da 6, ana samun β- sitostanol (Stigmastanol).
  • Ta hanyar haɗa sinadarin hydrogen tsakanin carbons 5 da 6 da kuma cire carbon 24 2, ana samun campestanol .
  • Cire carbon 24 2 da hydrogen daga carbons 22 da 23, da kuma juya stereochemistry a C-24 yana samar da brassicasterol (ergosta-5,22-dien-3β-ol).
  • Cire hydrogens daga carbons 7 da 8 daga brassicasterol yana haifar da ergosterol (ergosta-5,7,22-trien-3β-ol). Muhimmi: Ergosterol ba sterol na shuka ba ne. Ergosterol wani bangare ne na membranes na ƙwayoyin fungal, yana aiki iri ɗaya a cikin fungi kamar yadda cholesterol ke aiki a cikin ƙwayoyin dabbobi.

Bugu da ƙari:

  • Ƙaddamar da rukunin hydroxyl a carbon 3 tare da fatty/organic acid ko carbohydrates yana haifar da shuke-shuke sterol esters, watau oleates, ferulates da (acyl) glycosides.

phytosterols na abinci mai gina jiki

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Mafi kyawun tushen phytosterols na halitta sune man kayan lambu da samfuran da aka yi daga gare su. Sterols na iya kasancewa a cikin tsari mai 'yanci kuma a matsayin fatty acid esters da glycolipids . Siffar da aka ɗaure yawanci ana haɗa ta cikin ƙananan hanji ta hanyar enzymes na pancreas . [8] Wasu daga cikin sterols ana cire su yayin matakin tsarkake ƙamshi na tace mai da kitse, duk da haka, ba tare da canza abun da ke ciki ba. Saboda haka, sterols kayan aiki ne mai amfani wajen duba sahihancinsa.

A matsayin tushen phytosterols da aka saba samu, an ƙirƙiro man kayan lambu a matsayin kayayyakin margarine waɗanda ke nuna yawan phytosterol. [3] Kayayyakin hatsi, kayan lambu, 'ya'yan itatuwa da 'ya'yan itatuwa, waɗanda ba su da wadataccen phytosterols, suma suna iya zama manyan tushen phytosterols saboda yawan shan su. [9]

Yawan sinadarin phytosterols da ke samuwa ta halitta yana tsakanin ~200-300 mg/rana ya danganta da yanayin cin abinci. [10] An samar da abinci na gwaji na musamman na masu cin ganyayyaki wanda ke samar da sama da 700 mg/rana. [11] Mafi yawan sinadarin phytosterols da ake samu a cikin abincin ɗan adam sune β-sitosterol, campesterol da stigmasterol, [3] waɗanda ke ɗauke da kusan kashi 65%, 30% da 3% na abubuwan da ke cikin abinci, bi da bi. [12] Mafi yawan sinadarin stanols na shuka a cikin abincin ɗan adam sune sitostanol da campestanol, waɗanda aka haɗa su suka ƙunshi kusan kashi 5% na sinadarin phytosterol na abinci. [13]

Tsarin sterol a cikin ɗanyen mai (a matsayin kashi na jimlar ɓangaren sterol)
Cholesterol Brassicasterol Campesterol Stigmasterol β-Sitosterol ∆5- Avenasterol ∆7-Avenasterol ∆7- Stigmasterol
Man kwakwa 0.6 – 2 0 – 0.9 7 – 10 12 – 18 50 – 70 5 – 16 0.6 – 2 2 – 8
Man masara 0.2 – 0.6 0 – 0.2 18 – 24 4 – 8 55 – 67 4 – 8 1 – 3 1 – 4
Man Auduga 0.7 – 2.3 0.1 – 0.9 7.2 – 8.4 1.2 – 1.8 80 – 90 1.9 – 3.8 1.4 – 3.3 0.7 – 1.4
Man zaitun 0 – 0.5 2.3 – 3.6 0.6 – 2 75.6 – 90 3.1 – 14 0 – 4
Man dabino 2.2 – 6.7 18.7 – 29.1 8.9 – 13.9 50.2 – 62.1 0 – 2.8 0 – 5.1 0.2 – 2.4
Man kwakwar dabino 1 – 3.7 0 – 0.3 8.4 – 12.7 12.3 – 16.1 62.6 – 70.4 4 – 9 0 – 1.4 0 – 2.1
Man gyada 0.6 – 3.8 0 – 0.2 12 – 20 5 – 13 48 – 65 7 – 9 0 – 5 0 – 5
Man rapeseed 0.4 – 2 5 – 13 18 – 39 0 – 0.7 45 – 58 0 – 6.6 0 – 0.8 0 – 5
Man waken soya 0.6 – 1.4 0 – 0.3 16 – 24 16 – 19 52 – 58 2 – 4 1 – 4.5 1.5 – 5
Man sunflower 0.2 – 1.3 0 – 0.2 7 – 13 8 – 11 56 – 63 2 – 7 7 – 13 3 – 6

Iƙirarin lafiya

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EFSA

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The European Foods Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that blood cholesterol can be reduced on average by 7 to 10.5% if a person consumes 1.5 to 2.4 grams of plant sterols and stanols per day, an effect usually established within 2–3 weeks. Longer-term studies extending up to 85 weeks showed that the cholesterol-lowering effect could be sustained.[14] Based on this and other efficacy data, the EFSA scientific panel provided the following health advisory: "Plant sterols have been shown to lower/reduce blood cholesterol. Blood cholesterol lowering may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease".[15]

FDA

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Hukumar FDA ta amince da wannan da'awa game da phytosterols: Ga sterol esters na shuka : (i) Abincin da ke ɗauke da aƙalla 0.65 g a kowace rabon sterol esters na shuka, wanda ake ci sau biyu a rana tare da abinci don jimlar shan akalla 1.3 g a kowace rana, a matsayin wani ɓangare na abinci mai ƙarancin kitse da cholesterol, na iya rage haɗarin cututtukan zuciya. Raba ɗaya daga cikin [sunan abincin] yana samar da ___grams na sterol esters na man kayan lambu. [16] Ga stanol esters na shuka : (i) Abincin da ke ɗauke da aƙalla 1.7 g a kowace rabon stanol esters na shuka, wanda ake ci sau biyu a rana tare da abinci don jimlar shan kowace rana na akalla 3.4 g, a matsayin wani ɓangare na abinci mai ƙarancin kitse da cholesterol, na iya rage haɗarin cututtukan zuciya. Raba ɗaya daga cikin [sunan abincin] yana samar da ___grams na stanol esters na shuka. [17] Ta hanyar yin bita kan gwaje-gwajen asibiti da suka shafi ƙarin phytosterol, FDA ta kammala da cewa lokacin da aka sha a cikin adadin gram 1 zuwa 3 a cikin abinci mai wadataccen abinci, phytosterols ya haifar da raguwar matakan LDL cholesterol a cikin jini (5-15%) idan aka kwatanta da placebo. FDA ta kuma kammala da cewa ana buƙatar cin abinci na yau da kullun na gram 2 na phytosterols (wanda aka bayyana a matsayin phytosterols marasa esterified) don nuna alaƙa tsakanin shan phytosterol da rage cholesterol don rage haɗarin CVD. [18]

Lafiya Kanada

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Hukumar Lafiya ta Kanada ta yi bitar shaidar gwaje-gwaje guda 84 da aka gudanar bazuwar da aka buga tsakanin 1994 da 2007 da suka shafi ƙarin sinadarin phytosterol. An lura da raguwar kashi 8.8% a cikin LDL-cholesterol a matsakaicin shan gram 2 a rana. [19] Hukumar Lafiya ta Kanada ta kammala da cewa akwai isassun shaidun kimiyya da za su goyi bayan alaƙa tsakanin shan phytosterol da rage yawan sinadarin cholesterol a jini. Dangane da wannan shaidar, Hukumar Lafiya ta Kanada ta amince da waɗannan maganganun don abinci masu dacewa da aka yi niyya ga mutanen da ke da yawan sinadarin cholesterol : Babban bayanin: "[girman hidima daga teburin Bayanan Abinci a cikin ma'aunin ma'auni da na gida] na [sunan samfurin] yana samar da kashi X% na adadin sterols na shuka na yau da kullun da aka nuna don taimakawa rage/rage cholesterol a cikin manya." Ƙarin bayani guda biyu waɗanda za a iya amfani da su a hade ko kaɗai, kusa da bayanin farko, ba tare da wani abu da aka buga, rubutu ko zane mai shiga tsakani ba: "Sterols na shuka suna taimakawa rage [ko taimakawa rage] cholesterol." Wannan bayanin idan aka yi amfani da shi, za a nuna shi a cikin haruffa har sau biyu girma da shahararsa fiye da na bayanin farko. "Babban cholesterol abu ne mai haɗari ga cututtukan zuciya." Idan aka yi amfani da wannan bayanin, za a nuna shi a cikin haruffa har zuwa girman da kuma fifikon da ke cikin babban bayanin.

Rage yawan cholesterol

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An fara nuna ikon phytosterols na rage matakan cholesterol a cikin mutane a cikin 1953. [20] [21] Daga 1954 zuwa 1982, daga baya aka tallata phytosterols a matsayin magani a ƙarƙashin sunan Cytellin a matsayin magani ga hauhawar cholesterol. [22]

Hanyoyin rage yawan cholesterol

Phytosterols reduce intestinal cholesterol absorption, and two main mechanisms have been proposed: (1) reduced micellar solubilization of cholesterol in the intestinal lumen (“mixed micelle hypothesis”)[23][24] and (2) modulation of cholesterol handling at the enterocyte brush border membrane (microvilli), where absorption and efflux compete (“trans-intestinal sterol efflux (TISE)” model).[25]

Tsarin 1: Hasashe na micelle (lumen)

Ikeda and colleagues proposed that bile salt mixed micelles have a limited capacity to solubilize sterols;[23][24] when phytosterols enter the micelles, they can reduce the micellar solubility of cholesterol in vitro, suggesting decreased cholesterol availability for uptake. In this framing, the key site of action is the intestinal lumen (the contents of the gut), i.e., before cholesterol interacts with the brush border membrane. This luminal competition does not translate into an inhibitory effect in in situ intestinal loop experiments: in rat jejunal loops, β-sitosterol had no inhibitory effect on cholesterol absorption from a preformed micellar solution.

Tsarin 2: Tsarin membrane na gefe na goge (microvilli)

Nakano da abokan aikinsa sun ba da shawarar cewa membrane na gefe na goga (BBM) yana aiki a matsayin "raba tudu" don kwararar cholesterol masu adawa da juna - motsi zuwa sha (cikin tantanin halitta) idan aka kwatanta da motsi zuwa lumen (efflux, gami da TICE). [25] [26] [27] A cikin wannan samfurin, ana ɗaukar phytosterols ta hanyar BBM ta hanyar yaɗuwa, kuma saboda ba su da kyau a haɗa su, ana fitar da su ta hanyar ABCG5/G8 da/ko a baya, suna maimaita wannan shuttle tsakanin lumen da BBM. Ta hanyar hulɗa akai-akai a membrane na microvillar, ana ba da shawarar phytosterols don haɓaka kwararar cholesterol tare da rage sha (kuma ta hanyar dagula safarar cholesterol mai alaƙa da NPC1L1 zuwa cikin tantanin halitta).

Karin Maganin Statin: Ƙara Rage LDL, Fa'idar Asibiti Mara Tabbas

Ba kamar statins ba, inda aka tabbatar da rage cholesterol yana rage haɗarin cututtukan zuciya da jijiyoyin jini (CVD) da kuma mace-mace gabaɗaya a ƙarƙashin yanayi mai kyau, shaidar ba ta daidaita ba ga abinci ko kari da aka wadatar da phytosterol don rage haɗarin CVD, tare da sake dubawa guda biyu da ke nuna babu wani tasiri ko kaɗan, [28] [4] da wani bita da ke nuna shaidar amfani da phytosterols na abinci don cimma tasirin rage cholesterol. [29]

Coadministration of statins with phytosterol-enriched foods increases the cholesterol-lowering effect of phytosterols, again without any proof of clinical benefit and with anecdotal evidence of potential adverse effects (though statins also have adverse effects such as myopathy and digestive problems).[28] Statins work by reducing cholesterol synthesis via inhibition of the rate-limiting HMG-CoA reductase enzyme. Phytosterols reduce cholesterol levels by competing with cholesterol absorption in the gut via one or several possible mechanisms,[30][31][32] an effect that complements statins. Phytosterols further reduce cholesterol levels by about 9% to 17% in statin users.[33] The type or dose of statin does not appear to affect the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of phytosterols.[34]

Hakazalika, haɗakar statin da ezetimibe a cikin allurai masu tsauri da aka ƙayyade don daidaita hanyoyin haɗin gwiwa - statins suna rage haɗakar cholesterol na hanta, yayin da ezetimibe yana hana shan cholesterol na hanji kamar phytosterols - ta haka yana haifar da ƙarin raguwar LDL-C idan aka kwatanta da maganin statin monotherapy. An ƙara Ezetimibe a cikin maganin statin ya nuna fa'idar sakamako na asibiti ga marasa lafiya masu haɗarin gaske (misali, IMPROVE-IT).

Saboda halayensu na rage cholesterol, wasu masana'antun suna amfani da sterols ko stanols a matsayin ƙarin abinci. [3] [35]

Tsaro

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Phytosterols have a long history of safe use,[3] dating back to Cytellin, the pharmaceutical preparation of phytosterols marketed in the US from 1954 to 1982.[22] Phytosterol esters have generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status in the US. Phytosterol-containing functional foods were subject to postlaunch monitoring after being introduced to the EU market in 2000, and no unpredicted side effects were reported.[36]

Akwai yiwuwar damuwa game da lafiyar da ake da ita game da shan phytosterol a cikin marasa lafiya da ke fama da phytosterolaemia, wata cuta ta kwayoyin halitta da ba kasafai ake samunta ba wacce ke haifar da karuwar matakan sterol na shukar jini sau 50 zuwa 100 kuma tana da alaƙa da saurin haɓakar atherosclerosis na zuciya. Duk da haka, babu wata shaida kai tsaye da ke nuna cewa phytosterols suna hanzarta haɓakar atherosclerosis. A gefe guda kuma, wani bincike ya nuna cewa atherosclerosis da wuri da kuma sakamakon CVD da aka gani a cikin marasa lafiya da sitosterolemia suna da alaƙa da mummunan hypercholesterolemia a lokacin ƙuruciyarsu. [37] Haka kuma, ya kamata a tuna cewa phytosterols na abinci ba sa ƙara yawan phytosterols masu yawo ko da kuwa suna da abinci mai ɗauke da phytosterol. [37]

An danganta Phytosterolaemia da maye gurbi a cikin sunadaran ABCG5/G8 waɗanda ke fitar da sterols na shuka daga cikin enterocytes da hepatocytes zuwa cikin bututun lumen da bile, bi da bi.

Plant sterol levels in the blood have been shown to be positively, negatively or not associated with CVD risk, depending on the study population investigated.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] The link between plant sterols and CVD or CHD risk is complicated because phytosterol levels reflect cholesterol absorption. (See Phytosterols as a marker for cholesterol absorption).[37]

Sterols da stanols

Daidaiton iyawa da amincin sterols na shuka da stanols na shuka zuwa rage cholesterol ya ci gaba da zama batun da ake muhawara a kai. Idan aka kwatanta da kai-da-kai a gwaje-gwajen asibiti, an nuna cewa sterols na shuka da stanols suna rage matakan cholesterol daidai gwargwado. [46] [47] [48] Wani bincike na gwaji guda 14 da aka gudanar bazuwar da aka sarrafa wanda aka kwatanta sterols na shuka da stanols na shuka kai tsaye a allurai na 0.6 zuwa 2.5 g/rana bai nuna wani bambanci tsakanin nau'ikan biyu akan jimlar cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, ko matakan triglyceride ba. [49] Gwaje-gwajen da aka gudanar kan manyan allurai (> 4 g/rana) na sterols na shuka ko stanols ba su da iyaka, kuma babu wanda aka kammala har yanzu yana kwatanta babban allurai na sterol na shuka da stanol na shuka.

Muhawarar da ake yi game da amincin sterol da stanol ta ta'allaka ne kan bambancin shan hanji da kuma yawan sinadarin plasma da ke haifar da shi. Phytostanols suna da ƙarancin ƙimar shan hanji (0.02 - 0.3%) fiye da phytosterols (0.4 - 5%), kuma saboda haka yawan sinadarin phytostanol a cikin jini gabaɗaya yana ƙasa da yawan sinadarin phytosterol. [28]

Ayyuka a cikin shuke-shuke

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Sterols suna da mahimmanci ga dukkan ƙwayoyin eukaryotes . Sabanin ƙwayoyin dabbobi da na fungal, waɗanda ke ɗauke da babban sterol guda ɗaya kawai, ƙwayoyin shuka suna haɗa jerin gaurayen sterol wanda sitosterol da stigmasterol suka fi rinjaye. [50] Sitosterol yana daidaita ruwa da kuma ikon shiga membrane ta hanyar kama da cholesterol a cikin membranes na ƙwayoyin dabbobi masu shayarwa. [51] Sterols na tsire-tsire kuma suna iya daidaita ayyukan enzymes masu ɗaure membrane. [51] Phytosterols kuma suna da alaƙa da daidaitawar shuka zuwa yanayin zafi da kuma kariya daga ƙwayoyin cuta daga ƙwayoyin cuta. [52]

Manazarta

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  1. 1 2 Moreau, Robert A.; Nyström, Laura; Whitaker, Bruce D.; Winkler-Moser, Jill K.; Baer, David J.; Gebauer, Sarah K.; Hicks, Kevin B. (2018). "Phytosterols and their derivatives: Structural diversity, distribution, metabolism, analysis, and health-promoting uses". Progress in Lipid Research. 70: 35–61. Bibcode:2018PLipR..70...35M. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2018.04.001. ISSN 1873-2194. PMID 29627611.
  2. ↑ (W. D. ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Patterson, CA (July 2006). "Phytosterols and stanols: Topic 10075E" (PDF). Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2017. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "aafc" defined multiple times with different content.
  4. 1 2 Genser, B.; Silbernagel, G.; De Backer, G.; Bruckert, E.; Carmena, R.; Chapman, M. J.; Deanfield, J.; Descamps, O. S.; Rietzschel, E. R.; Dias, K. C.; März, W. (2012). "Plant sterols and cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis". European Heart Journal. 33 (4): 444–451. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehr441. PMC 3279314. PMID 22334625. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Genser_2012" defined multiple times with different content.
  5. ↑ Salehi-Sahlabadi A, Varkaneh HK, Shahdadian F, Ghaedi E, Nouri M, Singh A, Farhadnejad H, Găman MA, Hekmatdoost A, Mirmiran P (2020). "Effects of Phytosterols supplementation on blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and insulin levels in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". J Diabetes Metab Disord. 19 (1): 625–632. doi:10.1007/s40200-020-00526-z. PMC 7270433. PMID 32550215.
  6. ↑ Windler, Eberhard; Beil, Frank-Ulrich; Berthold, Heiner K.; Gouni-Berthold, Ioanna; Kassner, Ursula; Klose, Gerald; Lorkowski, Stefan; März, Winfried; Parhofer, Klaus G.; Plat, Jogchum; Silbernagel, Günter; Steinhagen-Thiessen, Elisabeth; Weingärtner, Oliver; Zyriax, Birgit-Christiane; Lütjohann, Dieter (2023-02-06). "Phytosterols and Cardiovascular Risk Evaluated against the Background of Phytosterolemia Cases—A German Expert Panel Statement". Nutrients (in Turanci). 15 (4): 828. doi:10.3390/nu15040828. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 9963617 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36839186 Check |pmid= value (help).
  7. ↑ Zhang, Tao; Liu, Ruijie; Chang, Ming; Jin, Qingzhe; Zhang, Hui; Wang, Xingguo (2020). "Health benefits of 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols: an exploration beyond 4-desmethyl phytosterols". Food & Function (in Turanci). 11 (1): 93–110. doi:10.1039/C9FO01205B. ISSN 2042-6496. PMID 31804642. S2CID 208646899.
  8. ↑ Moreau RA, Hicks KB (2004). "The in vitro hydrolysis of phytosterol conjugates in food matrices by mammalian digestive enzymes". Lipids. 39 (8): 769–76. Bibcode:2004Lipid..39..769M. doi:10.1007/s11745-004-1294-3. PMID 15638245. S2CID 4043005.
  9. ↑ Valsta, L. M.; Lemström, A.; Ovaskainen, M.-L.; Lampi, A.-M.; Toivo, J.; Korhonen, T.; Piironen, V. (2007). "Estimation of plant sterol and cholesterol intake in Finland: Quality of new values and their effect on intake". British Journal of Nutrition. 92 (4): 671–8. doi:10.1079/BJN20041234. PMID 15522137.
  10. ↑ Jesch ED, Carr TP (2017). "Food Ingredients That Inhibit Cholesterol Absorption". Prev Nutr Food Sci. 22 (2): 67–80. doi:10.3746/pnf.2017.22.2.67. PMC 5503415. PMID 28702423.
  11. ↑ Ågren, J. J.; Tvrzicka, E.; Nenonen, M. T.; Helve, T.; Hänninen, O. (2007). "Divergent changes in serum sterols during a strict uncooked vegan diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis". British Journal of Nutrition. 85 (2): 137–9. doi:10.1079/BJN2000234. PMID 11242480.
  12. ↑ Weihrauch, JL; Gardner, JM (1978). "Sterol content of foods of plant origin". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 73 (1): 39–47. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(21)05668-6. PMID 659760. S2CID 43470157.
  13. ↑ Andersson, S W; Skinner, J; Ellegård, L; Welch, A A; Bingham, S; Mulligan, A; Andersson, H; Khaw, K-T (2004). "Intake of dietary plant sterols is inversely related to serum cholesterol concentration in men and women in the EPIC Norfolk population: A cross-sectional study". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 58 (10): 1378–85. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601980. PMID 15054420. S2CID 19049641.
  14. ↑ European Food Safety Authority (2009-07-31). "Blood cholesterol reduction health claims on phytosterols can now be judged against EFSA new scientific advice".
  15. ↑ European Food Safety Authority (2008-08-21). "Plant Sterols and Blood Cholesterol - Scientific substantiation of a health claim related to plant sterols and lower/reduced blood cholesterol and reduced risk of (coronary) heart disease pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006[1]". EFSA Journal. 6 (8): 781. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2008.781.
  16. ↑ FDA (8 September 2000). "Health claims: plant sterol/stanol esters and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)". Archived from the original on 14 September 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
  17. ↑ FDA. "Health claims: plant sterol/stanol esters and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)". Archived from the original on 2012-10-09. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
  18. ↑ FDA. "Food Labeling; Health Claim; Phytosterols and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease; Proposed Rule" (PDF).
  19. ↑ Health Canada. "Plant Sterols and Blood Cholesterol Lowering" (PDF).
  20. ↑ Pollak, OJ (1953). "Reduction of blood cholesterol in man". Circulation. 7 (5): 702–6. Bibcode:1953Circu...7..702P. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.7.5.702. PMID 13042924. S2CID 3165910.
  21. ↑ Tilvis, RS; Miettinen, TA (1986). "Serum plant sterols and their relation to cholesterol absorption". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 43 (1): 92–7. doi:10.1093/ajcn/43.1.92. PMID 3942097.
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  25. 1 2 Nakano, Takanari; Inoue, Ikuo; Murakoshi, Takayuki (2019-02-01). "A Newly Integrated Model for Intestinal Cholesterol Absorption and Efflux Reappraises How Plant Sterol Intake Reduces Circulating Cholesterol Levels". Nutrients (in Turanci). 11 (2): 310. doi:10.3390/nu11020310. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 6412963. PMID 30717222.
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  27. ↑ Nakano, Takanari; Inoue, Ikuo; Takenaka, Yasuhiro; Ikegami, Yuichi; Kotani, Norihiro; Shimada, Akira; Noda, Mitsuhiko; Murakoshi, Takayuki (2018). "Luminal plant sterol promotes brush border membrane-to-lumen cholesterol efflux in the small intestine". Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition (in Turanci). 63 (2): 102–105. doi:10.3164/jcbn.17-116. ISSN 0912-0009. PMC 6160726. PMID 30279620.
  28. 1 2 3 Weingartner, O.; Bohm, M.; Laufs, U. (2008). "Controversial role of plant sterol esters in the management of hypercholesterolaemia". European Heart Journal. 30 (4): 404–9. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn580. PMC 2642922. PMID 19158117. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Weingaertner_2008" defined multiple times with different content.
  29. ↑ Gylling, H; Plat, J; Turley, S; Ginsberg, H. N; Ellegård, L; Jessup, W; Jones, P. J; Lütjohann, D; Maerz, W; Masana, L; Silbernagel, G; Staels, B; Borén, J; Catapano, A. L; De Backer, G (2014). "Plant sterols and plant stanols in the management of dyslipidaemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease". Atherosclerosis. 232 (2): 346–60. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.043. PMID 24468148. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  30. ↑ Nguyen, Tu T. (1999). "The Cholesterol-Lowering Action of Plant Stanol Esters". The Journal of Nutrition. 129 (12): 2109–2112. doi:10.1093/jn/129.12.2109. PMID 10573535.
  31. ↑ Trautwein, Elke A.; Duchateau, Guus S. M. J. E.; Lin, Yuguang; Mel'nikov, Sergey M.; Molhuizen, Henry O.F.; Ntanios, Fady Y. (2003). "Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 105 (3–4): 171–185. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200390033.
  32. ↑ De Smet, E; Mensink, RP; Plat, J (2012). "Effects of plant sterols and stanols on intestinal cholesterol metabolism: suggested mechanisms from past to present". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 56 (7): 1058–72. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201100722. PMID 22623436.
  33. ↑ Scholle, JM; Baker, WL; Talati, R; Coleman, CI (2009). "The effect of adding plant sterols or stanols to statin therapy in hypercholesterolemic patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 28 (5): 517–24. doi:10.1080/07315724.2009.10719784. PMID 20439548. S2CID 41438503.
  34. ↑ Katan, M. B.; Grundy, S. M.; Jones, P.; Law, M.; Miettinen, T.; Paoletti, R.; Stresa Workshop, Participants (2003). "Efficacy and Safety of Plant Stanols and Sterols in the Management of Blood Cholesterol Levels". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 78 (8): 965–78. doi:10.4065/78.8.965. PMID 12911045.
  35. ↑ Griffin, RM (Feb 2, 2009). "The New Low-Cholesterol Diet: Plant Sterols and Stanols: What are sterols and stanols, and does anyone like to eat them?". WebMD. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
  36. ↑ Lea, L.J.; Hepburn, P.A. (2006). "Safety evaluation of phytosterol-esters. Part 9: Results of a European post-launch monitoring programme". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 44 (8): 1213–22. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.01.017. PMID 16542769.
  37. 1 2 3 Nakano, Takanari; Takashima, Erina; Yu, Liqing (2025). "Factors Affecting Circulating Phytosterol Levels: Toward an Integrated Understanding of Atherogenicity and Atheroprotection by Dietary and Circulating Phytosterols". Current Atherosclerosis Reports (in Turanci). 27 (1). doi:10.1007/s11883-025-01334-7. ISSN 1523-3804. PMC 12540574 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 41118071 Check |pmid= value (help).
  38. ↑ Silbernagel, G.; Fauler, G.; Renner, W.; Landl, E. M.; Hoffmann, M. M.; Winkelmann, B. R.; Boehm, B. O.; Marz, W. (2008). "The relationships of cholesterol metabolism and plasma plant sterols with the severity of coronary artery disease". The Journal of Lipid Research. 50 (2): 334–41. doi:10.1194/jlr.P800013-JLR200. PMID 18769018.
  39. ↑ Silbernagel, G.; Fauler, G.; Hoffmann, M. M.; Lutjohann, D.; Winkelmann, B. R.; Boehm, B. O.; Marz, W. (2010). "The associations of cholesterol metabolism and plasma plant sterols with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality". The Journal of Lipid Research. 51 (8): 2384–93. doi:10.1194/jlr.P002899. PMC 2903788. PMID 20228406.
  40. ↑ Strandberg, Timo E.; Gylling, Helena; Tilvis, Reijo S.; Miettinen, Tatu A. (2010). "Serum plant and other noncholesterol sterols, cholesterol metabolism and 22-year mortality among middle-aged men". Atherosclerosis. 210 (1): 282–7. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.11.007. PMID 19962145.
  41. ↑ Fassbender, Klaus; Lütjohann, Dieter; Dik, Miranda G.; Bremmer, Marijke; König, Jochem; Walter, Silke; Liu, Yang; Letièmbre, Maryse; Von Bergmann, Klaus (2008). "Moderately elevated plant sterol levels are associated with reduced cardiovascular risk—The LASA study". Atherosclerosis. 196 (1): 283–8. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.10.032. PMID 17137582.
  42. ↑ Rajaratnam, Radhakrishnan A; Gylling, Helena; Miettinen, Tatu A (2000). "Independent association of serum squalene and noncholesterol sterols with coronary artery disease in postmenopausal women". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 35 (5): 1185–91. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00527-1. PMID 10758959.
  43. ↑ Assmann, Gerd; Cullen, Paul; Erbey, John; Ramey, Dena R.; Kannenberg, Frank; Schulte, Helmut (2006). "Plasma sitosterol elevations are associated with an increased incidence of coronary events in men: Results of a nested case-control analysis of the Prospective Cardiovascular Münster (PROCAM) study". Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 16 (1): 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2005.04.001. PMID 16399487.
  44. ↑ Sudhop, Thomas; Gottwald, Britta M.; Von Bergmann, Klaus (2002). "Serum plant sterols as a potential risk factor for coronary heart disease". Metabolism. 51 (12): 1519–21. doi:10.1053/meta.2002.36298. PMID 12489060.
  45. ↑ Pinedo, S.; Vissers, M. N.; Bergmann, K. v.; Elharchaoui, K.; Lutjohann, D.; Luben, R.; Wareham, N. J.; Kastelein, J. J. P.; Khaw, K.-T.; Boekholdt, S. M. (2006). "Plasma levels of plant sterols and the risk of coronary artery disease: The prospective EPIC-Norfolk Population Study". The Journal of Lipid Research. 48 (1): 139–44. doi:10.1194/jlr.M600371-JLR200. PMID 17074925.
  46. ↑ Hallikainen, M A; Sarkkinen, E S; Gylling, H; Erkkilä, A T; Uusitupa, M I J (2000). "Comparison of the effects of plant sterol ester and plant stanol ester-enriched margarines in lowering serum cholesterol concentrations in hypercholesterolaemic subjects on a low-fat diet". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 54 (9): 715–25. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601083. PMID 11002384. S2CID 19548242.
  47. ↑ O'Neill, F.H.; Brynes, A.; Mandeno, R.; Rendell, N.; Taylor, G.; Seed, M.; Thompson, G.R. (2004). "Comparison of the effects of dietary plant sterol and stanol esters on lipid metabolism". Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 14 (3): 133–42. doi:10.1016/S0939-4753(04)80033-4. PMID 15330272.
  48. ↑ Vanstone, CA; Raeini-Sarjaz, M; Parsons, WE; Jones, PJ (2002). "Unesterified plant sterols and stanols lower LDL-cholesterol concentrations equivalently in hypercholesterolemic persons". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76 (6): 1272–8. doi:10.1093/ajcn/76.6.1272. PMID 12450893.
  49. ↑ Talati, Ripple; Sobieraj, Diana M.; Makanji, Sagar S.; Phung, Olivia J.; Coleman, Craig I. (2010). "The Comparative Efficacy of Plant Sterols and Stanols on Serum Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 110 (5): 719–26. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.02.011. PMID 20430133.
  50. ↑ Hartmann, Marie-Andrée (1998). "Plant sterols and the membrane environment". Trends in Plant Science. 3 (5): 170–175. Bibcode:1998TPS.....3..170H. doi:10.1016/S1360-1385(98)01233-3.
  51. 1 2 De Smet, E; Mensink, R. P; Plat, J (2012). "Effects of plant sterols and stanols on intestinal cholesterol metabolism: Suggested mechanisms from past to present". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 56 (7): 1058–72. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201100722. PMID 22623436.
  52. ↑ De Bruyne, L; Höfte, M; De Vleesschauwer, D (2014). "Connecting growth and defense: The emerging roles of brassinosteroids and gibberellins in plant innate immunity". Molecular Plant. 7 (6): 943–59. doi:10.1093/mp/ssu050. PMID 24777987.

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