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Rashin Ozone da canjin yanayi

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Rashin iskar oxygen da canjin yanayi ƙalubalen muhalli ne waɗanda aka bincika haɗin su kuma an kwatanta su kuma an bambanta su, misali dangane da ka'idojin duniya, a cikin karatu da littattafai daban-daban.

Akwai sha'awar kimiyya da ta yadu game da ingantaccen tsari na Canjin yanayi, raguwar ozone da gurɓataccen iska, kamar yadda gabaɗaya dangantakar ɗan adam da biosphere ake ɗauka da muhimmancin Tarihi da siyasa. Tun daga shekara ta 1994 ana kiran muhawara ta shari'a game da tsarin ka'idoji game da canjin yanayi, raguwar ozone da gurɓataccen iska "monumental" da kuma haɗin gwiwar da aka bayar.[1]

Akwai wasu kamanceceniya tsakanin ilmin sunadarai na yanayi da hayaki na mutum a cikin tattaunawar da ta faru da kuma yunkurin tsarawa wanda aka yi. Mafi mahimmanci shine cewa iskar gas da ke haifar da matsalolin biyu suna da tsawon rayuwa bayan fitarwa zuwa yanayi, don haka yana haifar da matsalolin da ke da wuyar juyawa. Koyaya, Yarjejeniyar Vienna don Kare Yankin Ozone da Yarjejeniyar Montreal da ta gyara shi ana ganin su a matsayin labarun nasara, yayin da Yarjejeniya ta Kyoto kan canjin yanayi na ɗan adam ya gaza sosai. A halin yanzu, ana yin ƙoƙari don tantance dalilan da kuma amfani da haɗin kai, misali game da rahoton bayanai da ƙirar manufofi da ci gaba da musayar bayanai.

Rashin iskar oxygen ba shine ainihin dalilin canjin yanayi ba; duk da haka, akwai alaƙar kimiyya ta jiki tsakanin abubuwan biyu. Ozone na sararin samaniya yana da manyan sakamako guda biyu akan ma'aunin zafin jiki na duniya. Da farko, yana shan radiation na ultraviolet na rana, wanda ke haifar da dumama na stratosphere. Abu na biyu, yana kuma kama zafi a cikin troposphere ta hanyar shan radiation na infrared da ke fitowa daga farfajiyar Duniya. Rashin iskar oxygen a cikin stratosphere yana da mummunar tasirin tilasta radiative; duk da haka, karuwar anthropogenic a cikin yalwar tropospheric fiye da haka ya rage wannan.[2]

Bugu da ƙari, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) da sauran halocarbons waɗanda suka haifar da raguwar ozone sune iskar gas mai karfi, kuma tasirin dumama na ƙara waɗannan zuwa yanayi ya fi tasirin tasirin canje-canjen ɗan adam a cikin adadin ozone.[2] Tsinkaya ya nuna cewa CFCs da sauran halocarbons za su ba da gudummawa tsakanin 4-10% na jimlar dumamar yanayin zafi da ake tsammani ta shekara ta 2100.[3]

Hanyar siyasa

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Samfuri:Pollution

Sir Robert (Bob) Watson ya taka muhimmiyar rawa a lokuta biyu

There are both links and major differences between ozone depletion and global warming and the way the two challenges have been handled. While in the case of atmospheric ozone depletion, in a situation of high uncertainty and against strong resistance, climate change regulation attempts at the international level such as the Kyoto Protocol have failed to reduce global emissions. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol were both originally signed by only some member states of the United Nations (43 nations in the case of the Montreal Protocol in 1986) while Kyoto attempted to create a worldwide agreement from scratch. Expert consensus concerning CFCs in the form of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion was reached long after the first regulatory steps were taken, and As of 29 Disamba 2012, all countries in the United Nations plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue and the supranational European Union had ratified the original Montreal Protocol.[4] These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, and Montreal amendments to the Protocol. As of 15 Afrilu 2014, the Beijing amendments had not been ratified by two state parties.[5]

Bayan Yarjejeniyar Vienna, masana'antar halocarbon ta canza matsayinta kuma ta fara tallafawa yarjejeniya don iyakance samar da CFC. Kamfanin Amurka mai suna DuPont ya yi sauri fiye da takwarorinsu na Turai. Tarayyar Turai ta sauya matsayinta bayan Jamus, wacce ke da masana'antar sinadarai mai yawa, ta ba da tsaron masana'antar CFC kuma ta fara tallafawa ƙarin tsari. Gwamnati da masana'antu a Faransa da Burtaniya sun yi ƙoƙari su kare masana'antun samar da CFC har ma bayan an sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Montreal.

An shigar da Yarjejeniyar Vienna kafin a kafa yarjejeniyar kimiyya a kan ramin ozone. Akasin haka, har zuwa shekarun 1980 EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO da gwamnatin Burtaniya sun bayar da rahotanni na kimiyya tare da ra'ayoyi daban-daban.[6] Sir Robert (Bob) Watson, Darakta na Sashen Kimiyya a NASA, ya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen cimma daidaitattun kimantawa.[6]

Manufofin da yarjejeniya

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Layer na yanayi (ba a sikelin ba). Layer na ozone na Duniya galibi ana samunsa a cikin ƙananan ɓangaren stratosphere daga kimanin kilomita 20 zuwa 30 (12 zuwa 19 sama da Duniya.

Aant Elzinga ya rubuta a cikin 1996 game da yarjejeniyar, cewa Kwamitin Gwamnati kan Canjin Yanayi ya gwada a cikin rahotanni biyu da suka gabata tsarin yarjejeniya na duniya game da matakin yanayi. Stephen Schneider da Paul N. Edwards, sun lura a cikin shekarar 1997, cewa bayan Rahoton Bincike na Biyu na IPCC, ƙungiyar Global Climate Coalition da wasu masana kimiyya masu ikirarin kansu "masu adawa" sun yi ƙoƙari su lalata ƙaddamar da rahoton. Sun nuna cewa burin IPCC shine wakiltar cikakken ra'ayi na kimiyya mai inganci kuma idan ya yiwu ra'ayi mai yarjejeniya.[7]

A cikin shekarata 2007, Reiner Grundmann ya kwatanta ayyukan yanayi a Turai da Amurka, ya fassara rashin aiki ban da yarjejeniyar da ke akwai, kuma ya lura, ajanda na siyasa wanda ya jagoranci manufofin canjin yanayi na Amurka. Babban hangen nesa na masana kimiyya masu shakka a cikin kafofin watsa labarai ya yi daidai da wannan, kuma ya rubuta cewa Jamus ta fara burin burin burgewa, rage fitarwa, saboda 'ra'idojin daidaitawa' ya haifar da nuna son kai a cikin sauyin yanayi don amfanin muhawara masu shakka a Amurka, amma ba da yawa a Jamus. Bugu da ƙari, Grundmann ya nuna cewa bayan gargadi daga masana kimiyya a cikin shekara ta 1986 Majalisar dokokin Jamus ta ba da umarnin Enquetekommission 'Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre' (Kariya don Kare Yanayin Duniya), don tantance halin da ake ciki, wanda ya kunshi masana kimiyya, 'yan siyasa da wakilan kungiyoyin masu sha'awa. Shekaru uku bayan haka rahoton ya yi tasiri tare da kimanta yanayin fasaha a cikin binciken yanayi, kimantawa game da barazanar canjin yanayi da kansa da kuma shawarwari don bayyane manufofi na rage fitar da hayaki, duk da cewa ya yi jayayya cewa babu wata yarjejeniya, kuma ya danganta nasarar rahoton ga matakin kariya mai ƙarfi, kuma babu wani masana kimiyya na waje ko Masu musanta canjin yanayi.[8][9]

Ba a yi amfani da samfurin layi na yin manufofi ba, wanda ya dogara da matsayin cewa "ƙarin ilimin da muke da shi, mafi kyawun martani na siyasa zai kasance", a cikin yanayin ozone. Akasin haka, tsarin tsarin tsarin CFC ya fi mayar da hankali kan sarrafa jahilci da rashin tabbas a matsayin tushen yanke shawara na siyasa, kamar yadda dangantakar da ke tsakanin kimiyya, jama'a (rashin) fahimta da manufofi suka fi dacewa.[8][10] A halin yanzu, irin wannan mai kunnawa a cikin tsarin IPCC kamar Michael Oppenheimer ya yarda da wasu iyakoki na tsarin yarjejeniyar IPCC kuma ya nemi a daidaita, ƙananan kimantawa na matsaloli na musamman maimakon maimaita tsarin girma a kowace shekara shida. Ya zama mafi mahimmanci don samar da bincike mai zurfi game da rashin tabbas.[11] Sauran kuma suna ganin albarkatun da aka haɗu a cikin fitarwa don yarjejeniya a cikin tsarin IPCC kuma sun nemi a haɗa su da masu adawa ko matsayi na 'yan tsiraru ko don maganganu game da rashin tabbas da za a inganta. [12]

Ra'ayin jama'a

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The idea of rays penetrating a damaged “shield” meshes nicely with abiding and resonant cultural motifs, including “Hollywood affinities.” These range from the shields on the Starship Enterprise to Star Wars ... It is these pre-scientific bridging metaphors built around the penetration of a deteriorating shield that render the ozone problem relatively simple. That the ozone threat can be linked with Darth Vader means that it is encompassed in common sense understandings that are deeply ingrained and widely shared.[10]

Matsalolin yanayi guda biyu sun sami matakai daban-daban na fahimta daga jama'a, gami da batutuwan kimiyya da manufofi.[10] Mutane suna da iyakantaccen ilimin kimiyya game da dumamar yanayi kuma suna rikitar da shi tare da ko ganin shi a matsayin wani ɓangare na rami na ozone. [13] Ba wai kawai a matakin manufofi ba, tsarin ozone ya fi kyau fiye da canjin yanayi a cikin ra'ayin jama'a. Amurkawa da son rai sun sauya daga furewar aerosol kafin a tilasta dokar, yayin da canjin yanayi ya kasa cimma fahimtar kimiyya da kuma haifar da damuwa.[10]

The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns.[10] The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance", while the public opinion on climate change sees no imminent danger.[10] The ozone hole was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk compared to global climate change,[8] as lay people feared a depletion of the ozone layer (ozone shield) risked increasing severe consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts,[14] damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. This was not the case with global warming.

Binciken haɗarin mutum da ilimi

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Sheldon Ungar Archived 2021-05-06 at the Wayback Machine Archived 2021-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, a Canadian sociologist, assumes that while the quantity of specialized knowledge is exploding, in contrast scientific ignorance among lay people is the norm and even increasing. Public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threshold or beacon to signify immediate danger.[10] Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of 2 °C (4 °F) to 3 °C (5 °F) over several decades do not resonate with people, for example in North America, who experience similar swings during a single day.[10] As scientists define global warming as a problem of the future, a liability in the "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and the attribution of extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed in the public arena (compare the Gore effect). Even when James Hansen tried to use the 1988–89 North American drought as a call to action, scientists kept stating, in line with the IPCC findings, that even extreme weather is not climate.[10] While the greenhouse effect, per se, is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone hole and other metaphors about ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties; both the ozone content of the upper atmosphere and its depletion are complicated to measure and the link between ozone depletion and rates of enhanced skin cancer is rather weak. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with lay people and their concerns.

  1. ↑ "Alexander Gillespie. Climate Change, Ozone Depletion And Air Pollution: Legal Commentaries Within The Context Of Science And Policy 1994". Archived from the original on 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
  2. 1 2 Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) webmaster@defra gsi gov uk. "Ozone Depletion and Climate Change- Defra, UK". uk-air.defra.gov.uk. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
  3. ↑ Ko, Malcolm K. W.; Sze, Nien Dak; Molnar, Gyula; Prather, Michael J. (1993-03-01). "Global warming from chlorofluorocarbons and their alternatives: Time scales of chemistry and climate". Atmospheric Environment. Part A. General Topics. 27 (4): 581–587. Bibcode:1993AtmEn..27..581K. doi:10.1016/0960-1686(93)90215-K. ISSN 0960-1686.
  4. ↑ "EUROPA – PRESS RELEASES – Press Release – Environment: European Union hails universal ratification of the Montreal Protocol on protecting the ozone layer". Europa.eu. 16 September 2009.
  5. ↑ "Status of Ratification – The Ozone Secretariat". Ozone.unep.org. 15 April 2014. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  6. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "RG".
  7. ↑ Paul N. Edwards; Stephen H. Schneider (1997). "The 1995 IPCC Report: Broad Consensus or "Scientific Cleansing"?1" (PDF). Ecofable/Ecoscience. Harvard University: 3–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-05-14.
  8. 1 2 3 Reiner Grundmann (2007). "Environmental Politics Climate Change and Knowledge Politics" (PDF). Environmental Politics. 16 (3): 414–432. Bibcode:2007EnvPo..16..414G. doi:10.1080/09644010701251656. S2CID 153866225. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-26.
  9. ↑ Bundestag.de (1990). "Dritter Bericht der ENQUETE-KOMMISSION Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre" (PDF).
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ungar, Sheldon (2000). "Knowledge, ignorance and the popular culture: Climate change versus the ozone hole". Public Understanding of Science. 9 (3): 297–312. doi:10.1088/0963-6625/9/3/306. S2CID 7089937.
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "MO".
  12. ↑ Lemonick, Michael D. (1 November 2010). "Climate heretic: Judith Curry turns on her colleagues". Nature. NatureNews. doi:10.1038/news.2010.577. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  13. ↑ Boyesa, Edward; Stanisstreeta, Martin (1992). "Students' perceptions of global warming". International Journal of Environmental Studies. 42 (4): 287–300. Bibcode:1992IJEnS..42..287B. doi:10.1080/00207239208710804.
  14. ↑ Dobson, R. (2005). "Ozone depletion will bring big rise in number of cataracts". BMJ. 331 (7528): 1292–1295. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7528.1292-d. PMC 1298891.

Yunkurin ka'idojin CFC a ƙarshen shekarun 1980 sun amfana daga waɗanda ke da sauƙin fahimta da kuma yiwuwar haɗarin mutum da aka karɓa daga gare su. Makomar shahararrun mutane kamar Shugaba Ronald Reagan, wanda aka cire ciwon daji na fata daga hanci a shekara ta 1985 da Shekarar 1987, shima yana da matukar muhimmanci. Idan akwai ra'ayin jama'a game da canjin yanayi, ba a ganin haɗari mai zuwa ba.[1]

Binciken farashi da manufofin masana'antu

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Cass Sunstein da sauransu sun kwatanta bambancin tsarin Amurka da Yarjejeniyar Montreal, wanda ta yarda, da Yarjejeniya ta Kyoto, wanda ta ƙi. Sunstein ya ɗauka cewa kimantawa na tsada-amfanin matakin canjin yanayi na Amurka ya taimaka wajen janyewar Amurka daga shiga Kyoto. Daniel Magraw, wanda shi ma lauya ne, ya ɗauki dalilai na gwamnati ban da farashin dangi da fa'idodi kamar yadda suke da mahimmanci.[2] Peter Orszag da Terry Dinan sun ɗauki hangen nesa na inshora kuma sun ɗauka cewa kimantawa wanda ya yi hasashen mummunan sakamako na canjin yanayi zai zama mafi ƙwazo ga Amurka don canza matsayinta game da dumamar duniya da karɓar ma'aunin ka'idoji.[2]

Kamfanin sinadarai na Amurka DuPont ya riga ya rasa wasu daga cikin himmarsu wajen kare kayayyakinsu bayan an shirya takardar shaidar masana'antu ta dabarun Freon don karewa a shekarar 1979. Wani takunkumin ɗan ƙasa na gwangwani ya sami mahimmanci a layi daya. Ba da sa'a ba, Amurka ta haramta amfani da CFCs a cikin gwangwani a cikin shekara ta 1978.[3]

Gwamnati da masana'antu a Faransa da Burtaniya sun yi ƙoƙari su kare masana'antun samar da CFC har ma bayan an sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Montreal. Kungiyar Tarayyar Turai ta ki amincewa da shawarwari don hana CFCs a cikin yaduwar aerosol na dogon lokaci. Tarayyar Turai ta sauya matsayinta bayan Jamus, wacce ita ma tana da babbar masana'antar sinadarai, ta ba da tsaron masana'antar CFC kuma ta fara tallafawa motsi zuwa tsarin mulki. Bayan an kara aiwatar da ka'idoji, DuPont sun yi sauri fiye da takwarorinsu na Turai saboda suna iya jin tsoron matakin kotu da ya shafi karuwar ciwon daji na fata, musamman kamar yadda EPA ta buga wani bincike a 1986 yana mai cewa za a sa ran ƙarin shari'o'i miliyan 40 da mutuwar ciwon daji 800,000 a Amurka a cikin shekaru 88 masu zuwa. Bincike da tallace-tallace na 100% ozone-safe hydrocarbon refrigerant da ake kira "Greenfreeze" da kungiyar NGO Greenpeace a farkon shekarun 1990s ya sami gagarumin tasiri a manyan kasuwannin Turai da Asiya. Dokokin canjin yanayi ba su da nasara sosai. A game da Kyoto, sakataren muhalli na lokacin Angela Merkel, ya hana yiwuwar gazawar ta hanyar ba da shawarar amfani a shekarar 1990 a matsayin ranar farawa don rage fitarwa. Ya zuwa yanzu mutuwar masana'antar nauyi ta Gabashin Turai ta ba da damar babban sadaukarwa, amma ainihin hayaki ya ci gaba da girma a duniya. 

Tarihin kimiyya

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Akwai alaƙa daban-daban tsakanin fannoni biyu na hulɗar mutum da yanayi. Masana manufofi sun ba da shawarar yin amfani da haɗin kai game da kariya ta ozone da ƙoƙarin kariya ta yanayi.[4][5]

Ozone iskar gas ce, [6] kuma canje-canje a cikin yawan yanayi saboda ayyukan ɗan adam suna da tasirin tilasta radiative. Ozone yana shan radiation na ultraviolet (UV) daga rana da radiation na infrared da aka fitar daga farfajiyar Duniya.[7] Ayyukan ɗan adam sun rage ozone a cikin stratopshere kuma sun kara yawansa a cikin troposphere, suna haifar da tasirin tilasta radiative.[7] Kimanin girman waɗannan tasirin suna da rashin tabbas sosai. Yawancin samfuran suna kimanta tasirin radiative na tilasta tasirin canje-canje na mutum a cikin ozone don zama tasirin dumama matsakaici.[8] Irin wannan kimantawa yana da wahala saboda dalilai da yawa, gami da cewa, ba kamar sauran iskar gas ba, ozone ba iskar gas ce mai haɗuwa da kyau a cikin yanayi ba, don haka ƙirar dole ne ta yi la'akari da rarrabawar sararin samaniya.[8] Bugu da ƙari ilimin matakan masana'antu na ozone a cikin atmopshere bai cika ba.[9]

Yawancin abubuwan da ke rage sinadarin ozone suma iskar gas ne, wasu sun fi karfin carbon dioxide sau dubbai akan kowane kwayar halitta a kan gajere da matsakaicin lokaci.[1] Haɓaka yawan adadin waɗannan sinadarai sun samar da 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m2 na tilastawar hasken wuta, wanda ya yi daidai da kusan kashi 14% na jimillar tilasta wariyar radiyo daga ƙaruwar yawan iskar gas mai gauraye da kyau.[2] Saboda tasirin su na ozone, an hana samar da CFCs da sauran abubuwan da ke da alaƙa a duniya ta hanyar Yarjejeniyar Montreal ta 1987 da bita-bita na gaba. Ta hanyar ƙididdige ƙididdiga guda ɗaya, idan aka ci gaba da samar da waɗannan yanayin yanayin duniya maras ƙarewa a cikin 2100 zai zama 2.5 °C fiye da yadda idan ba haka ba; 1.7 °C daga tasirin greenhouse kai tsaye na ƙarin CFCs, da 0.8 °C daga ƙarar CO2 saboda lalacewar ciyayi UV.[3] [10]   .[11]l  

Radiative tilasta daga wasu iskar gas da sauran tushe.

Drew Shindell ya yi amfani da tsarin yanayi don tantance sauyin yanayi da raguwar ozone. A ra'ayinsa, yayin da bincike har zuwa yanzu ya fi game da tasirin hayakin CFC akan ozone na stratospheric, nan gaba zai fi game da hulɗar tsakanin canjin yanayi da ra'ayoyin ozone.[12] Tunda bambancin ozone na halitta a cikin stratosphere yana da alaƙa da sauye-sauyen hasken rana na shekaru 11 kuma yana da, ta hanyar haɗuwa mai ƙarfi tsakanin stratosphere da troposphere, babban tasiri ga yanayi. Ozone yana aiki kamar garkuwar a cikin stratosphere, kuma yana kare rayuwa daga mummunan radiation na ultraviolet wanda ke fitowa daga rana. Idan babu ozone na stratospheric, siffofin rayuwa ba za su kasance ba.[13]

Tushen Stratospheric Chlorine

Kamar yadda yake tare da carbon dioxide da methane, akwai wasu tushen halitta na chlorine na tropospheric, kamar su furewar teku. Chlorine daga yaduwar teku yana narkewa kuma saboda haka ana wanke shi da ruwan sama kafin ya kai ga stratosphere. Shine ne na stratospheric chlorine wanda ke shafar lalacewar ozone. Sai kawai methyl chloride, wanda shine ɗayan halocarbons, yana da tushen halitta, [14] kuma yana da alhakin kusan 20% na chlorine a cikin stratosphere; sauran 80% sun fito ne daga tushen mutum. [15] Chlorofluorocarbons, akasin haka, ba za a iya warware su ba kuma suna da tsawo, suna ba su damar isa stratosphere. A cikin ƙananan yanayi, akwai ƙarin chlorine daga CFCs da kuma haloalkanes masu alaƙa fiye da yadda yake a cikin hydrogen chloride daga gishiri, kuma a cikin stratosphere halocarbons suna da rinjaye.

[16]Hakanan CO2 mai ba da haske wanda ke haifar da dumamar yanayi ana sa ran zai kwantar da tartsatsi.[1] Wannan sanyaya, bi da bi, ana sa ran samar da dangi karuwa a cikin ozone (O3) raguwa a cikin iyakacin duniya yankin da kuma a cikin mita na ozonHake ramukan.[2] Sabanin haka, ragewar ozone yana wakiltar wani tilastawa tsarin yanayi [3] na kusan -0.15 ± 0.10 watts a kowace murabba'in mita (W/m2).[4]

Dubi kuma

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  • Canjin yanayi a cikin Arctic

Bayanan da aka ambata

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  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Ungar".
  2. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "cass".
  3. ↑ Morrisette, Peter M. (1989). "The Evolution of Policy Responses to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion". Natural Resources Journal. 29: 793–820. Archived from the original on 2009-06-08. Retrieved 2010-04-20.
  4. ↑ Molina, M.; Zaelke, D.; Sarma, K. M.; Andersen, S. O.; Ramanathan, V.; Kaniaru, D. (2009). "Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (49): 20616–20621. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10620616M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106. PMC 2791591. PMID 19822751.
  5. ↑ Norman CS, DeCanio SJ, Fan L (2008). "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection". Global Environmental Change. 18 (2): 330–340. Bibcode:2008GEC....18..330N. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003.
  6. ↑ "Is ozone a greenhouse gas?". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
  7. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":0".
  8. 1 2 Skeie, Ragnhild Bieltvedt; Myhre, Gunnar; Hodnebrog, Øivind; Cameron-Smith, Philip J.; Deushi, Makoto; Hegglin, Michaela I.; Horowitz, Larry W.; Kramer, Ryan J.; Michou, Martine; Mills, Michael J.; Olivié, Dirk J. L.; Connor, Fiona M. O’; Paynter, David; Samset, Bjørn H.; Sellar, Alistair (2020-08-17). "Historical total ozone radiative forcing derived from CMIP6 simulations". npj Climate and Atmospheric Science (in Turanci). 3 (1): 32. Bibcode:2020npCAS...3...32S. doi:10.1038/s41612-020-00131-0. ISSN 2397-3722. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  9. ↑ Stevenson, D. S.; Young, P. J.; Naik, V.; Lamarque, J.-F.; Shindell, D. T.; Voulgarakis, A.; Skeie, R. B.; Dalsoren, S. B.; Myhre, G.; Berntsen, T. K.; Folberth, G. A.; Rumbold, S. T.; Collins, W. J.; MacKenzie, I. A.; Doherty, R. M. (2013-03-15). "Tropospheric ozone changes, radiative forcing and attribution to emissions in the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP)". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (in English). 13 (6): 3063–3085. Bibcode:2013ACP....13.3063S. doi:10.5194/acp-13-3063-2013. ISSN 1680-7316. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  10. ↑ Estrada, Francisco; et al. (2013). "Statistically derived contributions of diverse human influences to twentieth-century temperature changes". Nature Geoscience. 6 (12): 1050–55. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6.1050E. doi:10.1038/ngeo1999. S2CID 130224979. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  11. ↑ "IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Technology and Economic Assessment Panel. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-04. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "shin".
  13. ↑ Singh, Jaswant; Dubey, Anand K.; Singh, Rudra P. (2011). "Antarctic terrestrial ecosystem and role of pigments in enhanced UV-B radiations". Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 10 (1): 63–77. Bibcode:2011RESBT..10...63S. doi:10.1007/s11157-010-9226-3. S2CID 85222110.
  14. ↑ Yokouchi, Y.; Noijiri, Y.; Barrie, L. A.; Toom-Sauntry, D.; Machida, T.; Inuzuka, Y.; Akimoto, H.; Li, H. -J.; Fujinuma, Y.; Aoki, S. (2000). "A strong source of methyl chloride to the atmosphere from tropical coastal land". Nature. 403 (6767): 295–298. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..295Y. doi:10.1038/35002049. PMID 10659845. S2CID 4318352.
  15. ↑ "The Ozone Hole and Global Warming | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  16. ↑ Hegerl, Gabriele C.; et al. "Understanding and Attributing Climate Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 675. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
  • (Ambassador Benedick shi ne Babban Mai Tattaunawa na Amurka a taron da ya haifar da Yarjejeniyar Montreal.)  
  • Chasek, Pam, David L. Downie, da JW Brown (2013). Siyasa ta Muhalli ta Duniya, 6th Edition, Boulder: Westview Press.
  • Andersen, Stephen O., K. Madhava Sarma da Kristen N. Taddonio. 2007. , Canjin Fasaha don Layer na Ozone: Darussan Canjin Yanayi, Earthscan Press, London.
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  • Downie, David L. (December 1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection". Political Science. 45 (2): 186–197. doi:10.1177/003231879304500203. ISSN 0032-3187.
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  • David L. Downie (2013) "Stratospheric Ozone Depletion". Littafin Routledge na Siyasa ta Muhalli ta Duniya . New York: Routledge.
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