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Rikicin jima'i a Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo

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Rikicin jima'i a Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na sexual violence (en) Fassara
Fuskar Jamhuriyar dimokuradiyya Kwango
Ƙasa Jamhuriyar dimokuradiyya Kwango

Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo, da gabashin kasar musamman, an bayyana su a matsayin "Babban Birnin Cin zarafin Duniya", kuma an bayyana yaduwar da tsananin dukkan nau'ikan tashin hankali na jima'i a matsayin mafi muni a duniya. Human Rights Watch ya bayyana cin zarafin jima'i a matsayin "aikin jima'i ta hanyar karfi, ko ta hanyar barazanar karfi ko tilasta", da kuma fyade a matsayin "wani nau'i na cin zarafin Jiki wanda aka mamaye jikin mutum, wanda ke haifar da shiga, duk da haka kadan, na kowane bangare na jikin wanda aka azabtar, tare da sashin jima'i, ko kuma na hanci ko budewar jima'i na wanda aka azabta da kowane abu ko wani bangare na jiki".[1]

Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo tana a dogon tarihin tashin hankali da rashin kwanciyar hankali. Kodayake tashin hankali na jima'i koyaushe yana faruwa a cikin DRC a wasu halaye, karuwar tashin hankali na lalata ya dace da rikice-rikicen makamai na farkon shekarun 1990 da daga baya.

Yawancin binciken da aka gudanar game da cin zarafin jima'i a cikin DRC ya mayar da hankali kan cin zarafin mata da fyade kamar yadda ya danganta da waɗannan rikice-rikicen makamai, galibi suna faruwa a yankin gabashin kasar.[2] Yankin gabashin DRC yana da mafi girman yawan tashin hankali na jima'i, kuma yawancin su ƙungiyoyin 'yan bindiga ne ke aikata su.[3] Koyaya, wasu binciken sun fara nuna cewa cin zarafin jima'i ya mamaye a duk sassan DRC kuma ba koyaushe ba ne ke da alaƙa da rikici.

Duk da yake akwai shaidu masu yawa game da tasirin zamantakewa da na mutum wanda ya haifar da tashin hankali na jima'i a kasar, an soki gwamnati saboda rashin yin isasshen dakatar da shi.Kodayake dokar Kongo ta aikata laifuka da yawa na cin zarafin jima'i, ba koyaushe ake aiwatar da waɗannan dokoki ba.

Tarihin tarihi

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Rape a Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo an bayyana shi akai-akai a matsayin "makami na yaki", kuma Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ayyana fyade a hukumance makami ne na yaki a shekara ta 2008. Yin fyade a yaƙi ya zama makami mai tasiri sosai saboda ba wai kawai yana lalata wadanda aka azabtar da su ba, har ma da dukan al'ummomi.[4] Yaƙi, tashin hankali, da rashin kwanciyar hankali sun lalata DRC tsawon shekaru, kuma wannan ya haifar da al'adun tashin hankali a cikin yaƙi da rayuwar farar hula wanda sau da yawa yakan ɗauki siffarsa a cikin yanayin jima'i.

Shekaru goma sha ɗaya bayan Jamhuriyar Kongo ta sami 'yancin kai a shekarar 1960, shugaban kasar Mobutu ya sake ba kasar suna Zaire a shekarar 1971 kuma ya mallaki kasar a karkashin mulkin kama-karya da cin hanci da rashawa. A karkashin mulkin Mobutu, an yi amfani da cin zarafin jima'i a matsayin hanyar azabtarwa.[5]

Mobutu ya yi mulki har zuwa 1997, lokacin da bayan Rwanda_genocide" id="mwUQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Rwandan genocide">Kisan kare dangi na Rwanda na 1994, yawancin masu kisan kare hakkin bil'adama sun tsere a kan iyakar yammacin Rwanda zuwa DRC da fatan tserewa daga zargi. An sake fasalin mayakan masu tsattsauran ra'ayi na Hutu a fadin iyaka, musamman a Kivu, yankin gabashin DRC, wanda ya kawo aikata laifuka da tashin hankali ga DRC. Yayinda sojojin Kongo da masu kiyaye zaman lafiya na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya suka yi ƙoƙari su kaddamar da manyan ayyuka, har yanzu sun kasa kawar da 'yan tawayen Hutu waɗanda galibi ke ramawa ta hanyar yin fyade, satar mutane da kisan kai. Wannan kwararar 'yan ta'adda da fada a Burundi sun haifar da Yaƙin Kongo na farko da kuma ƙarshen mulkin Mobutu. Da tashin hankali ya motsa shi, Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) , karkashin jagorancin Laurent Kabila, ya kaddamar da tawaye a kan mulkin Mobutu a 1996 a gabashin kasar.a ai

Wilhelmine Ntakebuka, wacce ke tsara shirin tashin hankali na jima'i a Bukavu, ta yi imanin cewa karuwar tashin hankali na lalata ya fara ne da shigowar mayakan kasashen waje:

Cutar fyade da alama ta fara ne a tsakiyar shekarun 1990. Wannan ya yi daidai da raƙuman mayakan Hutu waɗanda suka tsere zuwa cikin gandun daji na Kongo bayan sun hallaka Tutsi 800,000 da Hutu masu matsakaici a lokacin Kisan kare dangi na Rwanda shekaru 13 da suka gabata. Mista Holmes ya ce yayin da sojojin gwamnati na iya yi wa dubban mata fyade, 'yan bindiga na Hutu ne suka kai hare-hare mafi muni.

'Yan tawayen M23 a Goma, Nuwamba 2012

Rikicin daga Yaƙin Kongo na farko ya haifar da Yaƙin Kongo na Biyu, wanda ya ƙare a hukumance a shekara ta 2006 tare da zaben shugaban farko da aka zaba ta hanyar dimokuradiyya, Joseph Kabila . Koyaya, babu ƙarshen tashin hankali. Babban rikici a cikin 2007 tsakanin sojojin gwamnati da sojojin Janar Tutsi Laurent Nkunda ya ƙare a wani babban rikici a lardin gabashin Nord-Kivu. Kwanan nan, rashin kwanciyar hankali da tashin hankali sun karu sosai tun bayan tawaye na mambobin Gwamnatin DRC da kuma kirkirar ƙungiyar 'yan tawaye, M23, da Gwamnatin Rwanda da mutane na Gwamnatin Uganda suka goyi bayan. [6] Bugu da ƙari, a kwanan nan a watan Disamba na shekara ta 2012, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta zargi 'yan tawaye na M23 da fyade da kashe fararen hula a gabashin DRC. Har ila yau, kwanan nan an yi zargin kai hari na soja da kuma laifuka 72 na fyade a kan fararen hula ta M23 a yankin Minova.[7]

Yawancin wannan ci gaba da tashin hankali shine sakamakon ƙiyayya mai tsawo tsakanin Tutsis, Hutus, da sauran kungiyoyi.[8] Sauran abubuwan da ke haifar da ci gaba da tashin hankali sune kula da ƙasa, kula da ma'adanai, da kuma matsalolin tattalin arziki. Hakanan ana iya danganta ci gaba da fyade ga ra'ayoyi marasa kyau game da fyade, kamar tatsuniyar cewa yin jima'i da 'yan mata masu tasowa zai ba mutane ƙarfi a yaƙi ko kasuwanci.[9] Tsawon tarihin tashin hankali ya haifar da al'adun rashin jin daɗi, rashin girmamawa ga ka'idojin kasa da kasa na haƙƙin ɗan adam, da rashin isasshen ilimi.[5]

A yau, Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo, musamman yankin gabashin kasar, an san shi da babban birnin fyade na duniya. Duk da yake "doka ta haramta musamman kuma ta ba da hukunci na shekaru 10 zuwa 20 na ɗaurin kurkuku ga yara da tilasta karuwanci, karuwanci. Da fataucin mutane don cin zarafin jima'i....Ba a bayar da rahoton bincike ko gurfanar da masu fataucin a cikin shekara [2007]. Babu wata doka game da cin zarafin mata.

Hanyoyin cin zarafin jima'i

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Cin zarafin mata

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Margot Wallström ta kira gabashin Kongo "wurin da ya fi haɗari a duniya don zama mace" kuma an ce fyade gaskiya ce kawai ta rayuwa a cikin DRC.[9] A watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2004 kungiyar kare hakkin dan adam ta Amnesty International ta ce an bayar da rahoton shari'o'in fyade 40,000 a cikin shekaru shida da suka gabata, mafi yawansu sun faru ne a Kivu ta Kudu.  Wannan ƙididdigar ba ta cika ba, saboda kungiyoyin jin kai da na kasa da kasa da ke tattara adadi ba su da damar zuwa yawancin yankin rikici; kawai matan da suka bayar da rahoto don magani an haɗa su. An kiyasta cewa akwai mutane 200,000 da suka tsira wadanda aka yi wa fyade da ke zaune a Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo a yau.[10]

Wani rahoto na 2011 ya rubuta cewa an yi wa mata 1,000 fyade a kowace rana.

Wani rahoto na 2014 daga kungiyar agaji ta kare hakkin dan adam Freedom from Torture ya bayyana amfani da fyade a matsayin wani nau'i na azabtarwa da jami'an tsaro, yana mai da hankali kan nazarin shari'a da asusun daga wadanda suka tsira daga azabtarwa.

A cikin 2023, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ba da rahoton shari'o'in cin zarafin jima'i sama da 113,000 a cikin DRC kuma a shekara mai zuwa ta 2024, shari'o-haren da suka shafi rikice-rikice sun ninka sau biyu.[11]

Dangane da binciken da The Journal of the American Medical Association ta gudanar a cikin 2010, kashi 39.7% na mata a Yankin Gabas (North Kivu, Kivu ta Kudu, da Lardin Gabas) na DRC sun ruwaito cewa an fallasa su ga tashin hankali na jima'i a lokacin rayuwarsu, galibi suna ɗaukar siffarsa a cikin fyade.[12]

QqKamar yadda Noel Rwabirinba, wani dan shekara goma sha shida wanda ya kasance dan bindiga na tsawon shekaru biyu ya ce, "Idan muka ga 'yan mata, haƙƙinmu ne... za mu iya keta su. " Wannan sanarwa tana nuna daidaitattun fyade a cikin DRC. Saboda rikice-rikice, tsakanin kashi 60 zuwa 90 cikin dari na mata shugabannin gidaje ne. Wannan yana sanya nauyin da yawa a kansu, kamar yin tafiya mai nisa don neman albarkatu, yana barin su cikin haɗari ga tashin hankali.

Patricia Rozée ta gano nau'o'i daban-daban na fyade, dukansu suna faruwa a cikin DRC: fyade na azabtarwa (wanda aka yi amfani da shi don yin shiru da sarrafawa); fyade na matsayi (wanda ke faruwa ne sakamakon bambance-bambance a cikin matsayi); fyade ta bikin (wanda ba a yarda da shi ba a matsayin wani ɓangare na al'adun da aka ba da izini ba); fyade (lokacin da aka yi amfani dashi ta hanyar jima'i a matsayin kayan ciniki); fyade ya zama sace mutane a matsayin bayi, karuwai, ƙwara, ko ganimar tsofaffi da ake buƙata don samun kyawawan mutane don tsira).[9]

Rape, kamar yadda ya danganta da rikice-rikice, shine mafi yawan nau'in tashin hankali na jima'i a kasar, musamman a yankin gabas. Koyaya, fararen hula su ne masu aikata fyade.[12] Bugu da ƙari, kodayake mutane na iya ɗauka cewa maza koyaushe suna aikata tashin hankali na jima'i da ke da alaƙa da rikici ga mata, mata ma masu aikata laifin ne. A cikin binciken da aka gudanar a shekarar 2010 da Kungiyar Likitocin Amurka ta gudanar, mata sun ruwaito cewa sun aikata tashin hankali na jima'i da ya shafi rikice-rikice a cikin kashi 41.1% na shari'ar mata da kashi 10.0% na shari'o'in maza.[12]

Tashe-tashen Hankula Akan Maza da Yara Maza

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Yawan fyade da ake yi wa maza shima abin damuwa ne. Bincike na baya-bayan nan yana nuna cewa mata da maza duka suna fuskantar fyade kuma suna daga cikin masu aikata hakan a Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Kwango.[12]

Binciken da Journal of the American Medical Association ta gudanar a shekarar 2010 ya nuna cewa kashi 23.6% na maza a yankin gabashin ƙasar sun fuskanci cin zarafin jima'i. Haka kuma wani bincike makamancin haka a shekarar 2010 ya nuna cewa kashi 22% na maza (idan aka kwatanta da kashi 30% na mata) a gabashin Kwango sun bayar da rahoton fyade da ya shafi rikici. Wani bincike na ƙetare wanda ya haɗa da jama’a ya gano cewa ɗaya cikin huɗu na maza da ke zaune a yankin gabas sun kasance cikin waɗanda aka yi wa fyade.[12] Haka kuma, akalla kashi 4 zuwa 10 cikin 100 na waɗanda ake yi wa fyade a ƙasar maza ne.[9]

Yawan rahoton fyade da ake yi wa maza yana iya zama ƙasa da ainihin adadin saboda tsananin ƙyamar da ake nunawa ga maza da aka ci zarafinsu ta hanyar jima'i.[13] Maza da suka yarda cewa an yi musu fyade na iya fuskantar wariya daga al’umma da ma gurfanarwa a gaban kotu, domin ana iya kallonsu a matsayin ’yan luwadi, wanda ko da yake ba haramun ba ne a DRC, amma bai karɓu a al’umma ba.[14] Mafi yawan mazan da aka ci zarafinsu ba sa zuwa kotu, kuma waɗanda suka je ana korarsu daga kauyensu ana kiran su da "mata na daji".[15] A cewar Denise Siwatula, jami’ar shirin kungiyar Women's Synergy for the Victims of Sexual Violence da ke Kivu, maza da dama na fama da fyade kuma suna buƙatar wani irin taimako na musamman da ya bambanta da wanda ake bai wa mata da ke zuwa cibiyarsu.[13]

Lynn Lawry, ƙwararriya a fannin jin kai daga sashen lafiya na ƙasa da ƙasa a Ma'aikatar Tsaron Amurka, ta ce: "Idan muna nazarin yadda za mu magance matsalolin al’umma, dole ne mu tattauna da mata da maza masu aikata laifin, sannan kuma mu haɗa da waɗanda abin ya shafa na maza a cibiyoyin lafiyar kwakwalwa domin a fahimci matsalolinsu, waɗanda na iya bambanta da na mata."[16]

Rahoton shekarar 2020 daga Sakatare-Janar na Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya kan fyade da ya danganci rikici ya bayyana cewa wani matashi daga Jihar Tanganyika an cire masa kaya, aka yi masa fyade kuma rundunar ’yan tawaye ta Twa ta tilasta masa yin wa mahaifiyarsa fyade, wanda hakan ya haifar masa da jin kunya mai tsanani da kuma tsoron ƙyama da ramuwar gayya idan ya nemi taimako. Ana amfani da fyade ga maza da yara maza a matsayin hanyar tozarta da rushe kimar al’umma — ta hanyar cin mutuncin shugabanni ko kariya ta iyali da al’umma. Rahoton ya kuma bayyana ci gaba da yi wa maza da yara maza fyade a wuraren tsare da wasu wuraren daban-daban.[17]

Tashe-tashen Hankula Akan Yara

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Wata ƙungiyar tsofaffin yara mayaƙa a Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Kwango

UNFPA ta ruwaito cewa sama da kashi 65% na waɗanda rikici ya shafa cikin shekaru 15 da suka gabata yara ne. Mafi yawan waɗannan yara ’yan mata ne masu balaga, sannan kusan kashi 10% na yaran da abin ya shafa ƙasa da shekaru goma ne da haihuwa.[1] Yawancin yara mayaƙa, bayan an ɗauke su daga sansanonin ’yan gudun hijira, sukan fuskanci cin zarafin jima'i.[18]

Fyade da ake yi wa ’yan mata da kuma cin zarafin yara bisa la’akari da jinsi ya yi yawa a gabashin Kwango.[19]

Fyade

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Cin zarafin jima'i yana aiki a matsayin hanyar kunyata ba kawai mace da aka ci zarafinta ba, har ma da danginta ko mijinta. Da zarar an yi wa mace fyade, al'adar gargajiya tana bukatar ta aika saƙo ga mijinta don sanar da shi abin da ya faru.[20] Sai mijin ya ɗauki makami ya nemi wanda ya yi wannan aika-aikar. A zamanin yau, galibin al'ummomi suna zargin mata da laifin fuskantar fyade kuma suna nuna musu wariya. Shigowar kungiyoyin makamai daga Burundi da Rwanda zuwa Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Kwango ya ƙara yawan wannan nau'in cin zarafi a yankin.[21]

Bayan yaƙe-yaƙen 1996 da 1998 da kuma korar mutanen Kongo daga gidajensu, wasu mata sun shiga cikin abin da ake kira "jima'in tsira" da sojojin ƙetare masu kuɗi da ma'aikatan zaman lafiya na Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya.[21] Wannan ya sa ake kallon sojojin cikin ƙasa a matsayin marasa ƙarfi, saboda kasa cika rawar da ake tsammani daga gare su a cikin al'umma.[21] Fyade ta koma wata al'ada ta yau da kullum a cikin DRC.[21] A cewar ma’aikatan lafiya, mata suna fuskantar fyade yayin da suke gudu daga gidajensu inda suke gamuwa da kungiyoyin makamai daban-daban kamar mayaka, ’yan tawaye da kuma sojojin FARDC a hanyarsu zuwa sansanonin ’yan gudun hijira.[11]

Yawan fyade yana faruwa a wuraren jama'a kuma a gaban shaidu. Wadannan fyade na fili sun yi shahara har an sanya musu suna — "la reigne".[21] A yayin wannan fyade, ana cire wa mace kaya, a daure ta a ƙafa, sannan a yi mata fyade da dama a tsakiyar gari.[21] Izinin shiga gari don fyade ana yawan ba wa kungiyoyin makamai a matsayin lada daga shugabanninsu.[21] Rundunar sojin gwamnati wato FARDC, ita ce mafi yawan aikata wannan laifi saboda yawan ta da ƙarfin da take da shi.[21]

Fyade na "Tsaron Ƙasa"

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Wannan nau’in fyade ana yawan amfani da shi ne ta gwamnati da sojoji domin kare abin da suke kira da "tsaron ƙasa".[21] Haka kuma, fyade na "tsaron ƙasa" yana tilasta wasu tsare-tsare na iko kamar kishin ƙasa da tsarin maza da mata (patriarchy).[21]Samfuri:Fix-span Ana amfani da shi wajen kunyata, azabtarwa da hukunta mata masu jayayya da ra’ayoyin da masu fyade ke ɗauka a matsayin tsattsauran fahimta na mace da namiji.[21]

Fyade na "Tsarin Tarin Jama'a"

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Fyade na tsarin tarin jama'a a DRC ana kallonsa a matsayin kayan aiki na danniya wanda aka karkata ga wata ƙabila ta musamman kuma Samfuri:Clarify span.[21] A lokacin yaƙi, fyade da yawa yana aiki a matsayin hanyar “mayar da abokin gaba mace” ta hanyar cin zarafin “matansa, ƙasarsa da ƙabilarsa”, don nuna cewa ba zai iya kare su yadda ya dace ba.[21] Fyade da ake yi wa mata a wannan tsari yana nufin rushe ginin al’umma gaba ɗaya, kasancewar mata ana kallon su a matsayin masu ɗaukar alamar asalinsu ta kabilanci da kishin ƙasa saboda rawar da suke takawa wajen haihuwa, al’adu da zamantakewar al’umma gaba ɗaya.[21]

Sauran nau'o'in fyade da cin zarafin jima'i

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Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya ta haɗa fyade, fyade a bainar jama'a, bautar jima'i, lalata da tilas, ɗaukar ciki da tilas, fyaden rukuni, cin zarafi tsakanin 'yan uwa, yankan gabobin jiki na jima'i, fasa ciki, yankan al'aurar mata, cin naman ɗan adam, yaduwar cutar HIV/AIDS da gangan, da kuma hana haihuwa da tilas a matsayin wasu nau'o'in cin zarafin jima'i da ke faruwa a Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Congo da ake amfani da su a matsayin dabaru a lokacin yaƙi da fararen hula. [22]

Wasu nau'o'in cin zarafin jima'i da aka ruwaito sun haɗa da: tilasta saka abubuwa masu ƙyama kamar rassan itatuwa da kwalabe cikin farji, [23] fyade a gaban iyali da al'umma, tilasta fyade tsakanin waɗanda aka ci zarafinsu, saka abubuwa cikin farjin mata, zuba roba mai narkewa cikin farji, harbin mata a farji, da kuma haifar da zubar da ciki ta hanyar amfani da abubuwa masu kaifi. [24]

Fasa kwauri da karuwanci

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Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Congo na daga cikin ƙasashen da ake safarar mutane daga cikinta da kuma inda ake kai su domin aiki da tilas da kuma karuwanci da tilas, galibin wannan safarar na faruwa a cikin ƙasar kuma kungiyoyin da ke dauke da makamai a yankin gabashin DRC ne ke aikata hakan. [25] Ana ganin DRC a matsayin tushen safarar mutane mafi girma a yankin, inda mata da yara mata ke fuskantar safara zuwa masana’antun jima’i a Angola, Afirka ta Kudu, Jamhuriyar Congo, da kuma Yammacin Turai, musamman ƙasar Belgium. [26] Karuwanci da karuwanci da tilas na yawan faruwa a sansanonin ‘yan gudun hijira a cikin ƙasar. [27] Baya ga karuwanci da tilas a sansanonin ‘yan gudun hijira, an tilasta wa ‘yan mata da dama yin karuwanci a wuraren hut da tantuna, kasuwanni da wuraren hakar ma’adinai. [26]

Babban masu aikata wannan laifi sun haɗa da Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), Patriotes Resistants Congolais (PARECO), wasu kungiyoyin sa-kai na cikin gida kamar Mai-Mai, Alliance des patriots pour un Congo libre et souverain (APCLS), da kuma Lord's Resistance Army (LRA). [26] Rahotanni da dama sun nuna cewa wadannan kungiyoyi suna tilasta wa mata da yara shiga bauta ta jima’i. [26]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Soldiers who rape, commanders who condone". Human Rights Watch. 2009-07-16. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
  2. ↑ Kilonzo, Nduku; Njoki Ndung'u; Nerida Nthamburi; Caroline Ajema; Miriam Taegtmeye; Salley Theobald; Rachel Tohurst (2009). "Sexual violence legislation in sub-Saharan Africa: the need for strengthened medico-legal linkages". Reproductive Health Matters. 17 (34): 10–19. doi:10.1016/s0968-8080(09)34485-7. JSTOR 40647441. PMID 19962633.
  3. ↑ Peterman, Amber; Tia Palermo; Caryn Bredenkamp (June 2011). "Estimates and Determinants of Sexual Violence Against Women in the Democratic Republic of Congo" (PDF). American Journal of Public Health. 101 (6): 1060–1067. doi:10.2105/ajph.2010.300070. PMC 3093289. PMID 21566049. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 17 Mar 2013.
  4. ↑ "Rape: Weapon of war". UN Human Rights. Archived from the original on 2012-01-10. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Kamemba, Claude (June 2001). "The Democratic Republic of Congo: From Independence to Africa's First World War" (PDF). UNHCR Centre for Documentation and Research. Paper No. 16/2000. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Kamemba" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ United Nations Security Council. S/2012/843. "Letter dated 12 November 2012 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council".
  7. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ALJ
  8. ↑ Autesserre, Séverine (2008). "The Trouble with Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict". Foreign Affairs. 87 (3): 94–110. JSTOR 20032653.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Autesserre, Séverine (2012). "Dangerous Tales: Dominant Narratives on the Congo and their Unintended Consequences". African Affairs. 111 (443): 202–222. doi:10.1093/afraf/adr080. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Autesserre" defined multiple times with different content
  10. ↑ Kort, Michelle (2007-01-18). "A Conversation with Eve Ensler: Femicide in the Congo". Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on July 4, 2010. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Physicians for Human Rights" (PDF). Physicians for Human Rights. October 2024. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Johnson, Kirsten; Jennifer Scott; Bigy Rughita; Michael Kisielewski; Jana Asher; Ricardo Ong; Lynn Lawry (2010). "Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations with Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 304 (5): 553–561. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1086. PMID 20682935. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Johnson" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 IRIN (6 August 2010). "Analysis: Rethinking sexual violence in Democratic Republic of the Congo". Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  14. ↑ Storr, Will (17 July 2011). "The rape of men". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Zongwe
  16. ↑ "Analysis: Rethinking sexual violence in DRC". IRIN Africa. 6 August 2010.
  17. ↑ "CONFLICT-RELATED SEXUAL VIOLENCE s/2020/487" (PDF). United Nations. 3 June 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  18. ↑ Buckley, Mary (2008). "Young and Vulnerable". The World Today. 8. 64 (9): 16–18. JSTOR 40478010.
  19. ↑ "DRC: Children suffer torture, rape and cruelty, NGOs report". IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis: A service of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 18 June 2003.
  20. ↑ Liebling, Benoit. "Bearing Children Through Rape in Eastern Congo: Community and State Responses" (PDF). Coventry University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Baaz, 2009
  22. ↑ UN. "Violence against women and sexual violence." Info Note 3: Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner.
  23. ↑ Longombe, Ahuka Ona; Kaswereka Masumbuko Claude; Joseph Ruminjo (2008). "Fistula and Traumatic Genital Injury from Sexual Violence in a Conflict Sitting in Eastern Congo: Case Studies". Reproductive Health Matters. 16 (31): 132–141. doi:10.1016/s0968-8080(08)31350-0. JSTOR 25475353. PMID 18513615. S2CID 206112274.
  24. ↑ Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Global Report on Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict, 2007, Africa, 17. As cited in www.womanstats.org.
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named CIA
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 "Democratic Republic of the Congo: Trafficking in Persons Report 2010". US Department of State. June 14, 2010. Archived from the original on June 17, 2010.
  27. ↑ Lehti, Martti; Kauko Aromaa (2006). "Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation". Crime and Justice. 34 (1): 133–22. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.825. doi:10.1086/650306. JSTOR 10.1086/650306. S2CID 144875722.
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