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Ruhaniya

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.

 

 

Ruhaniya (wanda aka fi sani da Negro spirituals, African American spirituals, Black spirituals, ko kuma Waƙoƙin ruhaniya) wani nau'i ne na kiɗa na Kirista wanda ke da alaƙa da 'Yan Afirka na Afirka, [1] wanda ya haɗu da tasirin al'adun Afirka daban-daban tare da abubuwan da ake gudanar da su a cikin bautar, da farko a lokacin cinikin bayi na transatlantic [2] kuma ƙarni bayan haka, ta hanyar cinikin bayi ta cikin gida. Ruhaniya sun haɗa da "waƙoƙin waka", waƙoƙin aiki, da waƙoƙun shuka waɗanda suka samo asali cikin waƙoƙi na blues da waƙoƙi na bishara a coci. A cikin karni na sha tara, kalmar "ruhaniya" tana nufin duk waɗannan ƙananan waƙoƙin gargajiya.[3] Duk da yake sau da yawa suna da tushe a cikin labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki, sun kuma bayyana matsanancin wahalar da 'yan Afirka na Afirka suka jimre waɗanda aka bautar da su daga karni na 17 har zuwa shekarun 1860, 'yanci ya canza ainihin yanayin (amma ba ci gaba ba) na bautar ga mutane da yawa.[4] Yawancin sababbin nau'ikan kiɗa irin su blues sun fito ne daga waƙoƙin ruhaniya.[5] An yi amfani da waɗannan waƙoƙin don raba saƙonnin da aka tsara, haɗa mutane, bayyana motsin rai da motsin rai, da kuma kiyaye al'adunsu da rai a cikin tsararraki. Daga ƙarshe an yi su a majami'u, makarantu, da kide-kide. Wannan nau'in al'adun Afirka na Amurka ya rinjayi kiɗa a duniya.

Baya ga muhimmancin kiɗa, ruhaniya ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ƙarfafawa da kuma inganta 'yan Afirka na Afirka a duk tarihin. Wadannan waƙoƙin sun ba da bege, ta'aziyya, da juriya a lokacin mafi duhu na bautar da rarrabewa. Yin waka tare ya ba da damar bayi su gina hadin kai, su kula da al'umma, kuma su sami ƙarfi daga gwagwarmayar da aka raba. Sau da yawa ruhaniya sun haɗa da jigogi na Littafi Mai-Tsarki na ceto da 'yanci, suna da ma'ana ga masu sauraro waɗanda ke marmarin' yanci da adalci. Ta hanyar juyawa ga labarun kamar Fitowa, 'yan Afirka na Afirka sun sami wahayi da tsarin ruhaniya don jimrewa da wahala da kiyaye bangaskiya ga yiwuwar kyakkyawar makoma.

Hadisin ruhaniya ya fara ne a farkon shekarun 1700 tsakanin 'yan Afirka da suka yi bautar a Kudancin Amurka, musamman a kan shuke-shuke inda waƙoƙin al'umma ya kasance dabarun rayuwa da kuma nau'in juriya. Wannan nau'in ya fito ne daga haɗuwa da al'adun kiɗa na Afirka tare da waƙoƙin Kirista da masu wa'azi a ƙasashen waje da masu bautar suka gabatar. Ruhaniya ta fara bunƙasa a cikin tarurrukan ibada na sirri, wanda aka fi sani da "teku," inda bayi suka taru daga idanun masu kulawa. A tsawon lokaci, ruhaniya ta bazu zuwa tarurrukan sansanin da farfadowa, ta zama tsakiya ga furcin addini da al'adun Afirka na Amurka. Ta hanyar waɗannan waƙoƙin, tsararraki sun sami ƙarfafawa da haɗin kai da ake buƙata don jimrewa kuma a ƙarshe sun kalubalanci kafa bautar.

Ba wai kawai 'yan Afirka na Afirka sun rufe waƙoƙinsu ba, dole ne su yi sujada a asirce. "Cocin da ba a ganuwa" yana nufin tarurrukan addini na sirri da 'yan Afirka na Amurka suka kafa lokacin da aka hana su' yancin yin sujada a bayyane ko bayyana ayyukansu na ruhaniya. Wadannan tarurruka masu ɓoye sun faru ne a yankuna masu nisa kamar dazuzzuka, gidaje, ko wuraren da aka ɓoye kuma sun ba da damar bayi su haɗa koyarwar Kirista tare da al'adun Afirka ta hanyoyin da ba a yarda da su ba a ƙarƙashin idanun bayi. A cikin waɗannan tarurruka, mahalarta na iya yin addu'a, raira waƙa, da kuma ba da shaida ba tare da tsoron azabtarwa ba, ƙirƙirar al'umma ta ruhaniya da ta samo asali a cikin gwagwarmaya da bege. Ayyukan kiɗa waɗanda suka haɓaka a cikin cocin da ba a ganuwa - musamman waƙoƙin kira da amsawa, kukan zobe, da kuma abubuwan ruhaniya - sun zama muhimman tushe na kiɗa mai tsarki na Afirka ta Amirka. Wadannan waƙoƙin suna ɗauke da ma'anoni masu yawa, suna ba da ta'aziyya ta addini da saƙonnin ƙididdiga na juriya ko tserewa. Ikilisiyar da ba a ganuwa ta ba da ƙarfin motsin rai, adana al'adu, da kuma fahimtar haɗin kai, suna tsara rayuwar kiɗa da addini ta Afirka ta Amirka ga tsararraki.

Kafin ƙarshen Yaƙin basasar Amurka da 'yanci, ruhaniya asali ne na al'adar baki da aka wuce daga ƙarni ɗaya zuwa na gaba. An haddace labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki sannan aka fassara su cikin waƙa. Bayan 'yanci, an buga kalmomin ruhaniya a cikin bugawa. Kungiyoyi irin su Fisk Jubilee Singers - wanda aka kafa a 1871 - sun shahara da ruhaniya, suna kawo su ga masu sauraro da yawa, har ma da na duniya.

Da farko, manyan ɗakunan rikodin suna yin rikodin fararen mawaƙa ne kawai da ke yin ruhaniya da abubuwan da suka samo asali. Wannan ya canza tare da nasarar kasuwanci ta Mamie Smith a shekarar 1920. Farawa a cikin shekarun 1920, masana'antar rikodin kasuwanci ta kara yawan masu sauraro ga ruhaniya da abubuwan da suka samo asali.

Masu baƙar fata Harry Burleigh da R. Nathaniel Dett sun kirkiro "sabon repertoire don matakin kide-kide" ta hanyar amfani da ilimin gargajiya na Yammacin Turai ga ruhaniya. Duk da yake an halicci ruhaniya ta hanyar "al'umma mai kewaye da mutane a cikin bautar", a tsawon lokaci sun zama sanannun kiɗa na farko na "sa hannu" na Amurka.[6]

Kalmomin

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The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians - daya daga cikin manyan ayyukan bincike kan kiɗa da mawaƙa : 284-290 - an tsara su kuma an bayyana su "ruhaniya" a cikin albarkatun lantarki, Grove Music Online - wani muhimmin bangare na Oxford Music Online, a matsayin "irin waƙar da aka kirkira da kuma ga 'yan Afirka na Afirka waɗanda suka samo asali daga al'adar baki. Ko da ba a san ainihin asalinsa ba, ana iya gano su a matsayin nau'i a farkon karni na 19. " Sun yi amfani da kalmar ba tare da mai bayyanawa ba, "Amurka ta Afirka ba".[1]

Kalmar "Negro spirituals" kalma ce ta ƙarni na 19 "wanda aka yi amfani da shi don waƙoƙi tare da matani na addini waɗanda Afirka ta kirkira a Amurka". Littafin farko da aka buga na waƙoƙin bayi ya kira su "na ruhaniya".

A cikin ilimin kiɗa da ethnomusicology a cikin shekarun 1990, ana amfani da kalmar nan "ruhaniya" don bayyana "The Spirituals Project".[7]

Cibiyar Nazarin Majalisa ta Amurka tana amfani da kalmar nan "African American Spirituals", don shigarwa mai lamba da kuma abubuwan da aka tsara. A cikin gabatarwa, ana amfani da nau'i ɗaya ba tare da adjective "African American ba. " A duk lokacin shigarwar encyclopedic ana amfani da siffar guda ɗaya da jam'i na kalmar ba tare da mai bayyana "Africon American" ba. Maganar gabatarwa ta LOC ta ce, "A ruhaniya wani nau'i ne na waƙoƙin gargajiya na addini wanda ke da alaƙa da bautar mutanen Afirka a Kudancin Amurka. Waƙoƙin sun karu a cikin 'yan shekarun da suka gabata na karni na sha takwas wanda ya kai ga kawar da bautar da aka halatta a cikin shekarun 1860. Ruhaniya ta Afirka ta Amirka (wanda ake kira Negro Spiritual) ya zama ɗaya daga cikin manyan kuma mafi mahimmancin siffofin waƙoƙar gargajiya na Amurka. " [8]

Yanayi

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Wani rahoto na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya bayyana cinikin bayi a matsayin mafi girman ƙaura da aka tilasta a tarihin ɗan adam.[2] A matsayin sakamakon kai tsaye na cinikin bayi na transatlantic, babban motsi na 'yan Afirka ya kasance zuwa Amurka - tare da kashi 96 cikin 100 na fursunoni daga gabar tekun Afirka da suka isa a kan jiragen bautar da ke cikin tashar jiragen ruwa a Kudancin Amurka da Tsibirin Caribbean. Daga 1501 zuwa 1830, 'yan Afirka huɗu sun haye Tekun Atlantika ga kowane Turai, suna yin yawan jama'a na Amurka a wannan zamanin ya fi fadada Afirka fiye da Turai. Kyautar wannan ƙaura har yanzu tana bayyane a yau, tare da yawancin mutanen da suka fito daga Afirka da ke zaune a ko'ina cikin Amurka. Miliyoyin da suka fi zama bayi a Afirka, inda bautar ta kasance wani bangare ne mai rikitarwa da zurfi na al'adun da suka koma baya ƙarni kafin yaduwar Turai a nahiyar.[9][10][11]

Daga 1501 zuwa 1867, kimanin "Afirkawa miliyan 12.5" daga "kusan kowace ƙasa da ke da iyakar tekun Atlantika" an sace su kuma an tilasta su cikin bautar, a cewar Atlas na 2015 wanda ya dogara da kusan tafiye-tafiye na bautar 35,000. Kimanin kashi 6% na dukkan 'yan Afirka da aka kawo ta hanyar cinikin bayi na Atlantic sun isa Amurka, kafin da kuma bayan zamanin mulkin mallaka; sauran sun tafi Brazil, West Indies ko wasu yankuna. Yawancin waɗannan 'yan Afirka sun fito ne daga bakin tekun bayi na Yammacin Afirka. Sauran kafofin sun kiyasta cinikin bayi na Islama ya sace irin wannan adadin 'yan Afirka, tare da tsakanin mutane miliyan 8 zuwa miliyan 17 da aka dauka daga Afirka tsakanin ƙarni na 8 zuwa 19 tare da hanyoyin cinikayya na Trans-Sahara.

Daular Portuguese ta kai 'yan Afirka na farko zuwa Sabon Duniya a cikin shekarun 1560, har zuwa shekarun 1700 Mexico ita ce babbar manufa ga waɗancan fursunoni a ƙarƙashin Ibo Mutanen Espanya.[12] Mutanen Afirka na farko da suka zama bayi a cikin abin da ke yanzu Amurka sun isa a shekara ta 1526, suna sauka a Winyah Bay na yanzu, South Carolina a cikin wani ɗan gajeren mulkin mallaka da ake kira San Miguel de Gualdape a ƙarƙashin ikon Daular Spain. Sun kuma kasance 'yan Afirka na farko da suka yi bautar a Arewacin Amurka don shirya tawaye na bayi.[13] A shekara ta 1619, jirgin bawa na farko ya ɗauki mutane ashirin daga Masarautar Kongo ta tsakiya ta Afirka - zuwa rayuwar bautar a cikin abin da ke yanzu Mexico. Masarautar Kongo, a wannan lokacin ta shimfiɗa sama da yanki na kilomita 60,000 (kilomita 97,000) a cikin ruwa na Kogin Kongo - kogin na biyu mafi tsawo a Afirka - kuma yana da yawan mutane miliyan 2.5 - yana ɗaya daga cikin manyan masarautun Afirka. A ɗan gajeren lokaci, Sarki João I na Kongo, wanda ya yi mulki daga 1470 zuwa 1509, ya tuba da son rai zuwa Katolika, kuma kusan ƙarni uku - daga 1491 zuwa 1750 - masarautar Kongo ta yi Kiristanci kuma "mai zaman kanta mulkin duniya ne". Zuriyar shinkafa sun bautar mutanen Gullah - wanda ƙasarsu ta asali ita ce Saliyo - sun fi warewa a tsibirai da ke bakin tekun Kudancin Carolina.[and][14] Gullah ruhaniya ana raira waƙa a cikin yaren Creole wanda ya rinjayi Afirka ta Amirka ta Turanci tare da yawancin kalmomin Afirka da suka fito daga Akan, Yoruba da Igbo. Kafawar bautar a Amurka ta ƙare tare da ƙarshen Yaƙin basasar Amurka a 1865.

Cinikin bayi na cikin gida wanda ya fito bayan Majalisa ta Amurka ta haramta cinikin bayi na duniya a cikin 1808 kuma ya kasance har sai yakin basasar Amurka ya lalata tsararraki na iyalai na Afirka. Bautar a Amurka ta bambanta da ma'aikata a wasu yankuna na Amurka, kamar su West Indies, Dutch Guiana da Brazil. A cikin Amurka, bayi suna da ƙimar rayuwa mafi girma kuma ta haka ne akwai "ƙaruwar ƙaruwa a cikin yawan bayi sama da ƙarni daya da rabi - tare da lambobi kusan ninka sau uku a ƙarshen cinikin bayi na cikin gida a cikin shekarun 1860. " A wannan lokacin, "kimanin maza, mata, da yara miliyan 1.2. waɗanda aka haifa a Amurka, " sun rasa - ma'aurata sun rabu da juna, kuma iyaye sun rabu da yaransu. [15] A shekara ta 1850, yawancin 'yan Afirka na Afirka sun kasance "Amurkawa na uku, na huɗu, ko na biyar". [15] A cikin 1800s, an haifi yawancin bayi a cikin British West Indies da Brazil a Afirka, yayin da a Amurka, sun kasance "tsara da aka cire daga Afirka".[15]

Bayani na gaba ɗaya

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Hoton Douglass daga labarinsa na 1845

A cikin 1845 Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, a American Slave, wani rubutu game da kawar da kuma wani memoire, Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) - babban mai magana - ya bayyana waƙoƙin bawa kamar yadda yake ba da "Labari wanda ya wuce cikakkiyar fahimta; sun kasance sautuna, da ƙarfi, suna numfashi da gunaguni na rayuka da ke tafasa tare da baƙin ciki mafi muni. Kowane sautin da aka yi waƙoƙi, da addu'a ga Allah don ceto daga sarƙoƙi da aka rubuta a farkon NLC, har yanzu suna bautarsu, wanda aka rubuta a cikin waɗannan sanannun nan, wanda ya fi sani da kuma ya fi sani. Waƙoƙin bayi an kira su "Waƙoƙin Gobe" ta W.E.B. Du Bois a cikin littafinsa na 1903, The Souls of Black Folk.[16]

Hansonia Caldwell, marubucin kiɗa na Afirka ta Amirka, ruhaniya: ainihin kiɗa na jama'a na Baƙar fata da kiɗa na Baƙar Amurka: jerin lokuta: 1619-1995, ya ce ruhaniya "sun ci gaba da 'yan Afirka lokacin da aka bautarsu. Ta bayyana su a matsayin "waƙoƙin ƙididdiga" wanda "zai sanar da tarurruka, kamar yadda a cikin "Sashe Away", kuma bayyana hanyar gudu, kamar a cikin "Bayan Drinkin' Gourd". Sun yi amfani da Harriet Down Moses - wannan sunan lakabi ne a Jami' ya zama san shi a fannoni mai yawa - don haka ne - don haka a fannonin Jihar CCS "[17][17]

"Afirka ta Afirka ta ruhaniya (wanda ake kira Negro Spiritual) ya zama ɗaya daga cikin mafi girma kuma mafi mahimmancin nau'ikan waƙoƙin gargajiya na Amurka," a cewar Laburaren Majalisa na 2016 labarin.[18][19]

Ruhaniya da farko ana magana da ita, amma a shekara ta 1867 an buga tarin farko, mai taken "Slave Songbook". A cikin gabatarwar littafin, ɗaya daga cikin masu tarawa, William Francis Allen, ya gano "ci gaban Negro Spirituals da alaƙar al'adu zuwa Afirka. " [20] Littafin 1867 ya haɗa da ruhaniya waɗanda aka sani sosai kuma ana rera su akai-akai a cikin majami'u na Amurka amma waɗanda asalin su a cikin shuke-shuke, ba a amince da su ba. Allen ya rubuta cewa, kusan ba zai yiwu a isar da ruhaniya a cikin bugawa ba saboda ingancin muryoyin Afirka ta Amirka tare da "sauti da bambance-bambance masu mahimmanci", inda ba za a iya "sake maimaitawa a kan takarda ba". Allen ya bayyana rikitarwa na waƙoƙi kamar "Ba zan iya zama a baya ba, Ubangijinmu", ko kuma "Turn, mai zunubi, juya O!" waɗanda ke da "kiran da ke da rikitarwa" inda babu ɓangarorin raira waƙa, kuma babu mawaƙa biyu "sun yi kama da suna raira waƙa iri ɗaya. "Mawara "mai raira waƙa yana fara kalmomin kowane aya, sau da yawa yana ingantawa, kuma wasu, waɗanda suka "kafa" shi, kamar yadda ake kira, ya shiga cikin maimaitawa, ko ma shiga cikin solo, lokacin da kalmomin sun saba".[20][21]

Hoton James Weldon Johnson a cikin 1932

A cikin littafin su na 1925, The Books of American Negro Spirituals, James Weldon Johnson da Grace Nail Johnson sun ce ruhaniya, waɗanda "kawai kuma kawai halittar" na 'yan Afirka na Amirka, suna wakiltar "Amurka kawai irin kiɗa na gargajiya...Lokacin da ya zo ga amfani da kalmomi, mai kirkirar waƙar yana gwagwarmaya a ƙarƙashin iyakokinsa a cikin harshe kuma, watakila, kuma a ƙarƙashin kuskuren fahimta ko kuskuren gaskiyar a cikin tushen kayan sa, gabaɗaya Littafi Mai-Tsarki". Ma'aurata masu aiki ne a lokacin Harlem Renaissance National Association of Colored People of Colored Johnson.

Arthur C. Jones, farfesa a cikin Musicology, Ethnomusicology da Theory Department a Lamont School of Music a Jami'ar Denver, ya kafa "The Spirituals Project" don adanawa da sake farfado da "kiɗa da koyarwar waƙoƙin gargajiya masu tsarki da ake kira spirituals, "wanda 'yan Afirka na Amurka suka kirkira kuma suka fara rerawa a cikin bautar". [7] "Al'ummar da ke cikin bauta" ne suka halicci ruhaniya, a tsawon lokaci sun zama sanannun kiɗa na farko na "sa hannu" na Amurka.[6] An hana su yin magana da yarensu, gabaɗaya sun tuba zuwa Kiristanci. Tare da ƙayyadaddun ƙamus, sun yi amfani da kalmomin da suka sani don fassara bayanan Littafi Mai-Tsarki da gaskiyar daga sauran tushe zuwa waƙa.

Asalin al'adu

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Tushen Afirka

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J.H. Kwabena Nketia (1921-2019), wanda New York Times ta bayyana a cikin 2019 a matsayin "mafi kyawun masanin kiɗa na Afirka", ya ce a cikin 1973 cewa akwai muhimmiyar, mai dogaro da juna, mai ƙarfi, da kuma "dangantaka mai mahimmanci tsakanin kiɗa na Afrika da na Afirka ta Amirka". [5] :7–15[22]

'Yan Afirka na Afirka "a cikin shuka ta Kudu sun samo asali ne daga al'adun asali da al'adun Afirka. " [23] A cewar wata hira ta PBS ta Mayu 2012, "ruhaniya sune waƙoƙin gargajiya na addini, galibi suna da tushe a cikin labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki, an sa su tare, an raira su, kuma sun wuce daga ƙarni ɗaya zuwa wani. [24] [Lura 1][Lura 2][Lura 3]

A cewar littafin Walter Pitts na 1996 Old Ship of Zion, ruhaniya wani nau'i ne na kiɗa wanda yake na asali kuma takamaiman ga kwarewar addini na bayi na Afirka da zuriyarsu a Amurka. Pitts ya ce sun kasance sakamakon hulɗar kiɗa da addini daga Afirka tare da kiɗa da addinin asalin Turai. : 74 :74

A cikin wata hira da PBS ta Mayu 2012, Uzee Brown Jr. ya ce ruhaniya sune "kaya aiki na rayuwa ga bawa na Afirka".[24] Brown ya ce yayin da wasu al'adun da aka zalunta "kusan an shafe su", bawan Afirka ya tsira saboda ruhaniya ta hanyar "raira waƙa ta yawancin matsalolinsu", ta hanyar kirkirar nasu "hanyar sadarwa".[24] Mutanen da aka bautar sun gabatar da sabbin kayan kida da yawa zuwa Amurka: ƙasusuwa, ƙwanƙwasa jiki, da kayan aiki daban-daban da ake kira bania, banju, ko banjar, wanda ya kasance mai gabatarwa ga banjo amma ba tare da frets ba.[24] Sun kawo tare da su daga Afirka al'adun addini na dogon lokaci wanda ya nuna muhimmancin ba da labari.[25][26]

Shaidar muhimmiyar rawar da kiɗa na Afirka ya taka wajen kirkirar ruhaniya ta Afirka ta wanzu, a tsakanin sauran abubuwa, a cikin amfani da "rhythms mai rikitarwa" da "polyrhythms" daga Afirka ta Yamma.[5] : 7–15 :7–15

Addini a rayuwar yau da kullun

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Dangane da imanin Addinin bawa, "abubuwa da ruhaniya suna cikin haɗin kai".[27] Kiɗa, addini, da rayuwar yau da kullun ba za a iya raba su ba a cikin ruhaniya, kuma ta hanyar su, an shigar da manufofin addini cikin ayyukan rayuwar yau da kullum.[27] ::372 Ruhaniya sun ba da wasu rigakafi don kare addinin Afirka na Amurka daga zama mulkin mallaka, kuma ta wannan hanyar sun adana "mai tsarki a matsayin wuri mai yuwuwa na juriya".[27] ::372 Wani labarin 2015 a cikin Journal of Black Studies ya ce ba abin mamaki ba ne saboda haka "an raira waƙoƙin ruhaniya da farko a matsayin waƙoƙun motsa jiki, waƙoƙan filin, waƙoƙi na aiki, da waƙoƙen zamantakewa, maimakon kawai a cikin coci. " [27]::372 Labarin ya bayyana yadda, "ta hanyar amfani da metonymy (ya maye gurbin kalmomin da aka haɗa don canza abubuwan da ke cikin ma'ana), ruhaniya sun yi aiki a matsayin nau'in ilimin addini, suna iya magana a lokaci guda game da 'yanci na zahiri da' yanci na ruhaniya", misali a cikin ruhaniya, "Sashe zuwa Yesu". : 372 :372

A cikin William Eleazar Barton's (1899-1972) Old Plantation Hymns, marubucin ya rubuta cewa "waƙoƙin Afirka na Afirka ba sa ambaton Littafi Mai-Tsarki a matsayin tushen wahayi. Sun fi son "addini na zuciya" fiye da "addini mai littafi". Barton, wanda ya halarci hidima tare da 'yan Afirka na Amirka, ya ce ba su raira waƙoƙin "allaka" waɗanda suka ƙarfafa "ta' tabbaci ta hanyar alkawarin Allah a cikin Nassi Mai Tsarki"; maimakon haka, a cikin waƙoƙarcen Afirka-Amurka, suna kira ga ƙarin "bayani daga Ubangiji. "Ya ambaci misalai na "Mu Wasu daga cikin Masu Addu'a" da kuma waƙar yabo daga Alabama - "Saɓi kambi mai taurari". Ya kuma lura cewa waɗannan waƙoƙin suna da "maimaitawa uku da layin ƙarshe. ": 16 A cikin ƙarshen, mun sami "sanannen juyawa da haɗin kai" na Ba'amurke.

Ruhaniya ba kawai nau'o'i daban-daban na waƙoƙi ko labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki ba ne, amma a maimakon haka sauye-sauye ne na kayan; sabbin waƙoƙoƙi da kiɗa, da kuma bambance-bambance na salon sun taimaka wajen ware kiɗa a matsayin Afirka-Amurka.

Babban farkawa na farko, ko "farkawar bishara" - jerin farkawar Kirista a cikin shekarun 1730 da 1740 sun mamaye Biritaniya da yankunanta na Arewacin Amurka, ya haifar da bayi da yawa a cikin yankuna suna juyawa zuwa Kristanci.[28] A wannan lokacin masu wa'azi na Baptist da Methodist sun tuba da 'yan Afirka na Afirka, gami da wadanda suka zama bayi. A wasu al'ummomi an yarda da 'yan Afirka a cikin al'ummomin Kirista a matsayin dattawa.[29] Daga 1800 zuwa 1825 an fallasa bayi ga kiɗa na addini na tarurrukan sansanin a kan iyakar da ke fadadawa.[3] Yayinda al'adun addinai na Afirka suka ragu a Amurka a ƙarni na 18 da 19, yawancin 'yan Afirka na Afirka suka fara juyawa zuwa Kiristanci.[30] A cikin wani 1982 "rashin amincewa" na malaman farkawa, masanin tarihin Jami'ar Yale, Jon Butler, ya rubuta cewa farkawa tatsuniyar ce da masana tarihi suka gina a karni na 18 wadanda suka yi ƙoƙari su yi amfani da labarin farkawa don nasu "ma'anar addini".[31]

Jigogi na Littafi Mai-Tsarki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A karni na 17, 'yan Afirka masu bautar sun saba da labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki na Kirista, kamar labarin Musa da Daniyel, suna ganin labaran kansu sun nuna a cikinsu. Wani nau'i na Kiristanci na Afirka ya samo asali ne a cikin yawan bayi tare da ruhaniya na Afirka na Amurka wanda ke ba da hanyar "bayyana sabuwar bangaskiyar al'umma, da kuma baƙin ciki da fatanta".[18]

Yayin da 'yan Afirka suka fallasa labarun Littafi Mai-Tsarki, sun fara ganin kamanceceniya da abubuwan da suka faru. Labarin gudun hijira na Yahudawa da bautar da suka yi a Babila, ya yi daidai da bautar kansu.[28]

Kalmomin ruhaniya na Kirista suna nuni da siffofi na alama na siffofin Littafi Mai-Tsarki kamar Musa da Fitowa Isra'ila daga Misira a cikin waƙoƙi kamar "Michael Row the Boat Ashore". Har ila yau, akwai nau'i biyu a cikin kalmomin ruhaniya. Sun sanar da ra'ayoyin Kirista da yawa yayin da suke sadarwa game da wahalar da ta haifar da zama bawa.[32] Kogin Jordan a cikin waƙoƙin addini na gargajiya na Afirka ya zama iyaka ta alama ba kawai tsakanin wannan duniya da na gaba ba. Hakanan yana iya nuna alamar tafiya zuwa arewa da 'yanci ko kuma yana iya nuna iyaka mai ban mamaki daga matsayin bautar zuwa rayuwa kyauta.

Syncopation, ko lokaci mai tsayi, wani bangare ne na halitta na kiɗa na ruhaniya. An buga waƙoƙi a kan kayan kida na Afirka.

Tarin kalmomin ruhaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masu ruhaniya na Afirka-Amurka suna da alaƙa da waƙoƙin shuka, waƙoƙun bayi, waƙoƙi na 'yanci, da waƙoƙoƙin Railway na karkashin kasa, kuma suna magana har zuwa ƙarshen Yaƙin basasar Amurka. Bayan yakin basasa da 'yanci, an sami "tattarawa mai yawa da adana ruhaniya a matsayin al'adar waƙoƙin gargajiya". An buga tarin farko na Negro spirituals a 1867, shekaru biyu bayan yakin ya ƙare. An kira shi Slave Songs of the United States, an tattara shi ne ta hanyar 'yan abolitionist uku na arewa - Charles Pickard Ware (1840-1921), Lucy McKim Garrison (1842-1877), William Francis Allen (1830-1889) Tarin 1867 da aka gina akan dukan tarin Charles P. Ware, wanda yafi tattara waƙoƙi a Coffin's Point, St. Helena Island, South Carolina, gidan mutanen Afirka-Amurka Gullah da suka fito daga Afirka ta Yamma. Yawancin littafin 1867 sun ƙunshi waƙoƙin da aka tattara kai tsaye daga 'yan Afirka na Afirka.[20] A cikin shekarun 1830 aƙalla, "waƙoƙin shuka", "waƙoƙi na bawa na gaskiya", da "Melodies Negro", sun zama sananne sosai. A ƙarshe, an halicci "kayan kwaikwayon ƙarya" don ƙarin "ɗanɗano mai ban sha'awa". Marubutan sun lura cewa "Lokacin da suka gabata", "Kusa da tafkin inda willow ya nutse", da kuma "Hanyar da za ta sauka a Raccoon Hollow" an aro su ne daga waƙoƙin Afirka na Amurka.[20] An sake sha'awar waɗannan waƙoƙin ta hanyar Gwajin Port Royal (1861-), inda sabbin ma'aikatan gonar Afirka ta Amurka suka sami nasarar karɓar aikin gonakin Port Royal Island a 1861, inda aka bautar da su. Masu wa'azi a ƙasashen waje na Arewa, malamai da likitoci sun zo don kula da ci gaban Port Royal. Marubutan sun lura cewa, a shekara ta 1867, "na farko bakwai na ruhaniya a cikin wannan tarin" an "raira waƙa a coci a kai a kai".[20]

A cikin 1869, Colonel Thomas Wentworth Higginson, wanda ya umarci rundunar Afirka ta farko ta yakin basasa, 1st South Carolina Volunteers - "an tattara, an horar da shi, kuma an ajiye shi a Beaufort, South Carolina" daga 1862 zuwa 1863. Higginson ya yi sha'awar tsoffin bayi a cikin rundunarsa yana cewa, "Halin su ne a ƙarƙashin makamai wanda ya kunyata al'ummar ta gane su a matsayin maza. "Ya haɗu da sojoji kuma a cikin littafinsa na 1869 Army Life in a Black Regiment wanda ya haɗa da kalmomin zaɓaɓɓun ruhaniya. [33] A lokacin yakin basasa, Higginson ya rubuta wasu abubuwan ruhaniya da ya ji a sansanin. "Kusan dukkanin waƙoƙin su na addini ne sosai a cikin sautin su, ...kuma suna cikin ƙaramin maɓalli, duka game da kalmomi da kiɗa. "

Farawa a 1871, Fisk Jubilee Singers sun fara yawon shakatawa, suna haifar da ƙarin sha'awa ga "ruhaniya a matsayin wasan kwaikwayo na kide-kide". A shekara ta 1872, Jubilee Singers suna buga nasu littattafan waƙoƙi, wanda ya haɗa da "The Gospel Train".

  1. 1 2 Graham, Sandra Jean (2012). "Spiritual". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2225625. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved February 28, 2021.
  2. 1 2 "Background on Remember Slavery: Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade". United Nations. International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (March 25). Retrieved February 27, 2021. "The transatlantic slave trade was the largest forced migration in history, and undeniably one of the most inhumane. The extensive exodus of Africans spread to many areas of the world over a 400-year period and was unprecedented in the annals of recorded human history.
  3. 1 2 "Celebrating Black Music Month". National Museum of African American History and Culture. June 29, 2012. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Sacred music, which includes spirituals and gospel music, illustrates the central role that music plays in African American spiritual and religious life. The earliest form of black musical expression in America, spirituals were based on Christian psalms and hymns and were merged with African music styles and secular American music forms. Spirituals were originally an oral tradition and imparted Christian values while also defining the hardships of slavery.
  4. ↑ Franklin, Bruce H. (Spring 1979). "Songs of an Imprisoned People". MELUS. 6 (1): 17. doi:10.2307/467516. JSTOR 467516.
  5. 1 2 3 Nketia, J.H. Kwanbena (1978). "The Study of African and Afro-American Music". Black Perspectives in Music. 1: 9. doi:10.2307/1214119. JSTOR 1214119.
  6. 1 2 "Sweet Chariot: the story of the spirituals". The Spirituals Project. Archived from the original on July 25, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
  7. 1 2 "The Spirituals Project". University of Denver Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  8. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "LOC_ihas.200197495".
  9. ↑ Painter, Nell Irvin; Berlin, Ira (2000). "Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America". African American Review. 34 (3): 515. doi:10.2307/2901390. ISSN 1062-4783. JSTOR 2901390.
  10. ↑ Williams, Clifford. (1988). "Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807–1874". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 21 (3): 433–441. doi:10.2307/219449. JSTOR 219449.
  11. ↑ R. Rummel (1997)"Death by government". Transaction Publishers. p. 63. ISBN 1-56000-927-6
  12. ↑ Rawley, James A.; Behrendt, Stephen D. (December 2005). The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History. p. 63. ISBN 0-8032-0512-0.
  13. ↑ Cameron, Guy; Vermette, Stephen (2012). "The Role of Extreme Cold in the Failure of the San Miguel de Gualdape Colony". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. 96 (3): 291–307. ISSN 0016-8297. JSTOR 23622193.
  14. ↑ Schrag, Norm; Hilton, Anne (1987). "Review of The Kingdom of Kongo". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 20 (1): 145–147. doi:10.2307/219308. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 219308.
  15. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Yale_GLC_Context".
  16. ↑ Kirkland, Paul E. (Summer 2015). "Sorrow Songs and Self-Knowledge: The Politics of Recognition and Tragedy in W.E.B. Du Bois's Souls of Black Folk". American Political Thought. 4: 412–437. doi:10.1086/682046. S2CID 155920736.
  17. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "CSUDH_20110502".
  18. 1 2 "Spirituals". Library of Congress. The Library of Congress Celebrates the Songs of America. July 1, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "LOC_AAS_2016".
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Slave_songs_1867".
  21. ↑ "The Negro Spiritual". The Spirituals Database. April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
  22. ↑ Jones, A. M. (1954). "African Rhythm". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 24 (1): 26–47. doi:10.2307/1156732. ISSN 0001-9720. JSTOR 1156732. S2CID 245910672 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  23. ↑ "Morehouse College Glee Club: History". Retrieved 2010-11-01.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Faw, Bob (May 4, 2012). "African-American Spirituals". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. Retrieved November 20, 2018.
  25. ↑ Abernethy, Bob (August 26, 2005). "African-American Spirituals". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  26. ↑ "African-American Religion". National Humanities Center. Getting Back To You – Divining America: Religion in American History. October 2000. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Barker, Thomas P. (2015). "Spatial Dialectics". Journal of Black Studies. 46 (4): 363–383. doi:10.1177/0021934715574499. ISSN 0021-9347. S2CID 146488455. Retrieved February 28, 2021.
  28. 1 2 "African American Spirituals". spotlightonmusic.macmillanmh.com. Spotlight on music. McGraw Hill. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved March 11, 2015. A connectED program for Grades 1–8.
  29. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  30. ↑ Lambert, Frank (Winter 2002). "'I Saw the Book Talk': Slave Readings of the First Great Awakening". The Journal of African American History. 87 (1): 12–25. doi:10.1086/JAAHv87n1p12. JSTOR 1562488. S2CID 142221704.
  31. ↑ Butler, Jon (September 1982). "Enthusiasm Described and Decried: The Great Awakening as Interpretative Fiction". Journal of American History. 69 (2): 305–325. doi:10.2307/1893821. JSTOR 1893821.
  32. ↑ "History". Retrieved February 15, 2010.
  33. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Atlantic_Higginson_1867".

 

Reverend Alexander Reid ya halarci wasan kwaikwayon Fisk Jubilee Singers a 1871, kuma ya ba da shawarar cewa su kara waƙoƙi da yawa ga repertoire. Reid, wanda ya kasance mai kula a Kwalejin Spencerville a Oklahoma a yankin Choctaw Nation a cikin shekarun 1850, ya ji ma'aikata biyu da mutanen Choctaw suka bautar, - dangin Afirka-Amurka - mahaifin Wallace Willis da 'yar Minerva Willis - suna raira "waƙoƙin shuka da suka fi so" daga ƙofar gidansu da yamma. Sun koyi waƙoƙin a cikin "Mississippi a farkon ƙuruciyarsu. " Reid ya ba wa mawaƙa na Jubilee tare da kalmomin "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot", Roll, Jordan, Roll, "The Angels are Coming", "I'm a Rolling", da "Steal Away To Jesus", da sauransu da Willis da matarsa suka raira waƙa. Masu raira waƙa na Jubilee sun shahara da waƙoƙin Willis.:

Yaduwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fisk Jubilee Waƙoƙi da suka shahara da ruhaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Masu raira waƙa na Jubilee na Fisk, 1875

Mawallafin Fisk Jubilee na asali, ƙungiyar mawaƙa ta maza da mata masu yawon shakatawa na ɗalibai tara na sabuwar makarantar Fisk da aka kafa a Nashville, Tennessee waɗanda suka kasance masu aiki daga 1871 zuwa 1878, sun shahara da Negro spirituals.[1] Sunan "jubilee" yana nufin "shekarar jubilee" a cikin Tsohon Alkawari - lokacin 'yancin bayi. A ranar 9 ga Janairu, 1866, jim kadan bayan ƙarshen Yaƙin basasar Amurka (1861 zuwa 9 ga Mayu, 1865), Ƙungiyar Mishaneri ta Amurka ta kafa Jami'ar Fisk a Nashville, Tennessee, kwalejin baƙar fata na tarihi. A matsayinta na mai tara kudade a makaranta, Fisk Jubilee Singers sun yi rangadin su na farko a kan abin da ake kira yanzu Jubilee Day - 6 ga Oktoba, 1871. [1] Masu sauraro na farko sun kasance ƙananan, na gida, kuma masu shakku, amma a shekara ta 1872, sun yi a bikin zaman lafiya na duniya na Boston da kuma Fadar White House, kuma a shekara ta 1879 sun zagaya Turai.[1]

A farkon kwanakin su, Jubilee Singers ba su raira waƙoƙin bayi ba. Sheppard - wanda kuma ya kirkiro kuma ya shirya kiɗa - ya bayyana yadda waƙoƙin bayi, kamar waɗanda aka buga a cikin Waƙoƙin Bawa na 1867, da farko ba su kasance wani ɓangare na waƙoƙinsu ba saboda waƙoƙinsa, "sun kasance masu tsarki ga iyayensu, waɗanda suka yi amfani da su a cikin bautar addininsu kuma suka yi ihu a kansu". Shephard ya ce, "Sannu bayan watanni ne kawai zukatanmu suka buɗe ga tasirin waɗannan abokai kuma mun fara godiya ga kyakkyawa da ikon waƙoƙinanmu masu ban mamaki". A ƙarshe waƙoƙinku sun fara haɗa waɗannan waƙoƙoninmu.

A shekara ta 1878, ƙungiyar mawaƙan (Singers) ta watse. A shekara ta 1890 kuma, an farfaɗo da gadon da suka bari lokacin da Ella Sheppard Moore—ɗaya daga cikin asalin mambobi tara na Fisk Jubilee Singers—ta koma Fisk, ta fara horas da sabbin mawaƙan jubilee, ciki har da John Wesley Work Jr. (1871–1925).

A shekara ta 1899, shugaban Fisk University, E. M. Cravath, ya yi kira da a kafa ƙungiyar mawaƙan jubilee mai haɗa maza da mata wadda za ta riƙa yin rangadi domin wakiltar jami'ar.

Sai dai cikakkiyar ƙungiyar maza da mata ta yi tsadar da ba za a iya ci gaba da kai ta yawon waƙa ba, don haka aka maye gurbinta da ƙungiyar mawaƙa huɗu maza ta John Work II. Wannan ƙungiyar ta samu karɓuwa sosai daga jama'a, kuma daga baya ta yi jerin rikodin waƙoƙi masu matuƙar sayuwa ga kamfanonin Victor, Edison, Columbia, da Starr tsakanin shekarun 1909 zuwa 1916.

John Work Jr.—wanda kuma ake kira John Work II—ya shafe kusan shekaru talatin yana aiki a Fisk University, inda ya tattara tare da yaɗa salon waƙoƙin jubilee na asalin Fisk Jubilee Singers. A shekara ta 1901 kuma, shi da ɗan'uwansa, Frederick J. Work, sun wallafa littafin mai suna New Jubilee Songs as Sung by the Fisk Jubilee Singers, wanda ya ƙunshi sabbin waƙoƙin jubilee kamar yadda Fisk Jubilee Singers suke rerawa.

Daga 1890 zuwa 1919, "Amurkawa na Afirka sun ba da gudummawa sosai ga masana'antar rikodin a cikin shekarun da suka fara", tare da rikodin da Fisk Jubilee Singers da sauransu suka yi.

Masu raira waƙa na Hampton

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A shekara ta 1873, Hampton Singers sun kafa rukuni a Hampton, Virginia a abin da yanzu ake kira Jami'ar Hampton. Su ne rukuni na farko da suka yi "tsayayya da Jubilee Singers". Tare da Robert Nathaniel Dett (1882-1943) a matsayin mai gudanarwa har zuwa 1933, Hampton Singers "sun sami mabiya na duniya".[2]

Cibiyar Tuskegee Quartet

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An shirya Tuskegee Quartet na farko a cikin 1884 ta hanyar Booker T. Washington, wanda shi ne kuma ya kafa Cibiyar Tuskegee. Tun daga shekara ta 1881, Washington ta nace cewa duk wanda ke halartar hidimar addini ta mako-mako ya kamata ya shiga cikin waƙoƙin ruhaniya na Afirka. An kafa Quartet don "tabbatar da sha'awar Cibiyar Tuskegee". A cikin 1909 an kafa sabon quartet. Mawakin sun yi tafiya a hankali har zuwa shekarun 1940.[3] Kamar Fisk Jubilee Singers, Tuskegee Institute Singers sun raira waƙoƙi na ruhaniya a cikin salon da aka gyara.

Hadisin ruhaniya na kide-kide

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mawallafin Afirka na Amurka - Harry Burleigh, R. Nathaniel Dett, da William Dawson, sun kirkiro "sabon repertoire don matakin kide-kide" ta hanyar amfani da ilimin gargajiya na Yammacin Turai ga ruhaniya. Sun kawo ruhaniya zuwa saitunan kide-kide kuma sun jagoranci ƙarni na gaba na ƙwararrun mawaƙa na ruhaniya tun daga farkon karni na 20.

Hoton Harry T. Burleigh, 1936

Harry Burleigh's (1866-1949) - wani mawaki na gargajiya na Afirka-Amurka da baritone da aka yi a cikin saitunan kide-kide da yawa da aka buga Jubilee Songs of the United States a 1929, wanda ya sanya "ruhaniya ga mawaƙa na kide-kiye a matsayin waƙoƙin fasaha a karon farko". ::102 Burleigh ya shirya ruhaniya tare da tsari na gargajiya. Ya kuma kasance baritone, wanda ya yi a wurare da yawa na kide-kide. Ya gabatar da masu zane-zane masu horar da gargajiya, kamar Antonín Dvořák ga masu ruhaniya na Afirka. Wasu sun yi imanin cewa Dvorak ya yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar ruhaniya a cikin Symphony From the New World . Ya horar da 'yan Afirka na Afirka, kamar Marian Anderson, a matsayin mawaƙa na gargajiya. Sauran, kamar Roland Hayes da Paul Robeson sun ci gaba da gadonsa. :284[4]

Robert Nathaniel Dett a cikin 1920s

R. Nathaniel Dett (1882-1943) an san shi da shirye-shiryen da ya yi wanda ya haɗa da kiɗa da ruhun mawaƙa na Romantic na Turai tare da ruhaniya na Afirka. A shekara ta 1918, ya ce, "Muna da wannan kantin sayar da kiɗa na gargajiya - waƙoƙin bayi" amma ba zai da amfani idan ba a yi amfani da shi ba. Dole ne mu bi da ruhaniya "a irin wannan hanyar da za a iya gabatar da shi a cikin nau'in mawaƙa, a cikin ayyukan lyric da operatic, a cikin kide-kide da suites da kiɗa na salon". ::280 R. Nathaniel Dett ya kasance mai ba da shawara ga Edward Boatner (1898-1981), wani mawaki na Afirka na Amurka wanda ya rubuta shirye-shiryen kide-kide da yawa na ruhaniya.[5] Boatner da Willa A. Townsend sun buga Spirituals triumphant old and new a 1927. Boatner "ya ci gaba da muhimmancin sahihanci game da tarin da rubutun ruhaniya, amma kuma an gano shi a sarari tare da sababbin hanyoyin da aka tsara su kuma aka yi su".[4] : 102 :102

William L. Dawson (1876 - 1938), mawaƙi, darektan mawaƙa, farfesa na kiɗa, kuma Masanin kiɗa, an san shi, a tsakanin sauran nasarorin, don gabatarwa ta duniya ta Orchestra na Philadelphia na 1934 Negro Folk Symphony wanda aka sake shi tare da ƙarin rhythms na Afirka a 1952 bayan tafiyar Dawson zuwa Afirka ta Yamma. Ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun abubuwan ruhaniya shine "Ezekiel Saw the Wheel". [6] [7] –

Ruhaniya a rayuwar zamani

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Fisk Jubilee Singers sun ci gaba da kula da shahararsu a karni na 21 tare da wasan kwaikwayo na kai tsaye a wurare kamar Grand Ole Opry House a cikin 2019 a Nashville, Tennessee . A cikin 2019 Tazewell Thompson ya gabatar da wani kiɗa na cappella mai suna Jubilee, wanda kyauta ce ga Fisk Jubilee Singers .

Ruhaniya ta kasance muhimmiyar mahimmanci musamman a cikin ƙananan majami'u masu baƙar fata, sau da yawa Baptist ko Pentecostal, a cikin zurfin Kudu.[8]

Rabin ƙarshen karni na 20 ya ga sake farfado da ruhaniya. Wannan yanayin ya sami tasiri sosai daga mawaƙa da daraktocin kiɗa kamar Moses Hogan da Brazeal Dennard.

Arthur Jones ya kafa "The Spirituals Project" a Jami'ar Denver a 1999 don taimakawa wajen kiyaye saƙo da ma'anar waƙoƙin da suka ƙaura daga filayen Kudu zuwa dakunan kide-kide na Arewa.[8]

Everett McCorvey ya kafa The American Spiritual Ensemble [9] a cikin 1995, ƙungiyar kusan mawaƙa masu sana'a guda biyu waɗanda ke zagayawa suna yin ruhaniya a Amurka da ƙasashen waje. Kungiyar ta samar da CD da yawa, gami da "The Spirituals", kuma ita ce mayar da hankali ga shirin watsa shirye-shiryen jama'a. [10][11]

Asalin salo da halaye

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Halayen ruhaniya sun haɗa da ƙwarewar haɗakar muryoyi, lokaci, da kuma sautin sauti.[12]

Na ruhaniya sun kasance waƙoƙi ne da ba a haɗa su ba. Ana iya rage saurin a wasu waƙoƙi a wasu lokuta - Ritararando - kamar yadda yake a cikin "waƙoƙin makoki" da / ko nuna "kyakkyawan da haɗuwa da muryoyin".[13]

Tare da "kira kawai da amsawar hadin kai", waƙoƙi na iya haɗawa da "ƙididdigar da ke rufewa, da ƙuƙwalwar ƙuƙwalwa. "[13]

Asalin salo ya haɗa da kiɗa na Afirka, Waƙoƙin Kirista, waƙoƙi na aiki, mai kuka, . Masanin tarihi Jonathan Curiel ya kuma lura da yiwuwar tasirin daga kiɗa na Islama. A cewar wani littafin McGraw Hill don makarantar sakandare, "An raira waƙoƙi na ruhaniya a matsayin waƙoƙoƙi da waƙoƙa. Wasu ruhaniya an daidaita su a matsayin waƙoƙin aiki.[14]

Black spirituals "amfani da microtonally flatted notes, syncopation da counter-rhythms alama da hannu a cikin baƙar fata ruhaniya wasan kwaikwayo. " [2] Yana tsaye ne ga mawaƙa's striking murya murya muryar murya cewa siffofi da ihu, exclamations na kalmar "Glory! "da kuma sautin falsetto mai tsayi da tsayi".[2]

Za'a iya gano abubuwa masu yawa na ruhaniya da sauti zuwa tushen Afirka, gami da amfani da sikelin pentatonic (maɓallan baki akan piano).

A cikin littafinsa na 1954 Studies in African Music, Arthur Morris Jones (1889-1980), mai wa'azi a ƙasashen waje kuma masanin ilimin kabilanci, ya ce a cikin kiɗa na Afirka, "mai rikitarwa na bambancin alamu" ya kasance tsakiya ga kiɗa na Afrika, kamar yadda aka kimanta jituwa a cikin kiɗan Turai. Jones ya bayyana drum shine mafi girman furcin rhythms, amma kuma ana iya samar da su ta hanyar bugawa da hannu, bugawa da sanda, rattles, da kuma "bugawa da pestles a cikin turmi". : 26 [Lura 1]

A tsawon lokaci "al'adar kide-kide ta samo asali," [10] wanda ya haɗa da aikin Hampton Singers a ƙarƙashin mawaƙa R. Nathaniel Dett.[2]

A cikin karni na 20, mawaƙa, kamar su Moses Hogan, Roland Carter, Jester Hairston, Brazeal Dennard da Wendell Whalum sun canza "shirye-shiryen cappella na ruhaniya don mawaƙa" fiye da "tushen waƙoƙin gargajiya na gargajiya".[2]

Kira da amsawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Farfesa na Jami'ar Denver, Arthur Jones, wanda ya kafa "The Spirituals Project a cikin 1998, daga makarantar Lamont ta jami'a, ya bayyana yadda za a iya gabatar da kalmomin da aka ƙayyade a cikin kira da amsawa, wanda kawai masu hankali da ke sane da saƙon da aka ɓoye zasu iya fahimta. : 51, 55 Ya bayyana "abubuwan ruhaniya da suka riga sun kasance" an yi amfani da su "a ɓoye" a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin da mutane suka yi amfani da shi a cikin "gwagwarmayar da yawa don 'yanci. "[15]:51, 55[10]

Waƙoƙin baƙin ciki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Waƙoƙin bayi an kira su "Waƙoƙin Gobe" ta W.E.B. Du Bois a cikin littafinsa, littafin 1903, The Souls of Black Folk . [16] Waƙoƙin baƙin ciki na ruhaniya ne, kamar, "Wani lokaci Ina Jin Kamar Yaro marar Uwa", da kuma "Babu Wanda Ya San Matsalar da Na gani" - waƙoƙin da ke da ƙarfi da baƙin ciki - ana rera su a hankali.[2]

Waƙoƙin Jubilee

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fisk Jubilee Singers sun yi nasara sosai har aka halicci wasu kungiyoyi don yin irin wannan kiɗa.[17] A tsawon lokaci an yi amfani da kalmar "jubilee" don komawa ga wasu ƙungiyoyi waɗanda suka raira waƙoƙin rukunin asali.[17] A farkon shekarun 1900 mawaƙa na jubilee sun kuma ambaci mawaƙa waɗanda suka yi waƙoƙin bishara, da waƙoƙi da na ruhaniya.[17] Misalan waɗannan ƙungiyoyin farkon ƙarni na sha tara sun haɗa da Norfolk Jubilee Quartet, Utica Jubilee Singers, da Tuskegee Institute Singers . [17]

Jubilee songs, also known as "camp meeting songs," such as and "Fare Ye Well" and "Rocky my soul in the bosom of Abraham" are fast-paced, "rhythmic and often syncopated".[2] Spiritual songs which looked forward to a time of future happiness, or deliverance from tribulation, were often known as 'jubilees.[ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span>]

A wasu majami'u, kamar cocin Pentecostal a cikin 1910s da 1920s a New Orleans, babu wani kwayar halitta ko mawaƙa kuma kiɗa ya fi ƙarfi, ya fi ƙanƙanta kuma ya haɗa da saurin ruhaniya da ake kira "jubilees". Sun "yi amfani da drum, cymbal, tambourine, da triangle na ƙarfe. Kowa a can ya raira waƙa, kuma sun yi bulala da ƙafafunsu, kuma sun raira waƙa tare da dukkan jikinsu. Suna da bugun, rhythm da muka riƙe daga kwanakin bautar, kuma kiɗan su yana da ƙarfi da bayyanawa. "[18]:52–53

Waƙoƙin 'yanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Frederick Douglass

Frederick Douglass, wani abolitionist kuma tsohon bawa ya ce waƙoƙin bayi sun farka shi ga halin rashin mutunci na bautar, "Kamarwa kawai, har ma yanzu, yana wahalar ruhuna, kuma yayin da nake rubuta waɗannan layin, hawaye na suna fadowa. Ga waɗancan waƙoƙin na gano ra'ayoyi na farko game da halin rashin mutunci na bautar. Ba zan iya kawar da wannan ra'ayi ba. Wadannan waƙoƙin har yanzu suna bin ni, don zurfafa ƙiyayya da bautar, da kuma hanzarta jinƙai ga 'yan'uwana da ke cikin dangantaka.[19]

A cikin 2017 PBS Newshour, ɓangaren da ake kira "Singing in Slavery: Songs of Survival, Songs of Freedom" ya ce, yayin da "ba a tabbatar da shi ba, an yi imani" - cewa "Wade in the Water" yana ɗaya daga cikin waƙoƙin da ke da alaƙa da Underground Railroad - cibiyar sadarwa ta hanyoyin sirri da gidaje masu aminci da bayi a Amurka ke amfani da su don neman 'yanci. gargadi bayi su fita daga hanya kuma su shiga cikin ruwa don hana karnuka - waɗanda masu bautar ke amfani da su - daga bin hanyarsu.[20] : 18 :18

Jones ya bayyana yadda a cikin shekarun Railroad na karkashin kasa "an riga an yi amfani da ruhaniya" "a ɓoye" a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin da mutane suka yi amfani da su a cikin "gwagwarmayar da aka yi amfani da ita don 'yanci". : 51, 55 Ya bayyana yadda za a iya gabatar da kalmomin da aka ƙayyade a cikin kira da amsawa, wanda kawai masu ciki suka san saƙon da aka ɓoye. : 51, 55 :51, 55

Wani hadin gwiwa da Maryland Public Television, Maryland Historical Society, da Maryland State Archives suka yi mai taken "Hanyar zuwa 'Yanci: Maryland da Jirgin Ruwa na Ƙasa" sun haɗa da wani sashi kan yadda waƙoƙin da bayi da yawa suka sani suna da "ma'anar sirri" cewa za a iya amfani da su don nuna abubuwa da yawa. " An yi imanin cewa wasu waƙoƙi sun ƙunshi bayyane umarni ga bayi masu gudu game da yadda za a guje wa kamawa da kuma hanyar da za a bi don samun nasarar samun 'yanci.[21][22] Sauran ruhaniya waɗanda wasu suka yi imanin suna da saƙonnin da aka ƙayyade sun haɗa da "The Gospel Train", "Song of the Free", da kuma "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot", "Bollow the Drinking Gourd".[23] James Kelley a cikin labarinsa na 2008 ya ce akwai rashin tushe don tabbatar da cewa akwai saƙo mai lamba a cikin "Bayan Gourd mai shan giya".[24][25][26]

Wata kasida ta 1953 ta Sterling Brown ta ce akwai malamai waɗanda "sun yi imani da cewa lokacin da Negro ya raira waƙar 'yanci, yana nufin kawai abin da fararen ke nufi, wato' yanci daga zunubi. " [27] Brown ya ce, ga bautar ɗan' yanci zai ma'anar' yanci ካብ bautar. Lokacin da bawa ya raira waƙa, "An tsawata mini, an raina ni; an yi ni da wuya ka yi ka ba'a," ba wai kawai yana nufin 'yanci daga zunubi ba amma daga bautar jiki.[27] Brown ya ambaci Douglass, yana cewa Kan'ana Tab tsaye ne ga Kanada; kuma "a sama da ɓoyayyen satire waƙoƙin ma sun kasance inabi don sadarwa. Harriet Tubman, kanta da ake kira Musa na mutanenta, ta gaya mana cewa "Ku tafi Musa" an tsara shi a cikin jihohin bayi, amma duk da haka mutane sun raira shi".[27][27]

Wani labarin Library of Congress na 2016 ya ce waƙoƙin Freedom da waƙoƙun zanga-zanga, kamar su, Bob Marley's "Redemption Song" da Billy Bragg's "Sing their souls back home'" sun dogara ne akan ruhaniya na Afirka ta Amirka, kuma hakan ya zama tushen kiɗa na kiran dimokuradiyya a duniya.[2] Yawancin Waƙoƙin 'yanci, kamar su "Oh, Freedom!" da "Eyes on the Prize," waɗanda suka bayyana ƙungiyar kare hakkin bil'adama (1954-1968) an daidaita su daga wasu daga cikin ruhaniya na Afirka na farko. Wasu kamar su, "Za mu shawo kan," sun haɗu da waƙar bishara "Zan shawo kan Wata rana" tare da ruhaniya "Zan yi daidai"[2][28]

A cikin tarihin 1927, The American Songbag, wanda Carl Sandburg (1878-1967), mawaki da masanin gargajiya na Amurka ya tattara, ya rubuta cewa "Ain' Go'n' to Study War No Mo'" misali ne na ruhaniya wanda 'yan Afirka na Amurka suka yi amfani da shi azaman waƙoƙin aiki. Ya ce, "Yayin da mawaƙa ke ci gaba, awa da awa, suna kawo layi daga wasu ruhaniya da yawa. Saurin yana da mahimmanci. Ba a taɓa yin farin ciki ba, duk da haka yana da ƙarfi a cikin motsi, tabbas game da bugun sa. Ayyukan waƙoƙi ne na ruhaniya. An furta War "waw" ko " kamar dai don yin rhyme tare da "saw". "Doki shine "hawss. "Kuma haka tare da tattalin arzikin Negro na kalmomi a cikin magana da waƙa. " : 480-481:480–481

Masu kuka a filin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kiɗa na filin, wanda aka fi sani da kiɗa na filin ruwa, wani nau'i ne na farko na kiɗa na Afirka ta Amirka, wanda aka bayyana a karni na 19. Mai kuka a filin sun kafa tushe ga blues, ruhaniya, kuma a ƙarshe rhythm da blues. Masu kuka a filin, masu kuka da masu kuka na bayi kuma daga baya masu cin gashin kansu da ke aiki a filayen auduga, ƙungiyoyin kurkuku, ƙungiyoyin jirgin ƙasa (masu rawa) ko sansanin turpentine sune farkon kira da amsawa masu ruhaniya na Afirka da kiɗa na bishara, ga ƙungiyoyin jug, minstrel shows, piano, kuma a ƙarshe ga blues, rhythm da blues, jazz da kiɗa ta Afirka gabaɗaya.[29]

Abubuwan da aka samo asali

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Blues da waƙoƙin bishara sun samo asali ne daga ruhaniya na Afirka.

Rashin haske

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A farkon shekarun 1960, Blues People by Amiri Baraka - sunan da aka zaba ga LeRoi Jones (1934-2014) - ya ba da tarihin 'yan Afirka ta hanyar kiɗan su, farawa da ruhaniya zuwa blues. A shekara ta 1967, Jones ya zama babban mai magana da yawun masu ilimi na Afirka, ya maye gurbin James Baldwin, bisa ga bita na 1965 na Blues People.

The blues form originated in the 1860s in the Deep South—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Texas—states that were most dependent on the slave labor on plantations and that held the largest number of enslaved people.[30] The form was collectively developed by generations and communities of enslaved African Americans starting as "unaccompanied work-songs of the plantation culture".[31] The historical roots of the blues have been traced farther back to West African sources by scholars such as Paul Oliver and Gerhard Kubik—with elements such as the "responsorial 'leader-and-chorus' form".[31]:10–13 The blues became the "most extensively recorded of all traditional music types" and since the "early 1960s,—the "most important single influence on the development of Western popular music,"[31] and are now widespread.:131

Mamie Smith

Lokacin da Mamie Smith ta Agusta 10, 1920, Okeh rikodin mawaƙa Perry Bradford's (1893-1970) New York City Crazy Blues ya zama nasarar kasuwanci, ya buɗe kasuwar rikodin kasuwanci don kiɗa ga masu sauraron Afirka na Afirka. [32] Kafin nasarar wannan rikodin, kamfanonin rikodin kasuwanci sun nuna mawaƙa na Afirka da ba na Afirka ba suna wasa da kiɗa na Afirka. : 343-345 Bradford's African-American band, the Jazz Hounds, "ya buga rayuwa, improvised", "unpredictable", "breakneck" kiɗa wanda ya kasance "bambanci mai ban sha'awa ga maɓallin maɓallin blues da fararen masu zane-zane suka fassara a cikin 1910s".[33]

Wani littafi na 1976, Stomping the Blues na Albert Murray, ya ce wannan hulɗa tsakanin Kiristanci da ruhaniya na Afirka ya faru ne kawai a Amurka. 'Yan Afirka da suka tuba zuwa Kristanci a wasu sassan duniya, har ma a Caribbean da Latin Amurka, ba su samo asali daga wannan nau'i ba.

Shahararren mawaƙin bishara Mahalia Jackson (1911-1972) yana ɗaya daga cikin fitattun masu kare waƙoƙin bishara. Ta ce, "Blues sune waƙoƙin fidda rai. Waƙoƙin Linjila sune waƙoƙi na bege. Lokacin da ka raira waƙar bishara kuna jin cewa akwai magani ga abin da ba daidai ba. " [18]: 52 Horace Clarence Boyer ya gano fitowar kiɗa na Linjila a matsayin "style na kiɗa mai zurfi" zuwa Deep South a 1906 a cikin majami'u na Pentecostal. Ta hanyar Babban ƙaura na Ba'amurke na Afirka daga kudu zuwa arewa, musamman a cikin shekarun 1930, waƙoƙin bishara sun shiga "babban al'adun gargajiya na Amurka". Waƙoƙin Bishara sun kasance masu tasowa daga 1945 zuwa 1955 - "Golden Age of Gospel".

Gospel Quartets, kamar Golden Gate Quartet">Golden Jubilee Quartet da Golden Gate Quartet, sun canza salon ruhaniya tare da sababbin su, salon jubilee wanda ya haɗa da sababbin jituwa, haɗin kai tare da shirye-shiryen sophisticated.[17] Misali na kiɗan su shine wasan kwaikwayon "Oh, Jonah!" [17] [2] The Golden Gate Quartet - waɗanda suka kasance masu aiki daga 1934 zuwa ƙarshen 1940s - sun yi a cikin kide-kide Daga Ruhaniya zuwa Swing a Carnegie Hall a ƙarshen 1930s.[34] Zora Neale Hurston, a cikin littafinta na 1938 The Sanctified Church, ta soki abin da ta kira "Glee Club style" na Fisk Jubilee Singers, Tuskegee Institute Quartet, da Hampton Singers a cikin shekarun 1930. Ta ce suna amfani da salon" wanda "ya cika da dabarun mawaƙa" waɗanda ba su da gaskiya ga asalinsu a cikin asalin ruhaniya na Afirka ta Amirka. Ana iya samun ainihin ruhaniya ne kawai a cikin "cocin Negro mara kyau".

Fararen ruhaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

In his 1938 book, White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands, Vanderbilt University's George Pullen Jackson in Nashville drew attention to the existence of a white spiritual genre which differed in many aspects from African American spirituals.[2] The core of Jackson's argument, however, supported by many musical examples, is that African-American spirituals draw heavily on textual and melodic elements found in white hymns and spiritual songs. Jackson extended the term "spirituals" to a wider range of folk hymnody but this does not appear to have been widespread usage previously. The term, however, has often been broadened to include subsequent arrangements into more standard European-American hymnodic styles, and to include post-emancipation songs with stylistic similarities to the original African American spirituals.[ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2026)">citation needed</span>]

Masanin tarihi Sylviane Diouf da masanin ilimin kabilanci Gerhard Kubik sun gano kiɗan Islama a matsayin tasiri. Diouf ya lura da kamanceceniya tsakanin kiran Islama ga addu'a (wanda ya samo asali ne daga Bilal ibn Rabah, sanannen Musulmi na Afirka na Abyssinian a farkon karni na 7) da kuma kiɗa na filin na ƙarni na 19, yana lura cewa duka biyu suna da irin waɗannan kalmomin da ke yabon Allah, waƙoƙi, canje-canje na lura, "kalmomin da ke da alama suna girgiza" a cikin muryoyin murya, canje-canjen kiɗa, da sautin hanci. Ta danganta asalin kiɗa na filin ga bayi Musulmai na Afirka waɗanda suka kai kimanin kashi 30% na bayi na Afirka a Amurka. A cewar Kubik, "hanyar murya ta mawaƙa da yawa da ke amfani da melisma, wavy intonation, da sauransu al'adun wannan babban yankin na Yammacin Afirka ne wanda ke hulɗa da duniyar Larabci-Islama ta Maghreb tun daga ƙarni na bakwai da na takwas. " [35] Akwai musamman muhimmiyar giciye ta Sahara tsakanin al'adun kiɗa na Maghreb da Sahel. [36][36]

Akwai bambanci a cikin kiɗa da yawancin bayi na Sahelian Musulmai da kuma yawancin bayi wadanda ba Musulmai ba daga gabar tekun Yammacin Afirka da Afirka ta Tsakiya. Bayin Musulmi na Sahelian gabaɗaya sun fi son iska da kayan kirtani da kuma raira waƙa, yayin da bayin da ba Musulmai ba gabaɗaya suka fi son drum da waƙoƙin rukuni. Masu mallakar shuke-shuke waɗanda suka ji tsoron tawaye sun haramta karafa da waƙoƙin rukuni, amma sun ba da damar bayi na Sahelian su ci gaba da raira waƙa da kunna kayan iska da igiya, waɗanda masu mallakar shuka suka sami ƙarancin barazana. A cewar Curiel kayan kida na igiya waɗannan kayan kida na iya samun farkon banjo. Yayinda aka matsa wa mutane da yawa su tuba zuwa Kiristanci, an ba da izinin bayi na Sahelian su kula da al'adun kiɗa, suna daidaita ƙwarewarsu zuwa kayan kida kamar fiddle da guitar. An kuma ba wasu damar yin wasan kwaikwayo ga masu mallakar bayi, suna ba da izinin ƙaurawar kiɗan su a fadin Kudancin Kudancin.[36]

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

  1. 1 2 3 "Our History". Fisk Jubilee Singers. 2006. Archived from the original on March 21, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "African American Spirituals". Library of Congress. July 1, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  3. ↑ "Choir History". Tuskegee University. Archived from the original on 2021-03-03. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  4. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "AMRC_Glover_1998".
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Southern_1997".
  6. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  7. ↑ Dawson, William Levi (July 24, 2006). "William Levi Dawson papers, 1903–1990". findingaids.library.emory.edu.
  8. 1 2 "African American Spirituals (unable to access title, author, date, live url)". The Salt Lake Tribune.
  9. ↑ "ASE". American Spiritual Ensemble.
  10. 1 2 3 "African American Spirituals". Singers: Primarily a capela. Retrieved February 25, 2021.www.singers.com
  11. ↑ "KET Documentaries | American Spiritual Ensemble | KET". October 19, 2023 – via video.ket.org.
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "PBS_Faw_20120504".
  13. 1 2 Graham, Sandra Jean (May 2012). "There Breathes a Hope: The Legacy of John Work II and His Fisk Jubilee Quartet, 1909–1916". Journal of the Society for American Music. 6 (2): 253–255. doi:10.1017/S1752196312000107. ISSN 1752-1971. S2CID 190735108. Retrieved February 23, 2021.
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "McGrawHill_AAS".
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Jones_1993".
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "APT_Kirkland_2015".
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ginell, Cary. "Golden Gate Quartet: Gospel Train (1937–1942)". Retrieved February 25, 2021.
  18. 1 2 Empty citation (help)
  19. ↑ Frederick Douglass (1855). "My Bondage and My Freedom". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "PBS_Berry_20170123".
  21. ↑ Ponomarenko, John (2001). "Understanding pages: coded". Soul Review. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
  22. ↑ "The Official Site of the Negro Spirituals, antique Gospel Music". www.negrospirituals.com.
  23. ↑ ""Follow the Drinking Gourd"—African American Spiritual". www.eduplace.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2026-06-03.
  24. ↑ Kelley, James (April 2008). "Song, Story, or History: Resisting Claims of a Coded Message in the African American Spiritual "Follow the Drinking Gourd"". The Journal of Popular Culture. 41 (2): 262–280. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2008.00502.x. Kelley said that the 1928 popular account by H.B. Parks was implausible.
  25. ↑ Bresler, Joel. "Follow the Drinking Gourd: A Cultural History". Retrieved May 5, 2008.
  26. ↑ "About the African-American Spiritual". Charleston Spiritual Ensemble. August 4, 2012. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved November 20, 2018.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Brown, Sterling Allen (Winter 1953). "Negro Folk Expression: Spirituals, Seculars, Ballads and Work Songs". University of Illinois, Department of English. Archived from the original on 2015-02-08. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
  28. ↑ "Wade in the Water". University Libraries at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Music Library UT Song Index.
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "shaw".
  30. ↑ "The Historical Roots of Blues Music". African American Intellectual History Society. May 9, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2020.
  31. 1 2 3 Oliver, Paul. "Blues". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  32. ↑ Komara, Ed (2005). ""Crazy Blues"—Mamie Smith (1920) – Added to the National Registry: 2005" (PDF). Library of Congress. Retrieved August 9, 2020.
  33. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "NYT_Brooks_20200810".
  34. ↑ "Oh Jonah!". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
  35. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Curiel".
  36. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Tottoli".

Bayani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

  

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