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Rumancin Afirka

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Rumancin Afirka
Lamban rijistar harshe
ISO 639-3 –

Runancin Afirka ko African Romance, African Latin ko Afroromance a Turance wani harshen Rumawa ne wanda ya ƙare wanda aka yi magana a larduna daban-daban na Roman Afirka ta Roma a ƙarƙashin Daular Romawa ta baya da jihohin da suka gaji bayan Roman a yankin, gami da Masarautar Vandal, Daular Byzantine ta Afirka da kuma Masarautar Berber Mauro-Roman. Ba a tabbatar da Romanci na Afirka sosai ba saboda galibi yare ne da ake magana da shi.[1] Akwai ɗan shakku, duk da haka, cewa a farkon ƙarni na 3 AD, an kafa wasu nau'ikan larduna na Latin a Afirka.[2]

Bayan nasarar da Umayyad Caliphate ya ci Arewacin Afirka a cikin 709 AD, wannan yaren ya tsira har zuwa karni na 12 a wurare daban-daban a bakin tekun Arewacin Afirka da bakin tekun da ke kusa, tare da shaidar cewa yana iya ci gaba har zuwa karni ya 14, [1] kuma mai yiwuwa ma da karni na 15, [2] ko daga baya [3] a wasu yankuna na ciki.

Tarihi

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Fossa regia (a cikin ruwan hoda) ya nuna iyakar iyaka tsakanin lardin Afirka da Numidia.

An shirya lardin Romawa na Afirka a cikin 146 BC bayan da aka ci Carthage a Yaƙin Punic na Uku . Birnin Carthage, wanda aka rushe bayan yakin, an sake gina shi a lokacin mulkin kama-karya na Julius Kaisar a matsayin Mulkin mallaka na Romawa, kuma a ƙarni na 1, ya girma ya zama birni na huɗu mafi girma a daular, tare da yawan jama'a sama da 100,000.Samfuri:Efn-ua Fossa regia muhimmiyar iyaka ce a Arewacin Afirka, da farko ta raba yankin Carthaginian da Romawa suka mamaye daga Numidia, kuma tana iya zama iyakar al'adu da ke nuna Romanization.[4][5]

A lokacin Daular Romawa, lardin ya zama mai yawan jama'a da wadata kuma Carthage ita ce birni na biyu mafi girma da ke magana da Latin a Daular. Latin, duk da haka, yafi yawan magana ce ta birane da bakin teku. An ci gaba da magana da Punic na Carthaginian a cikin gida da yankunan karkara har zuwa tsakiyar karni na 5, amma kuma a cikin birane.[6] Wataƙila ana magana da yarukan Berber a wasu yankuna.

stelae na jana'izar ya ba da labarin Romanization na fasaha da addini a Arewacin Afirka. [7] Manyan bambance-bambance, duk da haka, sun kasance a cikin shiga da tsira da yarukan Latin, Punic da Berber.[8] Wadannan sun nuna bambance-bambance na yanki: Neo-Punic yana da farfadowa a Tripolitania, a kusa da Hippo Regius akwai tarin rubutun Libya [bayani da ake buƙata], yayin da a cikin yankunan tsaunuka na Kabylie da Aures, Latin ya kasance kaɗan, kodayake ba ya nan.[8]Samfuri:Fix-span

Ƙabilar Vandal ta Jamus ta mamaye Afirka sama da ƙarni guda, tsakanin 429 da 534 AD, lokacin da Sarkin sarakuna na Byzantine Justinian I ya sake mamaye lardin. Ba a san canje-canjen da suka faru a cikin harshen Latin a wannan lokacin ba. Littattafan Latin, duk da haka, an kiyaye su a matsayi mai girma, kamar yadda aka gani a cikin shayari na Latin na marubucin Afirka Corippus . Yankin da ke kusa da Carthage ya kasance yana magana da cikakken Latin har zuwa zuwan Larabawa.

Asalin da ci gaba

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Wani rubutu daga ɗayan ƙofofin gidan wasan kwaikwayo a Leptis Magna, yana nuna cewa Latin da Punic sun kasance tare a Arewacin Afirka na ƙarni.

Kamar dukkan harsunan Romance, Roman na Afirka ya fito ne daga Vulgar Latin, wanda ba daidai ba ne (ba kamar Latin na gargajiya ba) na harshen Latin, wanda sojoji da 'yan kasuwa ke magana a duk faɗin Daular Roma. Tare da fadada daular, mazauna yankuna daban-daban da ke karkashin ikon Romawa a Arewacin Afirka sun fara magana da Vulgar Latin. Latin da zuriyarsa ana magana da su a Lardin Afirka bayan Yaƙe-yaƙe na Punic, lokacin da Romawa suka ci yankin. Magana Latin, da rubutun Latin sun bunkasa yayin da ake amfani da Punic.[9] An zana rubutun Harsuna Biyu, wasu daga cikinsu suna nuna gabatarwar Cibiyoyin Romawa zuwa Afirka, ta amfani da sababbin maganganun Punic.[9]

Latin, sannan kuma wasu bambancin Romance na shi, an yi magana da shi ta tsararraki na masu magana, kusan ƙarni goma sha biyar.[2] Wannan ya nuna ta hanyar masu magana da Afirka na Afirka na Romance waɗanda suka ci gaba da ƙirƙirar rubutun Latin har zuwa farkon rabin karni na 11.[2] Shaida ga nau'ikan Romance da aka yi magana wanda ya samo asali daga Latin ya ci gaba a yankunan karkara na Tunisiya - watakila har zuwa shekaru ashirin da suka gabata na karni na 15 a wasu tushe.[2]

A ƙarshen karni na 19 da farkon karni na 20, yiwuwar wanzuwar Latin 'Yan Afirka ya kasance mai kawo rigima, tare da muhawara game da wanzuwar Africitas a matsayin yaren Afirka na Latin.[10] A cikin 1882, masanin daga]-linkid="195" href="./Germany" id="mwug" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Germany">Jamusanci Karl Sittl [de] [de] ya yi amfani da kayan da ba su da tabbaci don gabatar da siffofi na musamman ga Latin a Afirka.[10] Wilhelm Kroll ya kai hari kan wannan shaidar da ba ta tabbatar da ita ba a cikin 1897, kuma Madeline D. Brock ya sake kaiwa hari a cikin 1911. [11][12] Brock ya kai ga tabbatar da cewa "Latin Afirka ba ta da 'yanci daga lardin", kuma Latin na Afirka shine "Latin na wani lokaci maimakon na ƙasa". [12][12] Wannan ra'ayi ya canza a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, tare da masu ilimin harshe na zamani da ke zuwa har zuwa cewa Latin na Afirka "ba ta da' yanci daga lardin" kuma cewa, saboda nesa da sassan Afirka, akwai "watakila yawancin nau'ikan Latin, maimakon Latin na Afirka ɗaya".[13] Sauran masu bincike sun yi imanin cewa siffofi na musamman ga Latin na Afirka sun wanzu, amma "ba za a iya samun su a inda Sittl ya nemi shi ba".[13]

Rubutun ƙarni na biyar AD a taron Leptis Magna, Libya.

Duk da yake a matsayin harshe na Afirka Romance ya ƙare, akwai wasu shaidu na bambancin yanki a cikin Latin na Afirka wanda ke taimakawa sake gina wasu siffofinta.[14] An riga an lura da wasu shaidu na tarihi game da siffofin phonetic da lexical na Afri a zamanin d ̄ a. Pliny ya lura da yadda ake kiran ganuwar a Afirka da Spain formacei, ko "ganuwar da aka tsara, saboda an yi su ne ta hanyar yin su ta hanyar yin fakiti a cikin firam da aka kewaye tsakanin allon biyu, ɗaya a kowane gefe".[15] Nonius Marcellus, masanin ilimin Roman, ya ba da ƙarin bayani, idan ba a tabbatar da shi ba, shaidar game da ƙamus da yiwuwar "Africanisms".[10]Samfuri:Efn-ua A cikin Historia Augusta, an ce Sarkin sarakuna na Arewacin Afirka Septimius Severus ya riƙe harshen Afirka har zuwa tsufa.Samfuri:Efn-ua Binciken da aka yi kwanan nan yana mai da hankali kan tarin matani na wallafe-wallafen, kasancewar rubuce-rubucen wallafe-rubuce ne da marubuta na Afirka da wadanda ba na Afirka ba suka rubuta.[13] Wadannan suna nuna wanzuwar furcin Afirka na Latin, sannan suna ci gaba da nazarin kayan ƙamus da aka samo daga tushen wallafe-wallafen, kamar matani masu amfani da ostraca, daga al'ummomin Afirka da yawa, wato marubutan soja, masu mallakar ƙasa da likitoci.[13]

Masanin ilimin Romance James Noel Adams ya lissafa wasu yiwuwar Afirka da aka samu a cikin wannan tarin wallafe-wallafen Latin.[10] Biyu ne kawai ke nufin gine-ginen da aka samu a Sittl, tare da sauran misalai da suka samo asali daga matani na likita, wasu ostraca da sauran tushen da ba na gargajiya ba.[10][10] Ana iya lura da nau'ikan fasalulluka na yanki guda biyu. Na farko sune kalmomin aro daga harshe mai mahimmanci, kamar haka lamarin yake tare da Burtaniya. A cikin Latin na Afirka, wannan tushe shine Punic . Yaren Afirka ya haɗa da kalmomi kamar ginga don "henbane", boba don "mallow," Girba don "mortar" da gelela don jikin ciki na gourd.[14] Na biyu yana nufin amfani da kalmomin Latin tare da wasu ma'anoni da ba a samu a wasu wurare ba, ko kuma a cikin iyakantaccen mahallin. Musamman bayanin kula shine amfani da kalmar Romanci na Afirka na kalmar rostrum don "Bayu" maimakon ma'anar asali a cikin Latin, wanda shine "beak", da kuma Baiae don "baths" kasancewa marigayi Latin kuma musamman ma Afirka daga sunan wuri Baiae.[10][10] Pullus ma'anar "kwakin" ko "kwakilin", mai yiwuwa yarukan Berber ne suka karɓa daga Afirka Romance, don amfani maimakon Latin gallus.[10] Kalmar da ba a fahimta ba ta asali ana ganin an yi amfani da ita azaman ƙwarewar likitancin Afirka da ta shafi ruwan inabi mai zaki maimakon Latin passum ko mustum.[10] Latin don inabi, al'ada ba a tantance shi ba (acinis), namiji (acinus) ko neuter (acinum), a cikin wasu kafofin Latin na Afirka sun canza zuwa acina na mata.[10] Sauran misalai sun Yara da amfani da pala a matsayin kwatanci don kafada; centenarium, wanda ke faruwa ne kawai a cikin Albertini Tablets kuma yana iya nufin "granary"; da kuma infantilisms kamar dida, wanda a bayyane yake yana nufin "mace / hanci" ko "mai laushi". [10][10] Wasu 'yan kalmomin aro na Latin na Afirka daga Punic, kamar su Matta ("mat da aka yi da rushes", daga abin da ya samo Turanci "mat") da Berber, kamar Buddha ("cattail") suma sun bazu cikin amfani da Latin gaba ɗaya, wannan na ƙarshe har ma ya kawar da asalin Latin Ulva.[16]

Dukkanin 'yan Afirka, kamar Augustine na Hippo da masanin ilimin lissafi Pompeius, da kuma wadanda ba' yan Afirka ba, kamar Consentius da Jerome, sun rubuta a kan siffofin Afirka, wasu a takamaiman kalmomi.[10] Lalle ne, a cikin De Ordine, wanda aka rubuta a ƙarshen 386, Augustine ya yi tsokaci game da yadda Italiyanci ke sukar sa saboda furcin, yayin da shi da kansa sau da yawa ya sami kuskuren su.[10] Duk da yake malaman zamani na iya nuna shakku game da fassarar ko daidaito na wasu daga cikin waɗannan rubuce-rubucen, suna jayayya cewa Latin na Afirka dole ne ya kasance mai banbanci don yin tattaunawa mai yawa.[10]

Bacewar harshe a matsayin harshen yau da kullum

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Exarchate of Africa a cikin Daular Byzantine bayan dawo da ikon Justinian.

Kafin mamayar Larabawa a shekarun 696 zuwa 705 AD, wani harshe na Romance mai yiwuwa yana tare da harsunan Berber a yankin.[17] Kalman aro daga Romance na Arewa maso Yammacin Afirka zuwa Berber ana samu, yawanci a siffar accusative: misalan sun haɗa da atmun ("katangar jurmi") daga temonem.[17]

Bayan mamayar, sai ya zama da wuya a san makomar Romance na Afirka. Gwamnatin Umayyad da farko ta ci gaba da amfani da Latin na cikin gida a kan kudin da aka buga daga Carthage da Kairouan a farkon karni na 7, inda aka rubuta kalmomin Musulunci a cikin Latin kamar D[e]us tu[us] D[e]us et a[li]us non e[st] ("Allah shine Allahnku, kuma babu wani") wanda ya kasance nau'in shahada, ko kalmar shaidar Musulunci.[18]

Conant ya bayar da shawarar cewa Romance na Afirka na yau da kullum na iya taimaka wajen musayar diflomasiyya tsakanin Charlemagne da masarautar Aghlabid, inda aka fi kira da sunan da Faransawa suka bayar wato Fossatum (Latin don katanga) wanda a yau ake kira Fusātū.[19]

Latin na Afirka ya zama tarihi bayan Larabci ya zama harshen gwamnati na farko, amma har yanzu yana wanzuwa har zuwan kabilar Banu Hilal a karni na 11 kuma watakila har zuwa farkon karni na 14.[20] Ana jin sa a wasu sassan gabar Afirka har zuwa karni na 12,[21] inda ya bar tasiri mai karfi a kan Larabcin Arewa maso Yammacin Afirka, musamman na yankin arewa maso yammacin Maroko.[17]

Taswira mai nuna baƙin yankunan da aka fi sani da Romania submersa, wato yankunan Romawa ko tsoffin yankunan Romawa inda nau’o’in Latin suka bace, ciki har da Arewacin Afirka.

A tsakanin Berber na Ifriqiya, Romance na Afirka yana da alaƙa da Kiristanci, wanda ya ci gaba da wanzuwa a Arewacin Afirka (banda Masar) har zuwa karni na 14.[22] Makabartu na Kiristoci da aka tono a Kairouan daga shekarar 945 zuwa 1046 da a Áin Zára da En Ngila a Tripolitania kafin karni na 10 suna dauke da rubuce-rubucen Latin da ke nuna cigaba da amfani da Latin na addini har cikin mulkin Musulunci; kaburbura da sunayen Kiristoci kamar Peter, John, Maria, Irene, Isidore, Speratus, Boniface da Faustinus suna dauke da jimloli kamar "requiem aeternam det tibi Dominus et lux perpetua luceat tibi" ("Ubangiji ya baku hutun har abada kuma haske na dindindin ya haskaka gareku") ko Deus Sabaoth daga waƙar Sanctus. Wani misali yana nuna amfani da kalandar Kirista da ta Hijira, inda aka ce mamacin ya mutu a shekarar Anno Domini 1007 ko 397 annorum infidelium ("Shekarar kafirai").[23]

Akwai kuma wani Vetus Latina Psalter a St Catherine's Monastery daga shekarar 1230, wanda aka dade ana danganta shi da asalinsa daga Afirka saboda amfani da rubuce-rubucen Afirka da kalandar tsarkaka.[24] Psalter ɗin na ɗauke da haruffan da suka dace da Romance/Latin na Afirka, kamar saka harafin i a farkon kalma (prothetic i), amfani da b maimakon v da kuma canza ƙarewar kalmomin na Latin zuwa wasu sunayen Semitic marasa canzawa.[25] Rubutaccen Latin ya ci gaba da kasancewa harshen mu'amala tsakanin Bishop na Afirka da Paparoma har zuwa sakon karshe tsakanin Pope Gregory VII da Cyriacus, Archbishop na Carthage da ke tsare.[26]

An samu shaidar cewa ana jin Romance ko Latin a Gabès ta hannun Ibn Khordadbeh; a Béja, Biskra, Tlemcen da Niffis ta hannun al-Bakri; da a Gafsa da Monastir ta hannun al-Idrisi,[21] wanda ya lura cewa mutanen Gafsa "sun zama Berber kuma mafi yawansu suna magana da Latin na Afirka."[21][27]Samfuri:Efn-ua

A cikin rubuce-rubucen Idrisi, ya ce akwai wata rijiya mai suna al-ṭarmid, wadda zata iya samo asali daga kalmar therma ("wanka mai zafi").[28] Haka kuma an samu wata shaida daga karni na 11 lokacin da gwamnan Rustamid Abu Ubayda Abd al-Hamid al-Jannawni ya rantse da Arabic, Berber da wani "harshen gari" wanda zai iya zama Romance; a cikin rantsuwar, kalmar bar diyyu a cikin harshen Larabci na iya nuna kalmar Latin per Deum ("don Allah").[29]

A ƙoƙarin su na kwace Kingdom of Africa a karni na 12, 'yan Norman sun samu taimako daga sauran Kiristocin Tunisia, waɗanda wasu masana harshe, ciki har da Vermondo Brugnatelli, suka ce sun shafe ƙarni suna amfani da Romance.[30]

Shaidar ƙarshe ta Romance na Afirka ta fito ne daga zamanin Renaissance. Dan humanist ɗin Italiya na karni na 15 Paolo Pompilio ya bayar da bayani mafi muhimmanci game da harshen, inda wani ɗan kasuwa daga Catalonia mai suna Riaria wanda ya zauna a Arewacin Afirka na tsawon shekaru talatin ya ce mutanen da ke yankin tsaunin Aurès "na magana da kusan Latin mai tsabta kuma idan Latin ɗin ya lalace, sai ya canza zuwa sauti da dabi’un harshen Sardinia".[31] Geographer ɗin karni na 16 kuma jakadan diflomasiyya Leo Africanus, wanda ya fito daga iyalin Musulmi a Granada ya kuma ce mutanen Arewacin Afirka sun ci gaba da amfani da harshensu bayan mamayar Musulunci, wanda ya kira da "Italiyanci", wanda tabbas Romance ne.[32] Wani bayani daga Mawlā Aḥmad yana nuni da yiwuwar kasancewar al’ummar Kirista a Tozeur har zuwa karni na goma sha takwas, amma wannan ba tabbace ba ne; Prevost ya kiyasta cewa Kiristanci ya bace a kusan tsakiyar karni na 13 a Kudancin Tunisia.[22]

Harsunan da suka danganci juna

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Hasashen Sardiniya

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Condaghe na Saint Peter na Silki (1065–1180), daya daga cikin takardun farko da aka rubuta da yaren Sardiniya.
Sauye-sauyen baƙaƙe daga Latin zuwa Sardiniya, wadanda ake tsammani sun kasance iri daya da na African Romance.

Ra'ayi mafi shahara dangane da rarrabuwar yaren African Romance (a kalla a cikin yankin cikin gida na Africa Proconsularis) shi ne cewa yana cikin rukunin yare iri daya da Sardiniya, wanda wasu masana harshe ke kira Southern Romance. Wannan rukunin Romance, wanda a yau Sardiniya ce kadai da ta rage tana amfani da shi, watakila an kuma yi amfani da shi a tsakiyar zamanai a Korsika kafin juyar da yankin zuwa Toskaniyanci,[33] kudu na Basilicata (yankin gabas na yankin Lausberg) da kuma wasu yankuna a kudancin Italiya, Sicily, har ma da Malta.

Yiwuwar dangantakar yare tsakanin Sardiniya da Arewacin Afirka na iya kasancewa sakamakon alakar al'adu ta dogon lokaci tun kafin zamanin Romawa daga ƙarni na 8 zuwa na 7 kafin haihuwar Almasihu, lokacin da tsibirin ya fada cikin ikon Punic (Kartanijawa). Wannan ya sa aka rika amfani da yaren Punic a Sardiniya har zuwa ƙarni na 3 ko 4 bayan haihuwar Almasihu, kuma akwai wasu kalmomi na Punic da har yanzu suna cikin yaren Sardiniya na zamani.[34][35] Cicero ma ya zargi Sardiniya da alakar Kartanijawa da Afirka a matsayin asalin rashin amincewarta da kuma ƙasƙancinta ga Roma.[upper-alpha 1] Wannan kusanci tsakanin yankunan biyu ya ci gaba har bayan rushewar Daular Roma ta Yamma a ƙarƙashin mulkin Vandals da kuma daga bisani Exarchate na Afirka na Bzantine. Pinelli ya yi imanin cewa kasancewar Vandals a Sardiniya ya ware tsibirin daga Turai, yana haɗa makomarsa da ta Afirka "a ƙarƙashin mulkin Byzantine, ba kawai don daular ta haɗa tsibirin da Exarchate na Afirka ba, har ma saboda ya samo al’ummarsa daga can, wanda hakan ya sanya yaren ya karɓi wasu siffofin Afirka." [36]

Ana ɗauka cewa nau'in African Romance da ake magana da shi ya yi kama da Sardiniya kamar yadda aka nakalto daga Paolo Pompilio [it]Samfuri:Efn-ua – yana goyon bayan ra'ayin cewa ci gaban Latin a Afirka da Sardiniya sun kasance da kamance. Duk da cewa wannan bayani ya fito ne daga wata majiya ta biyu, wani ɗan kasuwar Catalonia mai suna Riaria, ana ganin bayanin da ya bayar abin dogaro ne saboda Sardiniya na ƙarƙashin mulkin Catalonia (Crown of Aragon), wanda ya ba shi damar yin ciniki a yankunan biyu.[37]

Augustine na Hippo ya rubuta cewa "Kunnuwan Afirka ba su da saurin gane gajartar ko tsawon waƙafi a Latin".[38][39]Samfuri:Efn-ua Wannan yana bayyana sauye-sauyen waƙaƙe a yaren Sardiniya. Sardiniya na da waƙaƙe guda biyar kawai, ba tare da haɗa su biyu (diphthongs) ba; sabanin sauran yarukan Romance da suka rage, waɗanda suka bambanta tsakanin dogaye da gajerun waƙafi. A Sardiniya, waɗannan sun haɗu zuwa waƙaƙe guda biyar ba tare da bambanci a tsawo ba: /a, ɛ, i, ɔ, u/.Samfuri:Efn-ua A cikin nau'ikan Italo-Western Romance, ǐ, ŭ [ɪ, ʊ] sun haɗu da ē, ō [e(ː), o(ː)] maimakon ī, ū [i(ː), u(ː)] kamar yadda ke cikin Sardiniya, wanda hakan ya haifar da tsarin waƙaƙe guda bakwai, kamar yadda ke cikin Italiyanci: /a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/.

Adams ya yi hasashen cewa kamance a wasu kalmomi kamar pala ("ƙashinsa na kafaɗa") da acina ("injiya") a tsakanin Sardiniya da African Romance, ko spanu[40] a Sardiniya da spanus ("ja mai haske") a African Romance, na iya zama shaida cewa wasu kalmomi sun kasance iri ɗaya a yankuna biyu.[41] Wani ra'ayi kuma na cewa kalmar Sardiniya da ke nufin "Jumma'a", cenàpura ko chenàpura (ma'ana "cin abinci mai tsarki", dangane da parasceve, wato ranar shiri kafin Asabar),[42] na iya zama an kawo ta zuwa Sardiniya daga Yahudawan Arewacin Afirka. Augustine ya yi amfani da kalmar cena pura, ko da yake babu wata shaida da ke nuna cewa ma'anarta a Afirka ta wuce wajen Yahudawa ta kai ga zama kalmar gama gari don nufin ranar Jumma'a.[43]

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Scales 1993.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Loporcaro 2015.
  3. ↑ Prevost 2007.
  4. ↑ Ferchiou 1998.
  5. ↑ Guédon 2018.
  6. ↑ Adams 2003.
  7. ↑ Varner 1990.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Whittaker 2009.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Chatonnet & Hawley 2020.
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 Adams 2007.
  11. ↑ Kroll 1897.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Brock 1911.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Matiacci 2014.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Galdi 2011.
  15. ↑ Pliny the Elder.
  16. ↑ Blasco Ferrer 1989.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Haspelmath & Tadmor 2009, p. 195.
  18. ↑ Bates, Michael L (1995). "Roman and Early Muslim Coinage in North Africa". North Africa from Antiquity to Islam, Centre for Mediterranean Studies-Centre for the Study of the Reception of Classical Antiquity, University of Bristol. North Africa from Antiquity to Islam, Centre for Mediterranean Studies-Centre for The Study of the Reception of Classical Antiquity, University of Bristol: 12–15.
  19. ↑ Conant 2022, pp. 40–41.
  20. ↑ Rushworth 2004, p. 94.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Scales 1993, pp. 146–147.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Prevost 2007, pp. 461–483.
  23. ↑ Inscription text: …et sepultus est in pace anno d(omi)ni n(ost)ri Ih(su) Xpi(sti) millensimo septimo indictio quinta annorum infidelium CCCXCVII luna dies nobe audiat bocem d[omi]ni et resurgat in bita eterna cum omnibus s[an]ctis amen am[en] am[en]
  24. ↑ Conant 2022, pp. 29-33.
  25. ↑ Daniel & Maltomini 1988, pp. 261–262.
  26. ↑ Conant 2022, pp. 41-42.
  27. ↑ al-Idrisi 1154, pp. 104–105.
  28. ↑ Marcos Marín 2023, p. 198.
  29. ↑ Meouak, Mohamed (2015). La langue berbère au Maghreb médiéval La langue berbère au Maghreb médiéval. Brill. p. 313.
  30. ↑ Brugnatelli 1999, pp. 325–332.
  31. ↑ Loporcaro 2015, pp. 47-48.
  32. ↑ Loporcaro 2015, p. 48, note 40.
  33. ↑ «Evidence from early manuscripts suggests that the language spoken throughout Sardinia, and indeed Corsica, at the end of the Dark Ages was fairly uniform and not very different from the dialects spoken today in the central (Nuorese) areas.» Martin Harris, Nigel Vincent (2000). The Romance languages. London and New York: Routledge. p. 315.
  34. ↑ Ferruccio Barreca (1988). La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardegna. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore.
  35. ↑ Giulio Paulis, "Sopravvivenze della lingua punica in Sardegna", in L'Africa romana, Atti del VII Convegno di Studio (Sassari 1989), Sassari, Gallizzi, 1990, pp. 599–639
  36. ↑ Luigi Pinelli (1977). Gli Arabi e la Sardegna: le invasioni arabe in Sardegna dal 704 al 1016. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. p. 30.
  37. ↑ Loporcaro 2015, p. 48.
  38. ↑ Adams 2007, p. 261.
  39. ↑ Augustine of Hippo, p. 4.10.24.
  40. ↑ Rubattu 2006, p. 433.
  41. ↑ Adams 2007, p. 569.
  42. ↑ Rubattu 2006, p. 810.
  43. ↑ Adams 2007, p. 566-567.


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